Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
4.5
3.9
Journals
Toxics
Editor’s Choice
share announcement

Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Order results
Result details
Results per page
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Review

12 pages, 1809 KiB  
Review
(Micro)Plastics Are Toxic Pollutants
by Judith S. Weis and Juan José Alava
Toxics 2023, 11(11), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11110935 - 17 Nov 2023
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4981
Abstract
Plastics, including microplastics, have generally been regarded as harmful to organisms because of their physical characteristics. There has recently been a call to understand and regard them as persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic. This review elaborates on the reasons that microplastics in particular should [...] Read more.
Plastics, including microplastics, have generally been regarded as harmful to organisms because of their physical characteristics. There has recently been a call to understand and regard them as persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic. This review elaborates on the reasons that microplastics in particular should be considered as “toxic pollutants”. This view is supported by research demonstrating that they contain toxic chemicals within their structure and also adsorb additional chemicals, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), from the environment. Furthermore, these chemicals can be released into tissues of animals that consume microplastics and can be responsible for the harmful effects observed on biological processes such as development, physiology, gene expression, and behavior. Leachates, weathering, and biofilm play important roles in the interactions between microplastics and biota. Global policy efforts by the United Nations Environmental Assembly via the international legally binding treaty to address global plastic pollution should consider the designation of harmful plastics (e.g., microplastics) with associated hazardous chemicals as toxic pollutants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 10th Anniversary of Toxics)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

40 pages, 1890 KiB  
Review
Insights in Pharmaceutical Pollution: The Prospective Role of eDNA Metabarcoding
by Charikleia Papaioannou, George Geladakis, Vasiliki Kommata, Costas Batargias and George Lagoumintzis
Toxics 2023, 11(11), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11110903 - 5 Nov 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8691
Abstract
Environmental pollution is a growing threat to natural ecosystems and one of the world’s most pressing concerns. The increasing worldwide use of pharmaceuticals has elevated their status as significant emerging contaminants. Pharmaceuticals enter aquatic environments through multiple pathways related to anthropogenic activity. Their [...] Read more.
Environmental pollution is a growing threat to natural ecosystems and one of the world’s most pressing concerns. The increasing worldwide use of pharmaceuticals has elevated their status as significant emerging contaminants. Pharmaceuticals enter aquatic environments through multiple pathways related to anthropogenic activity. Their high consumption, insufficient waste treatment, and the incapacity of organisms to completely metabolize them contribute to their accumulation in aquatic environments, posing a threat to all life forms. Various analytical methods have been used to quantify pharmaceuticals. Biotechnology advancements based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques, like eDNA metabarcoding, have enabled the development of new methods for assessing and monitoring the ecotoxicological effects of pharmaceuticals. eDNA metabarcoding is a valuable biomonitoring tool for pharmaceutical pollution because it (a) provides an efficient method to assess and predict pollution status, (b) identifies pollution sources, (c) tracks changes in pharmaceutical pollution levels over time, (d) assesses the ecological impact of pharmaceutical pollution, (e) helps prioritize cleanup and mitigation efforts, and (f) offers insights into the diversity and composition of microbial and other bioindicator communities. This review highlights the issue of aquatic pharmaceutical pollution while emphasizing the importance of using modern NGS-based biomonitoring actions to assess its environmental effects more consistently and effectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 10th Anniversary of Toxics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 858 KiB  
Review
Association between Air Pollution and Lipid Profiles
by Yi Zhang, Jiaqi Shi, Ying Ma, Nairui Yu, Pai Zheng, Zhangjian Chen, Tiancheng Wang and Guang Jia
Toxics 2023, 11(11), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11110894 - 31 Oct 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3463
Abstract
Dyslipidemia is a critical factor in the development of atherosclerosis and consequent cardiovascular disease. Numerous pieces of evidence demonstrate the association between air pollution and abnormal blood lipids. Although the results of epidemiological studies on the link between air pollution and blood lipids [...] Read more.
Dyslipidemia is a critical factor in the development of atherosclerosis and consequent cardiovascular disease. Numerous pieces of evidence demonstrate the association between air pollution and abnormal blood lipids. Although the results of epidemiological studies on the link between air pollution and blood lipids are unsettled due to different research methods and conditions, most of them corroborate the harmful effects of air pollution on blood lipids. Mechanism studies have revealed that air pollution may affect blood lipids via oxidative stress, inflammation, insulin resistance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and hypothalamic hormone and epigenetic changes. Moreover, there is a risk of metabolic diseases associated with air pollution, including fatty liver disease, diabetes mellitus, and obesity, which are often accompanied by dyslipidemia. Therefore, it is biologically plausible that air pollution affects blood lipids. The overall evidence supports that air pollution has a deleterious effect on blood lipid health. However, further research into susceptibility, indoor air pollution, and gaseous pollutants is required, and the issue of assessing the effects of mixtures of air pollutants remains an obstacle for the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Mechanisms of Occupational and Environmental Pollutants)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 2235 KiB  
Review
Pesticide-Induced Inflammation at a Glance
by Monica Lopes-Ferreira, Luiz Rogério Ludwig Farinha, Yasmin Stefanie Oliveira Costa, Felipe Justiniano Pinto, Geonildo Rodrigo Disner, João Gabriel dos Santos da Rosa and Carla Lima
Toxics 2023, 11(11), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11110896 - 31 Oct 2023
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2600
Abstract
The increasing number of studies reporting the risks of the exposure to pesticides aligned with the intensified use of such hazardous chemicals has emerged as a pressing contemporary issue, notably due to the potential effects to both the environment and human health. Pesticides, [...] Read more.
The increasing number of studies reporting the risks of the exposure to pesticides aligned with the intensified use of such hazardous chemicals has emerged as a pressing contemporary issue, notably due to the potential effects to both the environment and human health. Pesticides, while broadly applied in modern agriculture for pest control and crop protection, have raised concerns due to their unintended effects on non-target organisms. The immune system exerts a key role in the protection against the exposome, which could result in cellular imbalances and tissue damage through the inflammatory response. Pesticides, which encompass a diverse array of chemicals, have been linked to inflammation in experimental models. Therefore, the aim of this review is to discuss the increasing concern over the risks of pesticide exposure focusing on the effects of various chemical classes on inflammation by covering, as broadly as possible, different experimental approaches as well as the multiple or co-exposure of pesticides. Overall, pesticides potentially induce inflammation in different experimental models, manifested through skin irritation, respiratory impairment, or systemic effects. The connection between pesticides and inflammation highlights the importance of proper handling and regulation of these substances and underscores the need for research into safer and sustainable practices to reduce our reliance on synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Pesticide-Induced Inflammation and Disease)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1479 KiB  
Review
Mechanisms of Organophosphate Toxicity and the Role of Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition
by Vassiliki Aroniadou-Anderjaska, Taiza H. Figueiredo, Marcio de Araujo Furtado, Volodymyr I. Pidoplichko and Maria F. M. Braga
Toxics 2023, 11(10), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11100866 - 18 Oct 2023
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 11827
Abstract
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) have applications in agriculture (e.g., pesticides), industry (e.g., flame retardants), and chemical warfare (nerve agents). In high doses or chronic exposure, they can be toxic or lethal. The primary mechanism, common among all OPs, that initiates their toxic effects is [...] Read more.
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) have applications in agriculture (e.g., pesticides), industry (e.g., flame retardants), and chemical warfare (nerve agents). In high doses or chronic exposure, they can be toxic or lethal. The primary mechanism, common among all OPs, that initiates their toxic effects is the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. In acute OP exposure, the subsequent surge of acetylcholine in cholinergic synapses causes a peripheral cholinergic crisis and status epilepticus (SE), either of which can lead to death. If death is averted without effective seizure control, long-term brain damage ensues. This review describes the mechanisms by which elevated acetylcholine can cause respiratory failure and trigger SE; the role of the amygdala in seizure initiation; the role of M1 muscarinic receptors in the early stages of SE; the neurotoxic pathways activated by SE (excitotoxicity/Ca++ overload/oxidative stress, neuroinflammation); and neurotoxic mechanisms linked to low-dose, chronic exposure (Ca++ dyshomeostasis/oxidative stress, inflammation), which do not depend on SE and do not necessarily involve acetylcholinesterase inhibition. The evidence so far indicates that brain damage from acute OP exposure is a direct result of SE, while the neurotoxic mechanisms activated by low-dose chronic exposure are independent of SE and may not be associated with acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organophosphate-Induced Neurotoxicity: Countermeasures, Mechanisms, and Physiology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 2461 KiB  
Review
Airborne Pesticides from Agricultural Practices: A Critical Review of Pathways, Influencing Factors, and Human Health Implications
by Thirasant Boonupara, Patchimaporn Udomkun, Eakalak Khan and Puangrat Kajitvichyanukul
Toxics 2023, 11(10), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11100858 - 13 Oct 2023
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6077
Abstract
This critical review examines the release of pesticides from agricultural practices into the air, with a focus on volatilization, and the factors influencing their dispersion. The review delves into the effects of airborne pesticides on human health and their contribution to anthropogenic air [...] Read more.
This critical review examines the release of pesticides from agricultural practices into the air, with a focus on volatilization, and the factors influencing their dispersion. The review delves into the effects of airborne pesticides on human health and their contribution to anthropogenic air pollution. It highlights the necessity of interdisciplinary research encompassing science, technology, public policy, and agricultural practices to effectively mitigate the risks associated with pesticide volatilization and spray dispersion. The text acknowledges the need for more research to understand the fate and transport of airborne pesticides, develop innovative application technologies, improve predictive modeling and risk assessment, and adopt sustainable pest management strategies. Robust policies and regulations, supported by education, training, research, and development, are crucial to ensuring the safe and sustainable use of pesticides for human health and the environment. By providing valuable insights, this review aids researchers and practitioners in devising effective and sustainable solutions for safeguarding human health and the environment from the hazards of airborne pesticides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Occurrence, Fate, Transport, and Toxicity of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs))
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 5114 KiB  
Review
Nitrites: An Old Poison or a Current Hazard? Epidemiology of Intoxications Covering the Last 100 Years and Evaluation of Analytical Methods
by Kaja Tusiewicz, Patryk Kuropka, Elżbieta Workiewicz, Olga Wachełko, Paweł Szpot and Marcin Zawadzki
Toxics 2023, 11(10), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11100832 - 1 Oct 2023
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4553
Abstract
In recent times, there has been a concerning and noteworthy rise in the global use of sodium nitrite for suicidal purposes. This is facilitated either through the employment of specialized “suicide kits” or by acquiring sodium nitrite through alternative means. Additionally, another occurrence [...] Read more.
In recent times, there has been a concerning and noteworthy rise in the global use of sodium nitrite for suicidal purposes. This is facilitated either through the employment of specialized “suicide kits” or by acquiring sodium nitrite through alternative means. Additionally, another occurrence contributing to nitrite poisoning is the recreational utilization of nitrites in the form of volatile aliphatic esters of nitrous acid, commonly referred to as “poppers”. Based on current available papers and reports on the subject of nitrates, nitrites, and poppers intoxications, an epidemiological analysis and evaluation of analytical methods were performed. A total of 128 papers, documenting a collective count of 492 intoxication cases, were identified. Additionally, in order to complete the epidemiological profile of nitrite poisoning, the authors briefly examined six cases of nitrite intoxication that were under investigation in our laboratory. Furthermore, a review of nitrite poisoning cases over the past 100 years shows that the old poison is still in use and poses a substantial risk to society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Forensic Toxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

37 pages, 9600 KiB  
Review
Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review
by Yan-Duan Lin, Ping-Hsiu Huang, Yu-Wei Chen, Chang-Wei Hsieh, You-Lin Tain, Bao-Hong Lee, Chih-Yao Hou and Ming-Kuei Shih
Toxics 2023, 11(9), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747 - 1 Sep 2023
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10100
Abstract
Celluloid, the predecessor to plastic, was synthesized in 1869, and due to technological advancements, plastic products appear to be ubiquitous in daily life. The massive production, rampant usage, and inadequate disposal of plastic products have led to severe environmental pollution. Consequently, reducing the [...] Read more.
Celluloid, the predecessor to plastic, was synthesized in 1869, and due to technological advancements, plastic products appear to be ubiquitous in daily life. The massive production, rampant usage, and inadequate disposal of plastic products have led to severe environmental pollution. Consequently, reducing the employment of plastic has emerged as a pressing concern for governments globally. This review explores microplastics, including their origins, absorption, and harmful effects on the environment and humans. Several methods exist for breaking down plastics, including thermal, mechanical, light, catalytic, and biological processes. Despite these methods, microplastics (MPs, between 1 and 5 mm in size) continue to be produced during degradation. Acknowledging the significant threat that MPs pose to the environment and human health is imperative. This form of pollution is pervasive in the air and food and infiltrates our bodies through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. It is essential to assess the potential hazards that MPs can introduce. There is evidence suggesting that MPs may have negative impacts on different areas of human health. These include the respiratory, gastrointestinal, immune, nervous, and reproductive systems, the liver and organs, the skin, and even the placenta and placental barrier. It is encouraging to see that most of the countries have taken steps to regulate plastic particles. These measures aim to reduce plastic usage, which is essential today. At the same time, this review summarizes the degradation mechanism of plastics, their impact on human health, and plastic reduction policies worldwide. It provides valuable information for future research on MPs and regulatory development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 4676 KiB  
Review
Antidotes in Clinical Toxicology—Critical Review
by Damian Kobylarz, Maciej Noga, Adrian Frydrych, Justyna Milan, Adrian Morawiec, Agata Glaca, Emilia Kucab, Julia Jastrzębska, Karolina Jabłońska, Klaudia Łuc, Gabriela Zdeb, Jakub Pasierb, Joanna Toporowska-Kaźmierak, Szczepan Półchłopek, Paweł Słoma, Magdalena Adamik, Mateusz Banasik, Mateusz Bartoszek, Aleksandra Adamczyk, Patrycja Rędziniak, Paulina Frączkiewicz, Michał Orczyk, Martyna Orzechowska, Paulina Tajchman, Klaudia Dziuba, Rafał Pelczar, Sabina Zima, Yana Nyankovska, Marta Sowińska, Wiktoria Pempuś, Maria Kubacka, Julia Popielska, Patryk Brzezicki and Kamil Jurowskiadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Toxics 2023, 11(9), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090723 - 23 Aug 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 18031
Abstract
Poisoning and overdose are very important aspects in medicine and toxicology. Chemical weapons pose a threat to civilians, and emergency medicine principles must be followed when dealing with patients who have been poisoned or overdosed. Antidotes have been used for centuries and modern [...] Read more.
Poisoning and overdose are very important aspects in medicine and toxicology. Chemical weapons pose a threat to civilians, and emergency medicine principles must be followed when dealing with patients who have been poisoned or overdosed. Antidotes have been used for centuries and modern research has led to the development of new antidotes that can accelerate the elimination of toxins from the body. Although some antidotes have become less relevant due to modern intensive care techniques, they can still save lives or reduce the severity of toxicity. The availability of antidotes is crucial, especially in developing countries where intensive care facilities may be limited. This article aims to provide information on specific antidotes, their recommended uses, and potential risks and new uses. In the case of poisoning, supportive therapies are most often used; however, in many cases, the administration of an appropriate antidote saves the patient’s life. In this review, we reviewed the literature on selected antidotes used in the treatment of poisonings. We also characterised the antidotes (bio)chemically. We described the cases in which they are used together with the dosage recommendations. We also analysed the mechanisms of action. In addition, we described alternative methods of using a given substance as a drug, an example of which is N-acetylcysteine, which can be used in the treatment of COVID-19. This article was written as part of the implementation of the project of the Polish Ministry of Education and Science, “Toxicovigilance, poisoning prevention, and first aid in poisoning with xenobiotics of current clinical importance in Poland”, grant number SKN/SP/570184/2023. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Risk Assessment, Environment Pollutants and Safety of Plant Materials, Herbal Medicinal Products and Diet Supplements)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 814 KiB  
Review
The EU’s Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Ban: A Case of Policy over Science
by Francesca Spyrakis and Tommaso A. Dragani
Toxics 2023, 11(9), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090721 - 22 Aug 2023
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7292
Abstract
The proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) to ban over 12,000 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has sparked a debate about potential consequences for the economy, industry, and the environment. Although some PFAS are known to be harmful, a blanket ban may [...] Read more.
The proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) to ban over 12,000 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has sparked a debate about potential consequences for the economy, industry, and the environment. Although some PFAS are known to be harmful, a blanket ban may lead to significant problems in attempting to replace PFAS-based materials for environmental transition, as well as in medical devices and everyday products. Alternative materials may potentially be less safe, as a rush to replace PFAS would reduce the time needed for toxicological analyses. Studies have shown that PFAS exhibit a diverse range of mechanisms of action, biopersistence, and bioaccumulation potential, and should thus not be treated as a single group. This is particularly true for the class of fluoropolymers. A targeted approach that considers the specific risks and benefits of each chemical may be more effective. Moreover, the proposed ban may also have unintended consequences for the environment as PFAS use is also associated with benefits such as reducing greenhouse-gas emissions and improving energy efficiency. Policymakers must carefully weigh up the potential consequences before making a final decision on the ban. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3411 KiB  
Review
Hand Sanitizer Gels: Classification, Challenges, and the Future of Multipurpose Hand Hygiene Products
by Yilei Ma, Jia Yi, Jiahui Ma, Haiyang Yu, Li Luo, Wei Wu, Libo Jin, Qinsi Yang, Ting Lou, Da Sun and Min Cao
Toxics 2023, 11(8), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11080687 - 10 Aug 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6413
Abstract
Hand hygiene is a crucial measure in the prevention and control of infections, and there is a growing awareness among individuals who are making a conscious effort to maintain hand cleanliness. With the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, the demand for hand hygiene [...] Read more.
Hand hygiene is a crucial measure in the prevention and control of infections, and there is a growing awareness among individuals who are making a conscious effort to maintain hand cleanliness. With the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, the demand for hand hygiene products has also gradually shifted towards those with antimicrobial properties. Among these products, hand sanitizer gels (HSGs) have gained considerable popularity as an efficient method of hand cleaning, due to their rapid drying and sustained antimicrobial efficacy. Concurrently, there has been a growing interest in novel HSGs that offer additional functions such as skin whitening, moisturizing, and anti-inflammatory effects. These novel HSGs effectively address concerns associated with the ingestion of antimicrobial ingredients and demonstrate reduced skin irritation, thereby alleviating hand dermatological issues. This review provides an extensive overview of the application scenarios, classification, and challenges associated with HSGs while emphasizing the emergence of novel components with biological functions, aiming to contribute to the advancement of hand hygiene practices and offer novel insights for the development of novel HSGs with outstanding antimicrobial properties with other multiple biological functions and desirable biosafety profiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Chemical Agents and Health Challenges)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

34 pages, 4397 KiB  
Review
A Review on the Use of Metal Oxide-Based Nanocomposites for the Remediation of Organics-Contaminated Water via Photocatalysis: Fundamentals, Bibliometric Study and Recent Advances
by Evando S. Araújo, Michel F. G. Pereira, Georgenes M. G. da Silva, Ginetton F. Tavares, Carlos Y. B. Oliveira and Pedro M. Faia
Toxics 2023, 11(8), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11080658 - 1 Aug 2023
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4468
Abstract
The improper disposal of toxic and carcinogenic organic substances resulting from the manufacture of dyes, drugs and pesticides can contaminate aquatic environments and potable water resources and cause serious damage to animal and human health and to the ecosystem. In this sense, heterogeneous [...] Read more.
The improper disposal of toxic and carcinogenic organic substances resulting from the manufacture of dyes, drugs and pesticides can contaminate aquatic environments and potable water resources and cause serious damage to animal and human health and to the ecosystem. In this sense, heterogeneous photocatalysis stand out as one effective and cost-effective water depollution technique. The use of metal oxide nanocomposites (MON), from the mixture of two or more oxides or between these oxides and other functional semiconductor materials, have gained increasing attention from researchers and industrial developers as a potential alternative to produce efficient and environmentally friendly photocatalysts for the remediation of water contamination by organic compounds. Thus, this work presents an updated review of the main advances in the use of metal oxide nanocomposites-based photocatalysts for decontamination of water polluted by these substances. A bibliometric analysis allowed to show the evolution of the importance of this research topic in the literature over the last decade. The results of the study also showed that hierarchical and heterogeneous nanostructures of metal oxides, as well as conducting polymers and carbon materials, currently stand out as the main materials for the synthesis of MON, with better photocatalysis performance in the degradation of dyes, pharmaceuticals and pesticides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Oxidation Processes and Biodegradability)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1566 KiB  
Review
Screening of Toxic Effects of Neonicotinoid Insecticides with a Focus on Acetamiprid: A Review
by Lucia Zuščíková, Denis Bažány, Hana Greifová, Nikola Knížatová, Anton Kováčik, Norbert Lukáč and Tomáš Jambor
Toxics 2023, 11(7), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11070598 - 8 Jul 2023
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5562
Abstract
Recently, neonicotinoids have become the fastest-growing class of insecticides in conventional crop protection, with extensive usage against a wide range of sucking and chewing pests. Neonicotinoids are widely used due to their high toxicity to invertebrates, simplicity, flexibility with which they may be [...] Read more.
Recently, neonicotinoids have become the fastest-growing class of insecticides in conventional crop protection, with extensive usage against a wide range of sucking and chewing pests. Neonicotinoids are widely used due to their high toxicity to invertebrates, simplicity, flexibility with which they may be applied, and lengthy persistence, and their systemic nature ensures that they spread to all sections of the target crop. However, these properties raise the risk of environmental contaminations and potential toxicity to non-target organisms. Acetamiprid is a new generation insecticide, which is a safer alternative for controlling insect pests because of its low toxicity to honeybees. Acetamiprid is intended to target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in insects, but its widespread usage has resulted in negative impacts on non-target animals such as mammals. This review summarizes in vivo and in vitro animal studies that investigated the toxicity of specific neonicotinoids. With summarized data, it can be presumed that certain concentrations of neonicotinoids in the reproductive system cause oxidative stress in the testis; spermatogenesis disruption; spermatozoa degradation; interruptions to endocrine function and Sertoli and Leydig cell function. In the female reproductive system, acetamiprid evokes pathomorphological alterations in follicles, along with metabolic changes in the ovaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1576 KiB  
Review
Research Progress and New Ideas on the Theory and Methodology of Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
by Chenglian Feng, Wenjie Huang, Yu Qiao, Daqing Liu and Huixian Li
Toxics 2023, 11(7), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11070557 - 25 Jun 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2097
Abstract
Water quality criteria (WQC) for the protection of aquatic organisms mainly focus on the maximum threshold values of the pollutants that do not have harmful effects on aquatic organisms. The WQC value is the result obtained based on scientific experiments in the laboratory [...] Read more.
Water quality criteria (WQC) for the protection of aquatic organisms mainly focus on the maximum threshold values of the pollutants that do not have harmful effects on aquatic organisms. The WQC value is the result obtained based on scientific experiments in the laboratory and data fitting extrapolation and is the limit of the threshold value of pollutants or other harmful factors in the water environment. Until now, many studies have been carried out on WQC for the protection of aquatic organisms internationally, and several countries have also issued their own relevant technical guidelines. Thus, the WQC method for the protection of aquatic organisms has been basically formed, with species sensitivity distribution (SSD) as the main method and the assessment factor (AF) as the auxiliary method. In addition, in terms of the case studies on WQC, many scholars have conducted relevant case studies on various pollutants. At the national level, several countries have also released WQC values for typical pollutants. This study systematically discusses the general situation, theoretical methodology and research progress of WQC for the protection of aquatic organisms, and deeply analyzes the key scientific issues that need to be considered in the research of WQC. Furthermore, combined with the specific characteristics of the emerging pollutants, some new ideas and directions for future WQC research for the protection of aquatic organisms are also proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Environmental Organic Pollutants on Environment and Human Health: The Latest Updates)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1096 KiB  
Review
Solar Salterns and Pollution: Valorization of Some Endemic Species as Sentinels in Ecotoxicology
by Wassim Guermazi, Neila Annabi-Trabelsi, Genuario Belmonte, Kais Guermazi, Habib Ayadi and Vincent Leignel
Toxics 2023, 11(6), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11060524 - 10 Jun 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3111
Abstract
Solar salterns and salt marshes are unique ecosystems with special physicochemical features and characteristic biota. Currently, there are very few studies focused on the impacts of pollution on these economic and ecological systems. Unfortunately, diversified pollution (metals, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, etc.) has been [...] Read more.
Solar salterns and salt marshes are unique ecosystems with special physicochemical features and characteristic biota. Currently, there are very few studies focused on the impacts of pollution on these economic and ecological systems. Unfortunately, diversified pollution (metals, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, etc.) has been detected in these complex ecosystems. These hypersaline environments are under increasing threat due to anthropogenic pressures. Despite this, they represent a valuable source of microbial diversity, with taxa displaying special features in terms of environmental remediation capacities as well as economical species such as Artemia spp. (Branchiopoda) and Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta). In this review, we discuss the impacts of pollution on these semi-artificial systems. Therefore, we have indicated the sentinel species identified in plankton communities, which can be used in ecotoxicological investigations in solar salterns. In future, researchers should increase their interest in pollution assessment in solar salterns and salt marshes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Pollution and Stress Responses in Marine Organisms)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2481 KiB  
Review
Silent Contamination: The State of the Art, Knowledge Gaps, and a Preliminary Risk Assessment of Tire Particles in Urban Parks
by Lorenzo Federico, Andrea Masseroni, Cristiana Rizzi and Sara Villa
Toxics 2023, 11(5), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050445 - 9 May 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4192
Abstract
Tire particles (TPs) are one of the main emission sources of micro- and nano-plastics into the environment. Although most TPs are deposited in the soil or in the sediments of freshwater and although they have been demonstrated to accumulate in organisms, most research [...] Read more.
Tire particles (TPs) are one of the main emission sources of micro- and nano-plastics into the environment. Although most TPs are deposited in the soil or in the sediments of freshwater and although they have been demonstrated to accumulate in organisms, most research has focused on the toxicity of leachate, neglecting the potential effects of particles and their ecotoxicological impact on the environment. In addition, studies have focused on the impact on aquatic systems and there are many gaps in the biological and ecotoxicological information on the possible harmful effects of the particles on edaphic fauna, despite the soil ecosystem becoming a large plastic sink. The aim of the present study is to review the environmental contamination of TPs, paying particular attention to the composition and degradation of tires (I), transport and deposition in different environments, especially in soil (II), the toxicological effects on edaphic fauna (III), potential markers and detection in environmental samples for monitoring (IV), preliminary risk characterization, using Forlanini Urban Park, Milan (Italy), as an example of an urban park (V), and risk mitigation measures as possible future proposals for sustainability (VI). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 548 KiB  
Review
A Review: Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances—Biological Degradation
by Dijana Grgas, Ana Petrina, Tea Štefanac, Drago Bešlo and Tibela Landeka Dragičević
Toxics 2023, 11(5), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050446 - 9 May 2023
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8423
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), highly stable synthetic organic compounds with multiple carbon-fluorine bonds, are emerging as environmental contaminants, toxic, bioaccumulative, and environmentally persistent. PFASs are strongly resistant to biological and chemical degradation, and therefore PFASs present a challenge to researchers and scientists [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), highly stable synthetic organic compounds with multiple carbon-fluorine bonds, are emerging as environmental contaminants, toxic, bioaccumulative, and environmentally persistent. PFASs are strongly resistant to biological and chemical degradation, and therefore PFASs present a challenge to researchers and scientists for a better understanding and application of remediation methods and biodegradation of PFASs and have become subject to strict government regulations. The review summarizes the recent knowledge of bacterial and fungal degradation of PFASs, as well as the enzymes involved in the processes of transformation/degradation of PFASs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Fate, Removal, and Effects of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs))
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 853 KiB  
Review
Occurrence and Health Effects of Hexabromocyclododecane: An Updated Review
by Maria Lopes Marques and Elisa Cairrao
Toxics 2023, 11(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050409 - 26 Apr 2023
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3902
Abstract
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is a non-aromatic compound belonging to the bromine flame retardant family and is a known persistent organic pollutant (POP). This compound accumulates easily in the environment and has a high half-life in water. With a variety of uses, the HBCD is [...] Read more.
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is a non-aromatic compound belonging to the bromine flame retardant family and is a known persistent organic pollutant (POP). This compound accumulates easily in the environment and has a high half-life in water. With a variety of uses, the HBCD is found in house dust, electronics, insulation, and construction. There are several isomers and the most studied are α-, β-, and γ-HBCD. Initially used as a substitute for other flame retardants, the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the discovery of its role as a POP made HBCD use and manufacturing restricted in Europe and other countries. The adverse effects on the environment and human health have been piling, either as a result from its accumulation or considering its power as an endocrine disruptor (ED). Furthermore, it has also been proven that it has detrimental effects on the neuronal system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, liver, and the reproductive system. HBCD has also been linked to cytokine production, DNA damage, increased cell apoptosis, increased oxidative stress, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Therefore, this review aims to compile the most recent studies regarding the negative effects of this compound on the environment and human health, describing the possible mechanisms by which this compound acts and its possible toxic effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity Effects of Flame Retardants: From Environmental to Human Exposure)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 1277 KiB  
Review
Priorities and Challenges in Methodology for Human Health Risk Assessment from Combined Exposure to Multiple Chemicals
by Dimitra Nikolopoulou, Evangelia Ntzani, Katerina Kyriakopoulou, Christos Anagnostopoulos and Kyriaki Machera
Toxics 2023, 11(5), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050401 - 23 Apr 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3471
Abstract
This paper reviews key elements in the assessment of human health effects from combined exposure to multiple chemicals taking into consideration current knowledge and challenges to identify areas where scientific advancement is mostly needed and proposes a decision-making scheme on the basis of [...] Read more.
This paper reviews key elements in the assessment of human health effects from combined exposure to multiple chemicals taking into consideration current knowledge and challenges to identify areas where scientific advancement is mostly needed and proposes a decision-making scheme on the basis of existing methods and tools. The assumption of dose addition and estimation of the hazard index (HI) is considered as a starting point in component-based risk assessments. When, based on the generic HI approach, an unacceptable risk is identified, more specific risk assessment options may be implemented sequentially or in parallel depending on problem formulation, characteristics of the chemical group under assessment, exposure levels, data availability and resources. For prospective risk assessments, the reference point index/margin of exposure (RPI/MOET) (Option 1) or modified RPI/normalized MOET (mRPI/nMOET) (Option 2) approaches may be implemented focusing on the specific mixture effect. Relative potency factors (RPFs) may also be used in the RPI approach since a common uncertainty factor for each mixture component is introduced in the assessment. Increased specificity in the risk assessment may also be achieved when exposure of selected population groups is considered (Option 3/exposure). For retrospective risk assessments, human biomonitoring data available for vulnerable population groups (Option 3/susceptibility) may present more focused scenarios for consideration in human health risk management decisions. In data-poor situations, the option of using the mixture assessment factor (MAF) is proposed (Option 4), where an additional uncertainty factor is applied on each mixture component prior to estimating the HI. The magnitude of the MAF may be determined by the number of mixture components, their individual potencies and their proportions in the mixture, as previously reported. It is acknowledged that implementation of currently available methods and tools for human health risk assessment from combined exposure to multiple chemicals by risk assessors will be enhanced by ongoing scientific developments on new approach methodologies (NAMs), integrated approaches to testing and assessment (IATA), uncertainty analysis tools, data sharing platforms, risk assessment software as well as guideline development to meet legislative requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dietary Exposure to Chemicals and Health Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 6608 KiB  
Review
Effect of Nanomaterials on Gut Microbiota
by Ying Ma, Jiahe Zhang, Nairui Yu, Jiaqi Shi, Yi Zhang, Zhangjian Chen and Guang Jia
Toxics 2023, 11(4), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11040384 - 17 Apr 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3561
Abstract
Nanomaterials are widely employed in everyday life, including food and engineering. Food additives on a nanoscale can enter the body via the digestive tract. The human gut microbiota is a dynamically balanced ecosystem composed of a multitude of microorganisms that play a crucial [...] Read more.
Nanomaterials are widely employed in everyday life, including food and engineering. Food additives on a nanoscale can enter the body via the digestive tract. The human gut microbiota is a dynamically balanced ecosystem composed of a multitude of microorganisms that play a crucial role in maintaining the proper physiological function of the digestive tract and the body’s endocrine coordination. While the antibacterial capabilities of nanomaterials have received much interest in recent years, their impacts on gut microbiota ought to be cautioned about and explored. Nanomaterials exhibit good antibacterial capabilities in vitro. Animal studies have revealed that oral exposure to nanomaterials inhibits probiotic reproduction, stimulates the inflammatory response of the gut immune system, increases opportunistic infections, and changes the composition and structure of the gut microbiota. This article provides an overview of the impacts of nanomaterials, particularly titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs), on the gut microbiota. It advances nanomaterial safety research and offers a scientific foundation for the prevention, control, and treatment of illnesses associated with gut microbiota abnormalities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Mechanisms of Occupational and Environmental Pollutants)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

46 pages, 736 KiB  
Review
One Health Approach to Tackle Microbial Contamination on Poultries—A Systematic Review
by Bianca Gomes, Marta Dias, Renata Cervantes, Pedro Pena, Joana Santos, Marta Vasconcelos Pinto and Carla Viegas
Toxics 2023, 11(4), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11040374 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3409
Abstract
This study reports the search of available data published regarding microbial occupational exposure assessment in poultries, following the PRISMA methodology. Air collection through filtration was the most frequently used. The most commonly used passive sampling method was material collection such as dust, cages, [...] Read more.
This study reports the search of available data published regarding microbial occupational exposure assessment in poultries, following the PRISMA methodology. Air collection through filtration was the most frequently used. The most commonly used passive sampling method was material collection such as dust, cages, soils, sediment, and wastewater. Regarding assays applied, the majority of studies comprised culture-based methods, but molecular tools were also frequently used. Screening for antimicrobial susceptibility was performed only for bacteria; cytotoxicity, virological and serological assays were also performed. Most of the selected studies focused on bacteria, although fungi, endotoxins, and β-glucans were also assessed. The only study concerning fungi and mycotoxins reported the carcinogenic mycotoxin AFB1. This study gives a comprehensive overview of microbial contamination in the poultry industry, emphasizing this setting as a potential reservoir of microbial pathogens threatening human, animal, and environmental health. Additionally, this research helps to provide a sampling and analysis protocol proposal to evaluate the microbiological contamination in these facilities. Few articles were found reporting fungal contamination in poultry farms worldwide. In addition, information concerning fungal resistance profile and mycotoxin contamination remain scarce. Overall, a One Health approach should be incorporated in exposure assessments and the knowledge gaps identified in this paper should be addressed in further research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Occupational Exposures for Better Health)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1269 KiB  
Review
Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) and Male Reproductive Health: Challenging the Future with a Double-Edged Sword
by Daniel Marcu, Shannen Keyser, Leslie Petrik, Samuel Fuhrimann and Liana Maree
Toxics 2023, 11(4), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11040330 - 30 Mar 2023
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5727
Abstract
Approximately 9% of couples are infertile, with half of these cases relating to male factors. While many cases of male infertility are associated with genetic and lifestyle factors, approximately 30% of cases are still idiopathic. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) denote substances identified [...] Read more.
Approximately 9% of couples are infertile, with half of these cases relating to male factors. While many cases of male infertility are associated with genetic and lifestyle factors, approximately 30% of cases are still idiopathic. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) denote substances identified in the environment for the first time or detected at low concentrations during water quality analysis. Since CEC production and use have increased in recent decades, CECs are now ubiquitous in surface and groundwater. CECs are increasingly observed in human tissues, and parallel reports indicate that semen quality is continuously declining, supporting the notion that CECs may play a role in infertility. This narrative review focuses on several CECs (including pesticides and pharmaceuticals) detected in the nearshore marine environment of False Bay, Cape Town, South Africa, and deliberates their potential effects on male fertility and the offspring of exposed parents, as well as the use of spermatozoa in toxicological studies. Collective findings report that chronic in vivo exposure to pesticides, including atrazine, simazine, and chlorpyrifos, is likely to be detrimental to the reproduction of many organisms, as well as to sperm performance in vitro. Similarly, exposure to pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac and naproxen impairs sperm motility both in vivo and in vitro. These contaminants are also likely to play a key role in health and disease in offspring sired by parents exposed to CECs. On the other side of the double-edged sword, we propose that due to its sensitivity to environmental conditions, spermatozoa could be used as a bioindicator in eco- and repro-toxicology studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

34 pages, 1228 KiB  
Review
Caenorhabditis elegans as a Prediction Platform for Nanotechnology-Based Strategies: Insights on Analytical Challenges
by Priscila Gubert, Greici Gubert, Ronei Cardoso de Oliveira, Isabel Cristina Oliveira Fernandes, Iverson Conrado Bezerra, Bruna de Ramos, Milena Ferreira de Lima, Daniela Teixeira Rodrigues, Adriana Farias Nunes da Cruz, Ernesto Chaves Pereira, Daiana Silva Ávila and Dante Homero Mosca
Toxics 2023, 11(3), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11030239 - 1 Mar 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4533
Abstract
Nanotechnology-based strategies have played a pivotal role in innovative products in different technological fields, including medicine, agriculture, and engineering. The redesign of the nanometric scale has improved drug targeting and delivery, diagnosis, water treatment, and analytical methods. Although efficiency brings benefits, toxicity in [...] Read more.
Nanotechnology-based strategies have played a pivotal role in innovative products in different technological fields, including medicine, agriculture, and engineering. The redesign of the nanometric scale has improved drug targeting and delivery, diagnosis, water treatment, and analytical methods. Although efficiency brings benefits, toxicity in organisms and the environment is a concern, particularly in light of global climate change and plastic disposal in the environment. Therefore, to measure such effects, alternative models enable the assessment of impacts on both functional properties and toxicity. Caenorhabditis elegans is a nematode model that poses valuable advantages such as transparency, sensibility in responding to exogenous compounds, fast response to perturbations besides the possibility to replicate human disease through transgenics. Herein, we discuss the applications of C. elegans to nanomaterial safety and efficacy evaluations from one health perspective. We also highlight the directions for developing appropriate techniques to safely adopt magnetic and organic nanoparticles, and carbon nanosystems. A description was given of the specifics of targeting and treatment, especially for health purposes. Finally, we discuss C. elegans potential for studying the impacts caused by nanopesticides and nanoplastics as emerging contaminants, pointing out gaps in environmental studies related to toxicity, analytical methods, and future directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotoxicology Research: Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model Organism)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

28 pages, 2658 KiB  
Review
Pancreas–Liver–Adipose Axis: Target of Environmental Cadmium Exposure Linked to Metabolic Diseases
by Diana Moroni-González, Victor Enrique Sarmiento-Ortega, Alfonso Diaz, Eduardo Brambila and Samuel Treviño
Toxics 2023, 11(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11030223 - 26 Feb 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3932
Abstract
Cadmium has been well recognized as a critical toxic agent in acute and chronic poisoning cases in occupational and nonoccupational settings and environmental exposure situations. Cadmium is released into the environment after natural and anthropogenic activities, particularly in contaminated and industrial areas, causing [...] Read more.
Cadmium has been well recognized as a critical toxic agent in acute and chronic poisoning cases in occupational and nonoccupational settings and environmental exposure situations. Cadmium is released into the environment after natural and anthropogenic activities, particularly in contaminated and industrial areas, causing food pollution. In the body, cadmium has no biological activity, but it accumulates primarily in the liver and kidney, which are considered the main targets of its toxicity, through oxidative stress and inflammation. However, in the last few years, this metal has been linked to metabolic diseases. The pancreas–liver–adipose axis is largely affected by cadmium accumulation. Therefore, this review aims to collect bibliographic information that establishes the basis for understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms linked to cadmium with carbohydrate, lipids, and endocrine impairments that contribute to developing insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, and diabetes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endocrine Disruptors Exposure, Toxicity and Health Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1128 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress on Ex Situ Remediation Technology and Resource Utilization for Heavy Metal Contaminated Sediment
by Qinqin Xu and Boran Wu
Toxics 2023, 11(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11030207 - 23 Feb 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4061
Abstract
Sediment is an important part of aquatic systems, which plays a vital role in transporting and storing metals. Due to its abundance, persistence, and environmental toxicity, heavy metal pollution has always been one of the hot spots in the world. In this article, [...] Read more.
Sediment is an important part of aquatic systems, which plays a vital role in transporting and storing metals. Due to its abundance, persistence, and environmental toxicity, heavy metal pollution has always been one of the hot spots in the world. In this article, the state-of-art ex situ remediation technology for metal-contaminated sediments is elaborated, including sediment washing, electrokinetic remediation (EKR), chemical extraction, biological treatment, as well as encapsulating pollutants by adding some stabilized/solidified materials. Furthermore, the progress of sustainable resource utilization methods, such as ecosystem restoration, construction materials (e.g., materials fill materials, partition blocks, and paving blocks), and agriculture use are reviewed in detail. Finally, the pros and cons of each technique are summarized. This information will provide the scientific basis for selecting the appropriate remediation technology in a particular scenario. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 527 KiB  
Review
Neurobehavioral Effects of Low-Dose Chronic Exposure to Insecticides: A Review
by Laura Maria Antonangeli, Saniya Kenzhebekova and Claudio Colosio
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020192 - 19 Feb 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3630
Abstract
The modes of action of insecticides frequently involve a neurotoxic effect; therefore, the study of neurotoxic effects caused by long-term and low-dose insecticide exposure is of particular interest. This study looks at whether or not new studies conducted after 2009 and up to [...] Read more.
The modes of action of insecticides frequently involve a neurotoxic effect; therefore, the study of neurotoxic effects caused by long-term and low-dose insecticide exposure is of particular interest. This study looks at whether or not new studies conducted after 2009 and up to 2021 have provided new evidence for a better understanding of the actual neurobehavioral risk associated with long-term insecticide exposure. We selected and reviewed studies carried out on the neurobehavioral effects of neurotoxic insecticides (organophosphates and/or carbamates, pyrethroids, multiple or undefined insecticides, and organochlorines) considering occupational and non-occupational exposures. The articles were also scored and ranked based on seven parameters. Eighty-six studies were chosen for a final review process from among the 950 scientific papers identified. Twenty-six addressed occupational exposure and six environmental exposure. Among the latter group of studies, 17 focused on rural residents, to be assumed exposed because of living in rural areas, and 43 on the general population. Pending doubts have not been resolved in the last ten years due to the presence of contradictory and hardly comparable results and the fact that in most of the studies showing an evident neurobehavioral impairment the frequent presence of a previous episode of poisoning and hospitalization, with severe brain hypoxia, impaired the possibility of confirming the presence of a causal association with insecticide exposure. Interestingly, the most severely exposed groups, such as applicators who did not wear personal protective equipment, performed worse on neurobehavioral tests. As for residential exposure, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that prenatal OP exposure may increase the risk of ADHD in children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurotoxicity)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 610 KiB  
Review
Outlining Potential Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect to Critical Minerals: Nutritionally Essential Trace Elements and the Rare Earth Elements
by Jill A. Jenkins, MaryLynn Musgrove and Sarah Jane O. White
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020188 - 17 Feb 2023
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4206
Abstract
Emerging and low-carbon technologies and innovations are driving a need for domestic sources, sustainable use, and availability of critical minerals (CMs)—those vital to the national and economic security of the United States. Understanding the known and potential health effects of exposures to such [...] Read more.
Emerging and low-carbon technologies and innovations are driving a need for domestic sources, sustainable use, and availability of critical minerals (CMs)—those vital to the national and economic security of the United States. Understanding the known and potential health effects of exposures to such mineral commodities can inform prudent and environmentally responsible handling and harvesting. We review the occurrence, use, predominant exposure pathways, and adverse outcome pathways (AOP) for human and fish receptors of those CMs that are nutritionally essential trace metals (specifically, cobalt, chromium, manganese, nickel, and zinc), as well as the rare earth elements. Biological responses to some elements having comparable biogeochemistry can sometimes be similar. Candidate quantifiable biomarkers for assessing potential AOP are conveyed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Metal Mixtures to Aquatic Life)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1237 KiB  
Review
Antimicrobial and the Resistances in the Environment: Ecological and Health Risks, Influencing Factors, and Mitigation Strategies
by Weitao Wang, You Weng, Ting Luo, Qiang Wang, Guiling Yang and Yuanxiang Jin
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020185 - 16 Feb 2023
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6999
Abstract
Antimicrobial contamination and antimicrobial resistance have become global environmental and health problems. A large number of antimicrobials are used in medical and animal husbandry, leading to the continuous release of residual antimicrobials into the environment. It not only causes ecological harm, but also [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial contamination and antimicrobial resistance have become global environmental and health problems. A large number of antimicrobials are used in medical and animal husbandry, leading to the continuous release of residual antimicrobials into the environment. It not only causes ecological harm, but also promotes the occurrence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. The role of environmental factors in antimicrobial contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance is often overlooked. There are a large number of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes in human beings, which increases the likelihood that pathogenic bacteria acquire resistance, and also adds opportunities for human contact with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. In this paper, we review the fate of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance in the environment, including the occurrence, spread, and impact on ecological and human health. More importantly, this review emphasizes a number of environmental factors that can exacerbate antimicrobial contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance. In the future, the timely removal of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance genes in the environment will be more effective in alleviating antimicrobial contamination and antimicrobial resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1596 KiB  
Review
Experimental Studies on Zooplankton-Toxic Cyanobacteria Interactions: A Review
by S. Nandini and S. S. S. Sarma
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020176 - 14 Feb 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3527
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms have been recognized as a problem in fresh water for about 150 years. Over the past 50 years, experimental studies on the subject have gained importance considering the increasing need to control toxic cyanobacterial blooms. This article presents information on the [...] Read more.
Cyanobacterial blooms have been recognized as a problem in fresh water for about 150 years. Over the past 50 years, experimental studies on the subject have gained importance considering the increasing need to control toxic cyanobacterial blooms. This article presents information on the different lines of research that have been undertaken on zooplankton–cyanobacteria interactions over the past 50 years. These include information on filtering/ingestion rates and phytoplankton preferences of small and large rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods; growth rates of zooplankton on cyanobacterial diets; feeding rates of other freshwater invertebrates on cyanobacteria; role of zooplankton in top-down biomanipulation efforts; effect of cyanotoxins on zooplankton; bioaccumulation of cyanotoxins; and physical and chemical control of cyanobacterial blooms. We also highlight measures that have led to successful lake management and improvement of water quality in selected waterbodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue (Eco)Toxicology of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins: From Environmental Dynamics to Adverse Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4159 KiB  
Review
The Panoramic View of Ecuadorian Soil Nutrients (Deficit/Toxicity) from Different Climatic Regions and Their Possible Influence on the Metabolism of Important Crops
by Raluca A. Mihai, Erly J. Melo Heras, Vanessa A. Terán Maza, Iván A. Espinoza Caiza, Eliza A. Pinto Valdiviezo and Rodica D. Catana
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020123 - 26 Jan 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3506
Abstract
Soil nutrients influence all stages (reproduction, growth, and development) of a plant species’ life, and it is known that the deficit and/or toxicity of one or more nutrients has negative effects on the production of crops of commercial interest. Ecuador represents one of [...] Read more.
Soil nutrients influence all stages (reproduction, growth, and development) of a plant species’ life, and it is known that the deficit and/or toxicity of one or more nutrients has negative effects on the production of crops of commercial interest. Ecuador represents one of the “mega-diverse” countries in the world, with an agricultural sector of great importance, due to its contribution to the country’s economy. This review provides a panoramic view of soil nutrients from different climatic regions of Ecuador and revises the importance of knowledge about the possible influence of nutrients from the soil on the plant metabolism able to influence the crop resistance against pathogens or to enrich the biological characteristics of these crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity Effects of Environmental Pollutants Based on Metabolomics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 1007 KiB  
Review
Alternative Methods for Skin-Sensitization Assessment
by Dominika Gądarowska, Joanna Kalka, Anna Daniel-Wójcik and Inga Mrzyk
Toxics 2022, 10(12), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10120740 - 29 Nov 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4982
Abstract
Skin sensitization is a term used to refer to the regulatory hazard known as allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in humans or contact hypersensitivity in rodents, an important health endpoint considered in chemical hazard and risk assessments. Information on skin sensitization potential is required [...] Read more.
Skin sensitization is a term used to refer to the regulatory hazard known as allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in humans or contact hypersensitivity in rodents, an important health endpoint considered in chemical hazard and risk assessments. Information on skin sensitization potential is required in various regulatory frameworks, such as the Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH). The identification of skin-sensitizing chemicals previously required the use of animal testing, which is now being replaced by alternative methods. Alternative methods in the field of skin sensitization are based on the measurement or prediction of key events (KE), i.e., (i) the molecular triggering event, i.e., the covalent binding of electrophilic substances to nucleophilic centers in skin proteins; (ii) the activation of keratinocytes; (iii) the activation of dendritic cells; (iv) the proliferation of T cells. This review article focuses on the current state of knowledge regarding the methods corresponding to each of the key events in skin sensitization and considers the latest trends in the development and modification of these methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

32 pages, 5946 KiB  
Review
Characterization of the Toxicological Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Health in Conjunction with Modern Analytical Methods
by Dana Claudia Filipoiu, Simona Gabriela Bungau, Laura Endres, Paul Andrei Negru, Alexa Florina Bungau, Bianca Pasca, Andrei-Flavius Radu, Alexandra Georgiana Tarce, Mihaela Alexandra Bogdan, Tapan Behl, Aurelia Cristina Nechifor, Syed Shams ul Hassan and Delia Mirela Tit
Toxics 2022, 10(12), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10120716 - 23 Nov 2022
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 9074
Abstract
Increased environmental pollution, urbanization, and a wide variety of anthropogenic activities have led to the release of toxic pollutants into the environment, including heavy metals (HMs). It has been found that increasing concentrations of HMs lead to toxicity, mineral imbalances, and serious diseases, [...] Read more.
Increased environmental pollution, urbanization, and a wide variety of anthropogenic activities have led to the release of toxic pollutants into the environment, including heavy metals (HMs). It has been found that increasing concentrations of HMs lead to toxicity, mineral imbalances, and serious diseases, which are occurring more and more frequently. Therefore, testing has become imperative to detect these deficiencies in a timely manner. The detection of traces of HMs, especially toxic ones, in human tissues, various biological fluids, or hair is a complex, high-precision analysis that enables early diagnosis, addressing people under constant stress or exposed to a toxic environment; the test also targets people who have died in suspicious circumstances. Tissue mineral analysis (TMA) determines the concentration of toxic minerals/metals at the intracellular level and can therefore determine correlations between measured concentrations and imbalances in the body. Framing the already-published information on the topic, this review aimed to explore the toxicity of HMs to human health, the harmful effects of their accumulation, the advantages vs. the disadvantages of choosing different biological fluids/tissues/organs necessary for the quantitative measurement of HM in the human body, as well as the choice of the optimal method, correlated with the purpose of the analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

42 pages, 2669 KiB  
Review
Reduced Birth Weight and Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Review of Possible Underlying Mechanisms Using the AOP-HelpFinder
by Claudia Gundacker, Karine Audouze, Raimund Widhalm, Sebastian Granitzer, Martin Forsthuber, Florence Jornod, Maria Wielsøe, Manhai Long, Thórhallur Ingi Halldórsson, Maria Uhl and Eva Cecilie Bonefeld-Jørgensen
Toxics 2022, 10(11), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10110684 - 12 Nov 2022
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4738
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) may impair fetal growth. Our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms is incomplete. We used the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP)-helpFinder tool to search PubMed for studies published until March 2021 that examined PFAS exposure in relation [...] Read more.
Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) may impair fetal growth. Our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms is incomplete. We used the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP)-helpFinder tool to search PubMed for studies published until March 2021 that examined PFAS exposure in relation to birth weight, oxidative stress, hormones/hormone receptors, or growth signaling pathways. Of these 1880 articles, 106 experimental studies remained after abstract screening. One clear finding is that PFAS are associated with oxidative stress in in vivo animal studies and in vitro studies. It appears that PFAS-induced reactive-oxygen species (ROS) generation triggers increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ expression and activation of growth signaling pathways, leading to hyperdifferentiation of pre-adipocytes. Fewer proliferating pre-adipocytes result in lower adipose tissue weight and in this way may reduce birth weight. PFAS may also impair fetal growth through endocrine effects. Estrogenic effects have been noted in in vivo and in vitro studies. Overall, data suggest thyroid-damaging effects of PFAS affecting thyroid hormones, thyroid hormone gene expression, and histology that are associated in animal studies with decreased body and organ weight. The effects of PFAS on the complex relationships between oxidative stress, endocrine system function, adipogenesis, and fetal growth should be further explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Human Biomonitoring Data and Risk Assessment of Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals: What Do We Learn for Prevention?)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 773 KiB  
Review
Exposure to Microplastics during Early Developmental Stage: Review of Current Evidence
by Nur Hanisah Amran, Siti Sarah Mohamad Zaid, Mohd Helmy Mokhtar, Latifah Abd Manaf and Shatrah Othman
Toxics 2022, 10(10), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100597 - 10 Oct 2022
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 9420
Abstract
In the last few decades, microplastics (MPs) have been among the emerging environmental pollutants that have received serious attention from scientists and the general population due to their wide range of potentially harmful effects on living organisms. MPs may originate from primary sources [...] Read more.
In the last few decades, microplastics (MPs) have been among the emerging environmental pollutants that have received serious attention from scientists and the general population due to their wide range of potentially harmful effects on living organisms. MPs may originate from primary sources (micro-sized plastics manufactured on purpose) and secondary sources (breakdown of large plastic items through physical, chemical, and biological processes). Consequently, serious concerns are escalating because MPs can be easily disseminated and contaminate environments, including terrestrial, air, groundwater, marine, and freshwater systems. Furthermore, an exposure to even low doses of MPs during the early developmental stage may induce long-term health effects, even later in life. Accordingly, this study aims to gather the current evidence regarding the effects of MPs exposure on vital body systems, including the digestive, reproductive, central nervous, immune, and circulatory systems, during the early developmental stage. In addition, this study provides essential information about the possible emergence of various diseases later in life (i.e., adulthood). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Health Effects of Environmental Nano-/Microparticle Exposure)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

32 pages, 2428 KiB  
Review
Nanoplastics and Microplastics May Be Damaging Our Livers
by Jianli Yin, Ye Ju, Honghao Qian, Jia Wang, Xiaohan Miao, Ying Zhu, Liting Zhou and Lin Ye
Toxics 2022, 10(10), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100586 - 4 Oct 2022
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6061
Abstract
Plastics in the environment can be degraded and even broken into pieces under the action of natural factors, and the degraded products with a particle size of less than 5 mm are called microplastics (MPs). MPs exist in a variety of environmental media [...] Read more.
Plastics in the environment can be degraded and even broken into pieces under the action of natural factors, and the degraded products with a particle size of less than 5 mm are called microplastics (MPs). MPs exist in a variety of environmental media that come into contact with the human body. It can enter the body through environmental media and food chains. At present, there are many studies investigating the damage of MPs to marine organisms and mammals. The liver is the largest metabolizing organ and plays an important role in the metabolism of MPs in the body. However, there is no available systematic review on the toxic effects of MPs on the liver. This paper summarizes the adverse effects and mechanisms of MPs on the liver, by searching the literature and highlighting the studies that have been published to date, and provides a scenario for the liver toxicity caused by MPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Health Effects of Environmental Nano-/Microparticle Exposure)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 1175 KiB  
Review
Copper Effect on Microalgae: Toxicity and Bioremediation Strategies
by Elena Cavalletti, Giovanna Romano, Fortunato Palma Esposito, Lucia Barra, Pasquale Chiaiese, Sergio Balzano and Angela Sardo
Toxics 2022, 10(9), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10090527 - 6 Sep 2022
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7166
Abstract
Microalgae are increasingly recognised as suitable microorganisms for heavy metal (HM) removal, since they are able to adsorb them onto their cell wall and, in some cases, compartmentalise them inside organelles. However, at relatively high HM concentrations, they could also show signs of [...] Read more.
Microalgae are increasingly recognised as suitable microorganisms for heavy metal (HM) removal, since they are able to adsorb them onto their cell wall and, in some cases, compartmentalise them inside organelles. However, at relatively high HM concentrations, they could also show signs of stress, such as organelle impairments and increased activities of antioxidant enzymes. The main aim of this review is to report on the mechanisms adopted by microalgae to counteract detrimental effects of high copper (Cu) concentrations, and on the microalgal potential for Cu bioremediation of aquatic environments. Studying the delicate balance between beneficial and detrimental effects of Cu on microalgae is of particular relevance as this metal is widely present in aquatic environments facing industrial discharges. This metal often induces chloroplast functioning impairment, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and growth rate reduction in a dose-dependent manner. However, microalgae also possess proteins and small molecules with protective role against Cu and, in general, metal stress, which increase their resistance towards these pollutants. Our critical literature analysis reveals that microalgae can be suitable indicators of Cu pollution in aquatic environments, and could also be considered as components of eco-sustainable devices for HM bioremediation in association with other organisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights on Ecotoxicological Effects of Anthropogenic Contaminants in Aquatic Organisms)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1283 KiB  
Review
Recent Strategies for Bioremediation of Emerging Pollutants: A Review for a Green and Sustainable Environment
by Saroj Bala, Diksha Garg, Banjagere Veerabhadrappa Thirumalesh, Minaxi Sharma, Kandi Sridhar, Baskaran Stephen Inbaraj and Manikant Tripathi
Toxics 2022, 10(8), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10080484 - 19 Aug 2022
Cited by 324 | Viewed by 30255
Abstract
Environmental pollution brought on by xenobiotics and other related recalcitrant compounds have recently been identified as a major risk to both human health and the natural environment. Due to their toxicity and non-biodegradability, a wide range of pollutants, such as heavy metals, polychlorinated [...] Read more.
Environmental pollution brought on by xenobiotics and other related recalcitrant compounds have recently been identified as a major risk to both human health and the natural environment. Due to their toxicity and non-biodegradability, a wide range of pollutants, such as heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, plastics, and various agrochemicals are present in the environment. Bioremediation is an effective cleaning technique for removing toxic waste from polluted environments that is gaining popularity. Various microorganisms, including aerobes and anaerobes, are used in bioremediation to treat contaminated sites. Microorganisms play a major role in bioremediation, given that it is a process in which hazardous wastes and pollutants are eliminated, degraded, detoxified, and immobilized. Pollutants are degraded and converted to less toxic forms, which is a primary goal of bioremediation. Ex situ or in situ bioremediation can be used, depending on a variety of factors, such as cost, pollutant types, and concentration. As a result, a suitable bioremediation method has been chosen. This review focuses on the most recent developments in bioremediation techniques, how microorganisms break down different pollutants, and what the future holds for bioremediation in order to reduce the amount of pollution in the world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioremediation of Soils Contaminated with Pharmaceuticals, Pesticides, Petroleum and Other Organic Compounds)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1331 KiB  
Review
Multiple Targets of Toxicity in Environmental Exposure to Low-Dose Cadmium
by Soisungwan Satarug, Glenda C. Gobe and David A. Vesey
Toxics 2022, 10(8), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10080472 - 13 Aug 2022
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4168
Abstract
Dietary assessment reports and population surveillance programs show that chronic exposure to low levels of environmental cadmium (Cd) is inevitable for most people, and adversely impacts the health of children and adults. Based on a risk assessment model that considers an increase in [...] Read more.
Dietary assessment reports and population surveillance programs show that chronic exposure to low levels of environmental cadmium (Cd) is inevitable for most people, and adversely impacts the health of children and adults. Based on a risk assessment model that considers an increase in the excretion of β2-microglobulin (β2M) above 300 μg/g creatinine to be the “critical” toxicity endpoint, the tolerable intake level of Cd was set at 0.83 µg/kg body weight/day, and a urinary Cd excretion rate of 5.24 µg/g creatinine was considered to be the toxicity threshold level. The aim of this review is to draw attention to the many other toxicity endpoints that are both clinically relevant and more appropriate to derive Cd exposure limits than a β2M endpoint. In the present review, we focus on a reduction in the glomerular filtration rate and diminished fecundity because chronic exposure to low-dose Cd, reflected by its excretion levels as low as 0.5 µg/g creatinine, have been associated with dose-dependent increases in risk of these pathological symptoms. Some protective effects of the nutritionally essential elements selenium and zinc are highlighted. Cd-induced mitochondrial dysfunction is discussed as a potential mechanism underlying gonadal toxicities and infertility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 727 KiB  
Review
Advances in Genes-Encoding Transporters for Cadmium Uptake, Translocation, and Accumulation in Plants
by Jingyu Tao and Lingli Lu
Toxics 2022, 10(8), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10080411 - 22 Jul 2022
Cited by 80 | Viewed by 8146
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that is highly toxic for plants, animals, and human beings. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in Cd accumulation in plants is beneficial for developing strategies for either the remediation of Cd-polluted soils using hyperaccumulator plants [...] Read more.
Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that is highly toxic for plants, animals, and human beings. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in Cd accumulation in plants is beneficial for developing strategies for either the remediation of Cd-polluted soils using hyperaccumulator plants or preventing excess Cd accumulation in the edible parts of crops and vegetables. As a ubiquitous heavy metal, the transport of Cd in plant cells is suggested to be mediated by transporters for essential elements such as Ca, Zn, K, and Mn. Identification of the genes encoding Cd transporters is important for understanding the mechanisms underlying Cd uptake, translocation, and accumulation in either crop or hyperaccumulator plants. Recent studies have shown that the transporters that mediate the uptake, transport, and accumulation of Cd in plants mainly include members of the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (Nramp), heavy metal-transporting ATPase (HMA), zinc and iron regulated transporter protein (ZIP), ATP-binding cassette (ABC), and yellow stripe-like (YSL) families. Here, we review the latest advances in the research of these Cd transporters and lay the foundation for a systematic understanding underlying the molecular mechanisms of Cd uptake, transport, and accumulation in plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety Utilization and Remediation of Heavy Metal Polluted Farmland)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1627 KiB  
Review
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in the Environment: Occupational and Exposure Events, Effects on Human Health and Fertility
by Luigi Montano, Concetta Pironti, Gabriella Pinto, Maria Ricciardi, Amalia Buono, Carlo Brogna, Marta Venier, Marina Piscopo, Angela Amoresano and Oriana Motta
Toxics 2022, 10(7), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10070365 - 1 Jul 2022
Cited by 127 | Viewed by 17456
Abstract
In the last decade or so, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) garnered renewed attention in the scientific community due to new evidence pointing at their continued presence in the environment and workplaces and the potential human risks related to their presence. PCBs move from the [...] Read more.
In the last decade or so, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) garnered renewed attention in the scientific community due to new evidence pointing at their continued presence in the environment and workplaces and the potential human risks related to their presence. PCBs move from the environment to humans through different routes; the dominant pathway is the ingestion of contaminated foods (fish, seafood and dairy products), followed by inhalation (both indoor and outdoor air), and, to a lesser extent, dust ingestion and dermal contact. Numerous studies reported the environmental and occupational exposure to these pollutants, deriving from building materials (flame-retardants, plasticizers, paints, caulking compounds, sealants, fluorescent light ballasts, etc.) and electrical equipment. The highest PCBs contaminations were detected in e-waste recycling sites, suggesting the need for the implementation of remediation strategies of such polluted areas to safeguard the health of workers and local populations. Furthermore, a significant correlation between PCB exposure and increased blood PCB concentrations was observed in people working in PCB-contaminated workplaces. Several epidemiological studies suggest that environmental and occupational exposure to high concentrations of PCBs is associated with different health outcomes, such as neuropsychological and neurobehavioral deficits, dementia, immune system dysfunctions, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In addition, recent studies indicate that PCBs bioaccumulation can reduce fertility, with harmful effects on the reproductive system that can be passed to offspring. In the near future, further studies are needed to assess the real effects of PCBs exposure at low concentrations for prolonged exposure in workplaces and specific indoor environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomonitoring of Human Exposure: From Individual to Group Exposure Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 13718 KiB  
Review
Exposure Routes and Health Risks Associated with Pesticide Application
by Muyesaier Tudi, Hairong Li, Hongying Li, Li Wang, Jia Lyu, Linsheng Yang, Shuangmei Tong, Qiming Jimmy Yu, Huada Daniel Ruan, Albert Atabila, Dung Tri Phung, Ross Sadler and Des Connell
Toxics 2022, 10(6), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060335 - 19 Jun 2022
Cited by 158 | Viewed by 16057
Abstract
Pesticides play an important role in agricultural development. However, pesticide application can result in both acute and chronic human toxicities, and the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment and human health remain a serious problem. There is therefore a need to discuss [...] Read more.
Pesticides play an important role in agricultural development. However, pesticide application can result in both acute and chronic human toxicities, and the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment and human health remain a serious problem. There is therefore a need to discuss the application methods for pesticides, the routes of pesticide exposure, and the health risks posed by pesticide application. The health problems related to pesticide application and exposure in developing countries are of particular concern. The purpose of this paper is to provide scientific information for policymakers in order to allow the development of proper pesticide application technics and methods to minimize pesticide exposure and the adverse health effects on both applicators and communities. Studies indicate that there are four main pesticide application methods, including hydraulic spraying, backpack spraying, basal trunk spraying, and aerial spraying. Pesticide application methods are mainly selected by considering the habits of target pests, the characteristics of target sites, and the properties of pesticides. Humans are directly exposed to pesticides in occupational, agricultural, and household activities and are indirectly exposed to pesticides via environmental media, including air, water, soil, and food. Human exposure to pesticides occurs mainly through dermal, oral, and respiratory routes. People who are directly and/or indirectly exposed to pesticides may contract acute toxicity effects and chronic diseases. Although no segment of the general population is completely protected against exposure to pesticides and their potentially serious health effects, a disproportionate burden is shouldered by people in developing countries. Both deterministic and probabilistic human health risk assessments have their advantages and disadvantages and both types of methods should be comprehensively implemented in research on exposure and human health risk assessment. Equipment for appropriate pesticide application is important for application efficiency to minimize the loss of spray solution as well as reduce pesticide residuals in the environment and adverse human health effects due to over-spraying and residues. Policymakers should implement various useful measures, such as integrated pest management (IPM) laws that prohibit the use of pesticides with high risks and the development of a national implementation plan (NIP) to reduce the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment and on human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 304 KiB  
Review
Glyphosate, Roundup and the Failures of Regulatory Assessment
by Eva Novotny
Toxics 2022, 10(6), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060321 - 13 Jun 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9219
Abstract
Roundup is the most widely used herbicide in agriculture. It contains glyphosate as the ‘active ingredient’, together with formulants. There are various versions of Roundup, with somewhat different effects depending on the formulants. Most genetically-modified crops are designed to tolerate Roundup, thus allowing [...] Read more.
Roundup is the most widely used herbicide in agriculture. It contains glyphosate as the ‘active ingredient’, together with formulants. There are various versions of Roundup, with somewhat different effects depending on the formulants. Most genetically-modified crops are designed to tolerate Roundup, thus allowing spraying against weeds during the growing season of the crop without destroying it. Having been so heavily used, this herbicide is now found in the soil, water, air, and even in humans worldwide. Roundup may also remain as a residue on edible crops. Many studies have found harm to the environment and to health, making it imperative to regulate the use of Roundup and to ensure that its various formulations pose no danger when used in the long-term. Unfortunately, regulators may only assess the ‘active ingredient’, glyphosate, and ignore the toxicity of the formulants, which can be far more toxic than the active ingredient. This omission is in violation of a ruling by the Court of Justice of the European Union. There are close ties between the regulators and the industry they are supposed to regulate. Objectionable practices include ‘revolving doors’ between the regulators and the industry, heavy reliance on unpublished papers produced by the industry while dismissing papers published by independent scientists, and strong covert influence on the regulatory process by industry. Although this paper focuses on the European Union (EU), the situation is much the same in the United States. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticides in Formulations: Toxicological and Regulatory Assessments, New Developments)
38 pages, 1950 KiB  
Review
IVIVE: Facilitating the Use of In Vitro Toxicity Data in Risk Assessment and Decision Making
by Xiaoqing Chang, Yu-Mei Tan, David G. Allen, Shannon Bell, Paul C. Brown, Lauren Browning, Patricia Ceger, Jeffery Gearhart, Pertti J. Hakkinen, Shruti V. Kabadi, Nicole C. Kleinstreuer, Annie Lumen, Joanna Matheson, Alicia Paini, Heather A. Pangburn, Elijah J. Petersen, Emily N. Reinke, Alexandre J. S. Ribeiro, Nisha Sipes, Lisa M. Sweeney, John F. Wambaugh, Ronald Wange, Barbara A. Wetmore and Moiz Mumtazadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Toxics 2022, 10(5), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10050232 - 1 May 2022
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 15305
Abstract
During the past few decades, the science of toxicology has been undergoing a transformation from observational to predictive science. New approach methodologies (NAMs), including in vitro assays, in silico models, read-across, and in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE), are being developed to [...] Read more.
During the past few decades, the science of toxicology has been undergoing a transformation from observational to predictive science. New approach methodologies (NAMs), including in vitro assays, in silico models, read-across, and in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE), are being developed to reduce, refine, or replace whole animal testing, encouraging the judicious use of time and resources. Some of these methods have advanced past the exploratory research stage and are beginning to gain acceptance for the risk assessment of chemicals. A review of the recent literature reveals a burst of IVIVE publications over the past decade. In this review, we propose operational definitions for IVIVE, present literature examples for several common toxicity endpoints, and highlight their implications in decision-making processes across various federal agencies, as well as international organizations, including those in the European Union (EU). The current challenges and future needs are also summarized for IVIVE. In addition to refining and reducing the number of animals in traditional toxicity testing protocols and being used for prioritizing chemical testing, the goal to use IVIVE to facilitate the replacement of animal models can be achieved through their continued evolution and development, including a strategic plan to qualify IVIVE methods for regulatory acceptance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Toxicology: Expanding Frontiers in Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 2505 KiB  
Review
Research Progress on Heavy Metals Pollution in the Soil of Smelting Sites in China
by Muhammad Adnan, Baohua Xiao, Peiwen Xiao, Peng Zhao, Ruolan Li and Shaheen Bibi
Toxics 2022, 10(5), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10050231 - 30 Apr 2022
Cited by 104 | Viewed by 14248
Abstract
Contamination by heavy metals is a significant issue worldwide. In recent decades, soil heavy metals pollutants in China had adverse impacts on soil quality and threatened food security and human health. Anthropogenic inputs mainly generate heavy metal contamination in China. In this review, [...] Read more.
Contamination by heavy metals is a significant issue worldwide. In recent decades, soil heavy metals pollutants in China had adverse impacts on soil quality and threatened food security and human health. Anthropogenic inputs mainly generate heavy metal contamination in China. In this review, the approaches were used in these investigations, focusing on geochemical strategies and metal isotope methods, particularly useful for determining the pathway of mining and smelting derived pollution in the soil. Our findings indicate that heavy metal distribution substantially impacts topsoils around mining and smelting sites, which release massive amounts of heavy metals into the environment. Furthermore, heavy metal contamination and related hazards posed by Pb, Cd, As, and Hg are more severe to plants, soil organisms, and humans. It’s worth observing that kids are particularly vulnerable to Pb toxicity. And this review also provides novel approaches to control and reduce the impacts of heavy metal pollution. Hydrometallurgy offers a potential method for extracting metals and removing potentially harmful heavy metals from waste to reduce pollution. However, environmentally friendly remediation of contaminated sites is a significant challenge. This paper also evaluates current technological advancements in the remediation of polluted soil, such as stabilization/solidification, natural attenuation, electrokinetic remediation, soil washing, and phytoremediation. The ability of biological approaches, especially phytoremediation, is cost-effective and favorable to the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current State and Dynamics of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil, Sediment and Aquatic Environments)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

20 pages, 2159 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in Minimizing Cadmium Accumulation in Wheat
by Min Zhou and Zhengguo Li
Toxics 2022, 10(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10040187 - 12 Apr 2022
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5539
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal, affects the yield and quality of crops. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) can accumulate high Cd content in the grain, which poses a major worldwide hazard to human health. Advances in our understanding of Cd toxicity for [...] Read more.
Cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal, affects the yield and quality of crops. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) can accumulate high Cd content in the grain, which poses a major worldwide hazard to human health. Advances in our understanding of Cd toxicity for plants and humans, different parameters influencing Cd uptake and accumulation, as well as phytoremediation technologies to relieve Cd pollution in wheat have been made very recently. In particular, the molecular mechanisms of wheat under Cd stress have been increasingly recognized. In this review, we focus on the recently described omics and functional genes uncovering Cd stress, as well as different mitigation strategies to reduce Cd toxicity in wheat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Lights on Phytoremediation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 660 KiB  
Review
Titanium and Zinc Based Nanomaterials in Agriculture: A Promising Approach to Deal with (A)biotic Stresses?
by Sónia Silva, Maria Celeste Dias and Artur M. S. Silva
Toxics 2022, 10(4), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10040172 - 31 Mar 2022
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4843
Abstract
Abiotic stresses, such as those induced by climatic factors or contaminants, and biotic stresses prompted by phytopathogens and pests inflict tremendous losses in agriculture and are major threats to worldwide food security. In addition, climate changes will exacerbate these factors as well as [...] Read more.
Abiotic stresses, such as those induced by climatic factors or contaminants, and biotic stresses prompted by phytopathogens and pests inflict tremendous losses in agriculture and are major threats to worldwide food security. In addition, climate changes will exacerbate these factors as well as their negative impact on crops. Drought, salinity, heavy metals, pesticides, and drugs are major environmental problems that need deep attention, and effective and sustainable strategies to mitigate their effects on the environment need to be developed. Besides, sustainable solutions for agrocontrol must be developed as alternatives to conventional agrochemicals. In this sense, nanotechnology offers promising solutions to mitigate environmental stress effects on plants, increasing plant tolerance to the stressor, for the remediation of environmental contaminants, and to protect plants against pathogens. In this review, nano-sized TiO2 (nTiO2) and ZnO (nZnO) are scrutinized, and their potential to ameliorate drought, salinity, and xenobiotics effects in plants are emphasized, in addition to their antimicrobial potential for plant disease management. Understanding the level of stress alleviation in plants by these nanomaterials (NM) and relating them with the application conditions/methods is imperative to define the most sustainable and effective approaches to be adopted. Although broad-spectrum reviews exist, this article provides focused information on nTiO2 and nZnO for improving our understanding of the ameliorative potential that these NM show, addressing the gaps in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Nanomaterials in the Environment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 1487 KiB  
Review
Chemical Fractionation in Environmental Studies of Potentially Toxic Particulate-Bound Elements in Urban Air: A Critical Review
by Ryszard Świetlik and Marzena Trojanowska
Toxics 2022, 10(3), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10030124 - 4 Mar 2022
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3792
Abstract
In recent years, studies of heavy metal air pollution have increasingly gone beyond determining total concentrations of individual toxic metals. Chemical fractionation of potentially toxic elements in airborne particles is becoming an important part of these studies. This review covers the articles that [...] Read more.
In recent years, studies of heavy metal air pollution have increasingly gone beyond determining total concentrations of individual toxic metals. Chemical fractionation of potentially toxic elements in airborne particles is becoming an important part of these studies. This review covers the articles that have been published over the last three decades. Attention was paid to the issue of atmospheric aerosol sampling, sample pretreatment, sequential extraction schemes and conditions of individual extractions. Geochemical forms of metals occurring in the air in urban areas were considered in detail. Based on the data sets from chemical fractionation of particulate matter samples by three sequential extraction procedures (SEPs)—Fernández Espinosa, BCR and Chester’s—the compilation of the chemical distribution patterns of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn was prepared. The human health risk posed by these toxic and/or carcinogenic elements via inhalation of atmospheric particles was estimated for two categories of polluted urban areas: the commonly encountered pollution level and the high pollution level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Distribution of Particulate-Bound Heavy Metals and Its Impact on Health Risk Assessment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 378 KiB  
Review
The Other Face of Insulin—Overdose and Its Effects
by Szymon Rzepczyk, Klaudia Dolińska-Kaczmarek, Aleksandra Uruska and Czesław Żaba
Toxics 2022, 10(3), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10030123 - 3 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 35428
Abstract
Insulin is the most effective glycemic-lowering drug, and for people suffering from type 1 diabetes it is a life-saving drug. Its self-dosing by patients may be associated with a higher risk of overdose, both accidental and deliberate. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia causes up to 100,000 [...] Read more.
Insulin is the most effective glycemic-lowering drug, and for people suffering from type 1 diabetes it is a life-saving drug. Its self-dosing by patients may be associated with a higher risk of overdose, both accidental and deliberate. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia causes up to 100,000 emergency department calls per year. Cases of suicide attempts using insulin have been described in the literature since its introduction into therapy, and one of the important factors in their occurrence is the very fact of chronic disease. Up to 90% of patients who go to toxicology wards overdose insulin consciously. Patients with diabetes are burdened with a 2–3 times higher risk of developing depression compared to the general population. For this reason, it is necessary to develop an effective system for detecting a predisposition to overdose, including the assessment of the first symptoms of depression in patients with diabetes. A key role is played by a risk-conscious therapeutic team, as well as education. Further post-mortem testing is also needed for material collection and storage, as well as standardization of analytical methods and interpretation of results, which would allow for more effective detection and analysis of intentional overdose—both by the patient and for criminal purposes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic Toxicology: A New Scientific Contribution)
55 pages, 1931 KiB  
Review
PFAS Molecules: A Major Concern for the Human Health and the Environment
by Emiliano Panieri, Katarina Baralic, Danijela Djukic-Cosic, Aleksandra Buha Djordjevic and Luciano Saso
Toxics 2022, 10(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020044 - 18 Jan 2022
Cited by 252 | Viewed by 41798
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of over 4700 heterogeneous compounds with amphipathic properties and exceptional stability to chemical and thermal degradation. The unique properties of PFAS compounds has been exploited for almost 60 years and has largely contributed to their [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of over 4700 heterogeneous compounds with amphipathic properties and exceptional stability to chemical and thermal degradation. The unique properties of PFAS compounds has been exploited for almost 60 years and has largely contributed to their wide applicability over a vast range of industrial, professional and non-professional uses. However, increasing evidence indicate that these compounds represent also a serious concern for both wildlife and human health as a result of their ubiquitous distribution, their extreme persistence and their bioaccumulative potential. In light of the adverse effects that have been already documented in biota and human populations or that might occur in absence of prompt interventions, the competent authorities in matter of health and environment protection, the industries as well as scientists are cooperating to identify the most appropriate regulatory measures, substitution plans and remediation technologies to mitigate PFAS impacts. In this review, starting from PFAS chemistry, uses and environmental fate, we summarize the current knowledge on PFAS occurrence in different environmental media and their effects on living organisms, with a particular emphasis on humans. Also, we describe present and provisional legislative measures in the European Union framework strategy to regulate PFAS manufacture, import and use as well as some of the most promising treatment technologies designed to remediate PFAS contamination in different environmental compartments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Human Health Risk Assessment of POPs)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 9333 KiB  
Review
Use of Nanotechnology to Mitigate Biofouling in Stainless Steel Devices Used in Food Processing, Healthcare, and Marine Environments
by Hugo Pérez, Gregorio Vargas and Rodolfo Silva
Toxics 2022, 10(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10010035 - 12 Jan 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4934
Abstract
In humid environments, the formation of biofilms and microfouling are known to be the detrimental processes that first occur on stainless steel surfaces. This is known as biofouling. Subsequently, the conditions created by metabolites and the activity of organisms trigger corrosion of the [...] Read more.
In humid environments, the formation of biofilms and microfouling are known to be the detrimental processes that first occur on stainless steel surfaces. This is known as biofouling. Subsequently, the conditions created by metabolites and the activity of organisms trigger corrosion of the metal and accelerate corrosion locally, causing a deterioration in, and alterations to, the performance of devices made of stainless steel. The microorganisms which thus affect stainless steel are mainly algae and bacteria. Within the macroorganisms that then damage the steel, mollusks and crustaceans are the most commonly observed. The aim of this review was to identify the mechanisms involved in biofouling on stainless steel and to evaluate the research done on preventing or mitigating this problem using nanotechnology in humid environments in three areas of human activity: food manufacturing, the implantation of medical devices, and infrastructure in marine settings. Of these protective processes that modify the steel surfaces, three approaches were examined: the use of inorganic nanoparticles; the use of polymeric coatings; and, finally, the generation of nanotextures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the (Eco)Toxicity of Nanomaterials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying article 401-450 on page 9 of 10.
Back to TopTop