Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080701

Authors: Shunli Luo Yekang Deng Yan Lu Yuan Yang

Sodium arsenite (SA) is an environmental chemical toxin that induces hepatotoxicity and cellular ferroptosis under exposure. Ferroptosis is characterized by elevated ferrous ion levels and decreased glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) activity. Lentinan (LNT), a bioactive polysaccharide derived from shiitake mushrooms, was investigated for its regulatory effects on SA-induced hepatotoxicity. In vivo experiments demonstrated that LNT ameliorated SA-induced hepatic lipid accumulation, increased GPX4 content and the mRNA levels of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and decreased ferrous ion concentrations in the livers of mice. However, co-administration of the AMPK inhibitor compound C and LNT negated these protective effects on hepatic lipid accumulation and ferroptosis-related markers. Complementary in vitro studies revealed that LNT activates AMPK signaling, mimicking the antagonistic effects of the AMPK agonist metformin (Met) on lipid accumulation and ferroptosis in hepatocytes exposed to SA. Notably, immunoblotting analyses indicated that treatment with LNT or Met increased the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio and upregulated the expression of ULK1 and the lipophagy receptor oxysterol-binding protein-related protein 8 (ORP8). Furthermore, co-immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated enhanced interaction between ORP8 and ULK1, suggesting activation of the AMPK-mediated ORP8/ULK1 signaling pathway. This pathway appears to play a protective role against SA-induced hepatic lipid accumulation and ferroptosis. Collectively, these findings elucidate the beneficial effects of LNT-mediated AMPK activation in mitigating SA-induced lipid accumulation and ferroptosis in the liver.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080700

Authors: Somkiat Sreebun Sukumal Prukudom Kannika Siripattarapravat Supreeya Srisampan Aksorn Saengtienchai Piyaporn Eiamcharoen Santi Poungcharean Chonphoom Phanpoe Onanong Suksao Usuma Jermnak

Currently, emerging pharmaceutical contaminants (EPCs) pose a significant risk to aquatic biodiversity on both a global and regional scale. Their accumulation in the environment presents several challenges to both human health and ecological integrity. Among EPCs, cyclophosphamide (COP), a widely used alkylating cytotoxic and immunosuppressive drug in human and veterinary oncology, has become one of the most frequently detected environmental contaminants. It has been reported to impair the immune system, induce oxidative stress, and exhibit genotoxic and cytotoxic effects in various fish species. However, limited research has evaluated its toxicity in the Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens), an endemic significant aquatic species in Thailand. This study evaluated the acute toxicity of COP in Betta splendens by assessing systemic oxidative stress responses, alterations in gene expression, and localized histopathological changes within both hepatic and renal tissues. The 96 h of median lethal concentration (LC50) value for COP in Betta splendens was determined to be 793.4 mg/L. High-concentration exposure (800 mg/L) induced severe systemic oxidative stress, evidenced by a significant reduction in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and a marked elevation in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels across both liver and kidney. At the transcriptomic level, acute COP exposure significantly upregulated pro-inflammatory (interleukin-1β, IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor, TNF-α), cellular stress (heat shock protein 70, HSP70), and apoptotic (caspase-3, Casp3) genes. Semi-quantitative histopathological evaluation revealed severe concentration-dependent structural damage. Hepatic lesions peaked at 800 mg/L characterized by diffuse vacuolation, vascular congestion, and extensive necrosis. Similarly, severe renal damage occurred at 800 mg/L, featuring marked vascular congestion, melanomacrophage aggregation, and widespread tubular necrosis. Overall, these findings demonstrate that acute waterborne COP exposure induces severe hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in Betta splendens driven by oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory signaling, and apoptotic pathways. This study provides essential baseline toxicity thresholds and highlights the physiological risks COP spills pose to tropical freshwater labyrinth fish.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080699

Authors: Françoise Cottrez Elodie Boitel Essia Sahli Marion Bastard Christophe Capallere Hervé Groux

Skin sensitisation assessment increasingly relies on non-animal methods, yet the detection and characterisation of substances requiring metabolic activation, such as pre- and pro-haptens, remain challenging for several existing new approach methodologies (NAMs). The present study evaluated the performance of the SENS-IS assay using blinded testing of 50 substances reported in the literature as putative pre-haptens or pro-haptens on the historical EpiSkin™ model, in comparison with available LLNA, human and other NAM data. Additional experiments evaluated transferability to the current IS-SKIN model and the impact of a full-thickness skin model for selected metabolically demanding compounds. SENS-IS identified sensitisation as a hazard for the majority of substances in this pre- and pro-hapten-enriched dataset, including compounds requiring abiotic or metabolic activation, and provided potency-related categorisation broadly consistent with LLNA EC3 trends. Comparative analyses further supported comparable hazard identification and potency categorisation when SENS-IS was performed using the IS-SKIN and EpiskinTM reconstructed epidermis models for the tested subset of pro-haptens, supporting functional equivalence between tissues within the SENS-IS framework. For a limited subset of aromatic compounds reported to require extensive metabolic activation, sensitisation potency appeared to be underestimated in epidermal-only models. To address this limitation, the assay was applied to a full-thickness skin model. This approach improved potency characterisation of these metabolically complex compounds, while not increasing potency estimates for substances already adequately detected using epidermal models. Enhanced potency detection was associated with increased induction of phase I and phase II biotransformation genes included in the SENS-IS signature. Together, these results demonstrate that SENS-IS enables robust hazard identification and potency characterisation for a broad range of pre- and pro-haptens, and that the optional use of full-thickness skin models may extend its applicability to metabolically demanding substances while maintaining interpretability and avoiding non-specific signal amplification.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080698

Authors: Junkai Feng Congcong Li Hao Jiao Xiaodong Xin Ruibao Jia Weiqiang Zhu

Odorants present a persistent challenge in drinking water treatment due to their low odor threshold concentrations (OTCs) and their resistance to conventional processes. This study investigated the seasonal occurrence of eight odorants across 20 surface water sources in Shandong, China. It evaluated their degradation using UV photolysis and four UV-based advanced oxidation processes (UV-AOPs): UV/H2O2, UV/PMS, UV/Cl, and UV/TiO2. Total odorant concentrations ranged from 8 to 496 ng L−1 in the wet season and from 5 to 184 ng L−1 in the dry season, with 2-MIB as the dominant compound (detection frequency: 95%; contributions: 58.48% and 48.88%, respectively). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a seasonal shift in environmental drivers: total phosphorus (TP) and dissolved oxygen (DO) in the wet season versus NH3-N and CODMn in the dry season. Across all five processes, degradation efficiency followed a consistent, structure-dependent hierarchy, ranking as CTA >> 2,4,6-TCA ≈ IPMP > IPO > 2-MIB ≈ GSM, with CTA achieving 74.66–95.03% removal while 2-MIB and GSM remained largely refractory (≤29.70%). Process-specific selectivity was also observed: UV/H2O2 was most effective for IPO, IPMP, and GSM; UV/PMS excelled for CTA and 2,4,6-TCA; and UV/Cl showed a slight advantage for 2-MIB. These findings provide mechanistic insights into structure-dependent odorant oxidation and suggest that UV-AOP performance may vary according to target-compound characteristics. Further validation in real water matrices is required before practical application.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080697

Authors: Jiale Chen Geng Xu Duo Bu Xiaomei Cui Junli Chen Qiangying Zhang Bo Fang

Heavy-metal contamination in alpine agricultural watersheds reflects interacting geological, environmental, and anthropogenic controls. In this study, arsenic (As), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and chromium (Cr) were investigated in 213 farmland soil and sediment samples collected from the Nyangqu River Basin during 2019–2021 and 2024–2025. Pollution status and ecological risks were evaluated using the Nemerow Integrated Pollution Index (Pn) and Håkanson Potential Ecological Risk Index (RI), while potential factors associated with spatial variation were explored using GeoDetector and an explainable machine-learning framework integrating XGBoost, SHAP, and LIME. Mean As, Cu, Zn, and Cr concentrations exceeded Tibetan soil background values, whereas mean Pb remained below background. Farmland soils exhibited higher concentrations of As, Pb, and Zn than sediments, whereas Cu displayed comparable levels between the two media. Among the investigated metals, As showed persistent enrichment, whereas Cr exhibited the greatest spatial variability and strongest local anomalies. Overall, slight pollution dominated the study area (69.0%; median Pn = 1.73), although several hotspots increased the mean Pn to 2.10, indicating moderate pollution at the regional scale. After applying coefficient-adjusted thresholds (23/133), the ecological risk index (RI) ranged from 16.45 to 54.24 (mean = 32.70), with 5.6%, 93.9%, and 0.5% of samples categorized as low, moderate, and considerable risk, respectively, and no samples exhibiting high risk. The associated environmental factors showed element-specific patterns, involving soil physicochemical conditions, geological background, and localized anthropogenic indicators. Notably, factor combinations generally showed greater explanatory power than individual covariates, suggesting stronger joint statistical associations with heavy-metal spatial differentiation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080696

Authors: Xiangjin Yan Lian Xue Qi Wang Jinyong Wang Jingtao Shi Chuangchuang Liu

The hilly terrain at the western foot of the Wanda Mountains boasts intricate geological conditions, compounded by long-term mineral extraction and farming activities. The multi-sourced heavy metals stored within stream sediments create substantial obstacles to accurate source apportionment and targeted risk mitigation. In this work, stream sediment samples were collected across the study watershed to test concentrations of eight heavy metals: As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Hg and Zn. Pollution and ecological risk assessments were implemented via the pollution load index (PLI), geo-accumulation index (Igeo) and potential ecological risk index (RI). Kriging interpolation was utilized to visualize and interpret the spatial variation patterns of heavy metals. Combined correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) and the Absolute Principal Component Scores–Multiple Linear Regression (APCS-MLR) receptor model were adopted to qualitatively and quantitatively distinguish pollution endmembers of heavy metals. The main results are as follows: Cr, Cd, Pb and As show significant enrichment, whereas Ni, Cu, Zn and Hg appear depleted; all measured heavy metals present strong spatial variability. Weathering of basic bedrocks governs the widespread high-value zones of Cr, Ni, Cu and Zn. Patchy enrichment of Pb, As and Cd is concentrated in river valley farmlands, with no continuous anomalous zones detected for Hg. The watershed as a whole suffers mild contamination and low potential ecological risk, with only sampling points surrounding mines and agricultural lands experiencing moderate-to-severe pollution and medium ecological hazards. Three source endmembers are identified in the region: a natural geogenic endmember (Cr, Ni, Co, etc.), a mixed mining-associated anthropogenic endmember (Zn, Hg, Cu, Cd), and an agricultural non-point endmember (Pb, As, Sb). Quantitative APCS-MLR calculations confirm that mining disturbances serve as the predominant anthropogenic input for Zn, Hg, Cu and Cd; agricultural practices dominate the accumulation of As and Pb; and geogenic contributions stay marginal for all elements. This study corroborates that regional lithology sets the natural geochemical baseline of heavy metals, while anthropogenic interferences function as the primary driver of localized pollution anomalies. The conclusions can deliver theoretical support for heavy metal pollution remediation in similar hilly watersheds throughout Northeast China.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080695

Authors: Larissa Betanzos-Robledo Guadalupe Estrada-Gutierrez Hector Lamadrid-Figueroa Karen Vázquez-Gutiérrez Martha María Téllez-Rojo Manish Arora Alejandra Cantoral

Background: Lead (Pb) exposure remains a significant public health concern, particularly among women of childbearing age, because of its adverse effects on maternal–child health. Although lead-glazed ceramics (LGC) for cooking or storing food are a well-recognized source of Pb exposure in Mexico, other environmental and household sources remain insufficiently characterized. Objective: To identify environmental and household factors associated with elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) among women of childbearing age participating in a community-based screening in Mexico City. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 158 women aged 18–40 years. Capillary BLLs were measured using the LeadCare® II system. Participants completed a structured questionnaire assessing potential Pb sources of exposure. Elevated BLL was defined as ≥3.5 µg/dL. Associations between exposure sources and elevated BLL were evaluated using multivariable logistic regression adjusted for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Shapley decomposition was used to estimate the relative contribution of each exposure source to the model. Results: The prevalence of elevated BLLs was 31%. Women reporting both past and current use of LGC had higher odds of elevated BLLs than women who had never used LGC (adjusted OR = 9.43; 95% CI: 1.85–48.15). Living in or regularly visiting a recently remodeled home (adjusted OR = 3.21; 95% CI: 1.45–7.11) and living near a highway (adjusted OR = 2.41; 95% CI: 1.07–5.48) were also independently associated with elevated BLLs. LGC use was the largest contributor to the model performance (47.46%), followed by home remodeling (31.78%) and proximity to highways (20.76%). Conclusions: Our findings support LGC as an important source of Pb exposure while identify home remodeling and residential proximity to highways as additional sources associated with elevated BLLs. Together, these findings broaden the understanding of Pb exposure pathways among women of childbearing age and support the need for prevention and screening strategies.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080694

Authors: Zhonghong Zhao Li Bao Min Ye Naiming Zhang

Lake eutrophication may promote the remobilization of historically buried organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study reconstructed an 80-year sedimentary record from Lake Qilu to elucidate the linkages between organic matter evolution and OCP dynamics. Sedimentary proxies reveal a transition from oligo-mesotrophic conditions before the 1980s to eutrophic states since the 1990s, with significant increases in total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic matter (DOM), and hydrophilic organic matter (HIM), alongside δ15N enrichment from +2.0‰ to +11.3‰ and a positive δ13C shift from −21.7‰ to −14.5‰. The OCP record exhibits three distinct phases: accumulation during the 1940s–1980s, decline following regulatory bans during the 1990s–2000s, and anomalous resurgence during the 2010s–2020s, with ∑Drin (sum of aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin) reaching a historical peak of 10.54 μg/kg in the 2020s. Significant positive correlations were observed between both individual OCP congeners and total OCP classes and total nitrogen (TN), DOM and HIM (p < 0.01 or p < 0.05), indicating that eutrophication-driven algal proliferation releases hydrophilic organic matter, which forms soluble complexes with hydrophobic OCPs, facilitating their upward migration. This study provides direct field evidence for eutrophication-driven OCP remobilization, with important implications for risk assessment of pollutants in eutrophic lakes worldwide.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080693

Authors: Mohammed A. A. Saad Verónica Andrade-Yucailla Ahmed H. A. El-Badry Aly A. Abd-Ella Ahmed M. M. Ahmed Ángel León-Mejía Víctor González-Rivera Eslam M. Omar

To cope with severe seasonal changes in climate and food availability, colonies of Apis mellifera L. generate two distinct worker phenotypes during winter and summer. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of oral exposure to insecticides on the toxic susceptibility of winter and summer honeybee workers (Apis mellifera L.) under laboratory conditions. In this work, under all tested conditions and seasons, emamectin benzoate was the most toxic compound and used as the standard (Toxicity Index = 100) for comparison with other compounds. It had the lowest LC50 (Lethal Concentration required to kill 50% of the tested honeybees) values, which decreased to 0.004 mg/L in winter bees after 48 h following oral exposure. Sulfoxaflor had moderate toxicity, and indoxacarb was the least toxic to honeybees. The results also revealed that the toxic effect was time-dependent, with lethal concentrations at 48 h significantly lower than those at 24 h. In addition, seasonal effects play a role; winter honeybees were, overall, more sensitive to the treatments than summer honeybees. Under the conditions of this study, it can be concluded that emamectin benzoate was the most toxic substance and indoxacarb the least toxic. Toxicity increased with exposure time. Winter honeybees showed greater sensitivity than summer honeybees. A field-relevant Hazard Quotient (HQ) analysis further indicated that indoxacarb, despite its lower acute toxicity, exhibited the narrowest margin relative to field-recommended spray concentrations, highlighting the value of incorporating field-relevant exposure metrics alongside LC50-based rankings in pollinator risk assessment. It is worth clarifying that this narrower margin reflects indoxacarb’s higher field-recommended application rate relative to its LC50, rather than a greater intrinsic toxicity than emamectin benzoate, and the two aspects of risk (intrinsic toxicity vs. use-rate-based field risk) should be interpreted separately.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080692

Authors: Marisol Laza-Durante Iván David Urango-Cárdenas Germán Enamorado-Montes Elvia Valeria Durante-Yánez Roberth Paternina-Uribe José Luis Marrugo-Negrete

Mercury (Hg) mobility in contaminated soils may be altered by solarization-induced thermal disturbance and organic amendments. This study evaluated whether a cover-induced prior solarization pretreatment of a mining-impacted soil–compost system modifies the operationally defined labile Hg fraction (F1 + F2, considered potentially bioavailable), rice productivity, grain Hg accumulation, and screening-level health risk. Mining soils from San Jorge River basin were amended with compost at a 1:9 ratio and solarized for one month before crop establishment, generating temperatures of 32, 40, 44, and 50 °C under different cover conditions. After pretreatment, covers were removed and rice was cultivated for four months under uniform flooded conditions. Total Hg in soils and grains was determined by EPA Method 7473, and the potentially bioavailable fraction by modified Bloom extraction. Prior thermal exposure increased this fraction, especially at 50 °C, whereas compost reduced total Hg and partially buffered this increase. Productivity depended on the compost × temperature interaction: compost improved yield at 40 and 44 °C, while no grain production occurred in substrates previously exposed to 50 °C. Compost-amended treatments showed lower grain Hg than unamended soils, although all values exceeded the 20 μg kg−1 reference limit. Hazard quotients remained below 1, with the highest value in unamended soil previously exposed to 44 °C.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080691

Authors: Zhao Zhou Hongbin Gao Shunda Zhu Lvlue Cai Yijing Chen Keqi Hu Yungang Liu

As a commonly present organophosphorus flame retardant and persistent organic pollutant, 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) has been observed to be genotoxic in cultured human hepatoma (HepG2) cells which depends on CYP activities. Yet, its impacts on hepatic Cyp expression, hepatotoxicity and genotoxicity in intact mammalians remain unidentified. In this study, adult male C57BL/6J mice received EHDPP by gastric gavage at doses of 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg (b.w.)/d for 7 d, then the hepatic expression of several Cyp proteins, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and pregnane X receptor (PXR) was analyzed by Western blotting; hepatoxicity was determined by serum ALT/AST activities and hepatic histological examination, while genotoxicity by comet assay, phosphorylated histone (γ-H2AX) protein, micronucleus test, and Pig-a assay. A micronucleus test in mouse hepatoma (Hepa1-6) cells in vitro was employed to observe the modulating effect of PCB 126 (100 nM)/BAY-218 (700 nM) (Ahr-Cyp1a1 activator/inhibitor). The results indicated that EHDPP induced hepatic Cyp1a1, 2e1, AhR, Cyp1a2, Cyp3a4 and PXR proteins and histologic liver damage at 50 mg/kg/d and/or higher doses, while at the highest dose (150 mg/kg/d) with hepatic DNA damage and micronucleus formation in bone marrow polychromatic erythrocytes. The result of Pig-a assay (at 14 and 28 d) was negative. In Hepa1-6 cells EHDPP induced micronucleus marginally; however, this effect was enhanced by PCB 126, while abolished by BAY-218. This study suggests that EHDPP may enhance protein expression of hepatic Cyp1a1, Cyp2e1, AhR and PXR and induce liver damage and DNA/chromosome damage in mice; Cyp1a1 might be a major activating enzyme.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080690

Authors: Richard O. Machava Bheki T. Magunga Simiso M. Ntuli Thokozani P. Mbonane

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) constitute a significant global health burden; however, the influence of environmental heavy metals toxicity on their pathogenesis remains insufficiently investigated, particularly within low- and middle-income countries. This systematic review, conducted in strict accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, assesses the impact of heavy metals exposure on the development, progression, and wound-healing kinetics of DFUs. A comprehensive search across PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science identified 32 eligible original studies. Quality appraisal was performed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and SYRCLE’s Risk of Bias tool. Synthesized epidemiological and toxicological data consistently indicate that chronic exposure to non-essential heavy metals, specifically cadmium and lead, significantly augments DFU prevalence and clinical severity, demonstrating a 64% increase in DFU prevalence for each 1 µg/L increase in blood cadmium concentration. Mechanistically, these xenobiotics induce a ‘chronic inflammatory lock’ characterized by severe oxidative stress, sustained NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and the suppression of protective Metallothionein 2A (MT2A) pathways, thereby impeding microvascular angiogenesis. Conversely, deficiencies in essential trace elements, such as zinc and selenium, actively impair extracellular matrix maintenance. Advanced therapeutic interventions, including metal-ion-releasing hydrogels, cell-free exosome therapies, and systemic EDTA chelation, demonstrate significant potential to counteract heavy-metal-induced cellular suppression and facilitate tissue repair. This review underscores the imperative of integrating environmental toxicant screening and targeted detoxification strategies into standard multidisciplinary diabetic foot management.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080689

Authors: Yuanchao Zhao Jin Hua Tingting Fan Yan Zhou Xiang Wang Shengtian Zhang Qun Li

China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of mineral resources. While large-scale development of metal mineral resources has supported rapid national economic development, it has also caused serious heavy metal pollution in soils in mining areas. This paper systematically reviews the latest research progress on heavy metal pollution in soils in mining areas, focusing on Chinese metal mining areas, covering pollution characteristics, source identification, risk assessment, and sustainable remediation technologies. Meta-analysis shows that smelting sources contribute more than 50% of soil Cd in southwestern Pb-Zn mining areas, making them priority targets for risk management. This review aims to provide theoretical support and decision-making references for precise source tracing, scientific assessment, and green remediation of heavy metal pollution affecting soils in Chinese metal mining areas.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080688

Authors: Tanya Bhatt Dong Hyun Kim Soyeon Jeon Se-Hwan Choi Jaebaek Jang Mihye Kwon Jang Woo Park Min-Seok Kim Iljung Lee Wan-Seob Cho

Pulmonary exposure to sodium fluoride (NaF) may occur in certain consumer-product and occupational settings, but its pulmonary toxicity and systemic biodistribution remain insufficiently characterized. This study investigated acute pulmonary inflammatory responses and biodistribution kinetics in rats following a single airway exposure to NaF. Non-radioactive NaF was administered in 7-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats by intratracheal instillation at 0.75, 1.5, or 3.0 mg/rat, and pulmonary responses were evaluated at 1, 7, and 28 days using bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis and histopathology. Biodistribution was assessed using positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) and organ gamma counting after administration of fluorine-18 radiolabeled sodium fluoride ([18F]NaF). NaF induced acute pulmonary inflammation characterized by increased neutrophils and eosinophils, elevated lactate dehydrogenase activity, and increased levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and eotaxin. These inflammatory responses gradually resolved by 7 and 28 days after exposure. PET/CT analysis showed rapid pulmonary clearance of NaF, with concurrent accumulation in bone and predominant urinary excretion within approximately 30 min after administration. These findings indicate that single airway exposure to NaF induces acute but reversible pulmonary inflammation despite rapid lung clearance, and call for evaluation under repeated or exposure-relevant conditions and in both sexes, as pulmonary toxicity was assessed only in male rats and only by intratracheal instillation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080687

Authors: Roberta Somma Sebastiano Ettore Spoto

Coastal sediments can store contaminants for decades and become exposure sources when disturbance alters partitioning, transport, or biological contact. We propose the Coastal Sediment Toxicological Activation Protocol (CSTAP), a theoretical and empirically testable protocol for organizing event-conditioned toxicological activation potential in coastal sediments. The associated Coastal Sediment Toxicological Activation Index (CSTAI) is an exploratory, semi-quantitative score intended for hypothesis generation and future calibration, not a validated toxicity endpoint or regulatory threshold. The CSTAP separates chemical burden, effective bioavailability, mixture pressure, event activation, receptor vulnerability, evidence adequacy, uncertainty priority, and procedural integrity. The primary score alone assigns the exploratory class, whereas evidence adequacy, uncertainty priority, and forensic readiness qualify interpretation without changing the class. The protocol includes benchmark selection, information-source safeguards against double counting, route-resolved receptor weighting, event and mass-conservation checks, data-tier declarations, and validation logic. Limiting-case tests, a reproducible worked example, and illustrative Mediterranean case encodings show internal coherence and reporting structure. The CSTAP is intended to guide monitoring design, scenario comparison, and calibration with paired chemistry, exposure, bioassay, and ecological-effect datasets.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080686

Authors: Yuxuan Li Siyuan Luo Mingdian Lei Lingfang Yang Zhipeng Xie Fengxian Liu Lipeng Zhu Hui Zou Junnan Li

Dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) is a widely used plasticizer, but its potential impact on immunity remains largely unexplored. In this study, synchronized L1-stage Caenorhabditis elegans were exposed to 0.0001–0.1 g/L DCHP for 72 h to investigate the effects of chronic early-life exposure on innate immunity; 0.01 and 0.1 g/L were used for subsequent mechanistic analyses. Innate immune function was evaluated using Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 survival assays, RT-qPCR, mutant strains, and oxidative-stress-related measurements. Chronic exposure beginning at the L1 stage significantly reduced the survival of C. elegans infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14. This immunosuppression was associated with increased daf-2 and age-1 transcript levels and reduced daf-16 transcript levels, indicating transcriptional alterations in insulin-like signaling-related genes. Additionally, the expression of pmk-1, nsy-1, and sek-1, key components of the p38 MAPK pathway, was markedly downregulated. Survival assays using different mutants supported the involvement of insulin-like signaling- and p38 MAPK-related genes in the decline in innate immunity following DCHP exposure. Furthermore, DCHP exposure reduced the expression of stress resistance genes, including skn-1, and several antioxidant enzymes. These findings suggest that DCHP may impair innate immune function through transcriptional alterations in immune- and stress-response pathways, although direct pathway activation or inhibition was not demonstrated.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080685

Authors: Xiaona Li Rui Wang Ruijun Xu Ling Deng Sijia Wang Kui Xie Qiuying Li Xuan Luo Yuewei Liu Wancheng Ma

Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Exposure to ambient air pollutants and the risk of stroke have been reported in many studies, but the results vary greatly among different regions. This study aims to investigate the association between short-term exposure to air pollution and the admission of total stroke and its subtypes in the Luohu District, Shenzhen. A time-stratified case-crossover study was conducted among 21,973 newly diagnosed stroke cases in Luohu, Shenzhen from 2014 to 2022. Residential exposure to air pollution was assessed using validated grid datasets. A distributed lag model (DLM) and conditional logistic regression model were implemented to evaluate the relationship between ambient air pollution and the admission of stroke and its subtypes. We found that a 10 µg/m3 increase in exposure to NO2 and SO2 was positively associated with a 2.73% increase (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.21%, 3.25%) and a 24.89% increase (20.87%, 29.06%) in the odds of total stroke admission, respectively. Statistical significance has also been found in subtypes. Stronger associations were observed in females (SO2), the elderly (NO2 and SO2), and the cold season (NO2 and SO2). Our findings indicate that exposure to NO2 and SO2 exacerbates the risk of stroke admission, especially in the elderly, females, and the cold season.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080684

Authors: Xiaofei Wu Lili Zhang Mengqi Yin Xiaojuan Han Guojie Zhou Guodong Luan Xiaoyan Sun Weihua Wang Zuozhen Han Xuefeng Lu

Cyanobacteria are essential primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Silver nanoclusters (Ag NCs) are emerging ultrasmall nanomaterials with broad applications; however, they inevitably enter aquatic environments. This study investigated the nanotoxicity of Ag NCs on model cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 (Syn7942), revealing concentration-dependent growth inhibition with a 72 h half-maximal effective concentration of 1.19 mg L−1. Ag NCs internalized into Syn7942 cells severely impaired the photosynthetic machinery, evidenced by reduced chlorophyll a content and suppressed photochemical reactions, leading to impaired electron transport. This photosynthetic dysfunction resulted in substantial reactive oxygen species generation and lipid peroxidation, as indicated by elevated levels of malondialdehydes. Although the activities of key antioxidant enzymes were enhanced, oxidative damage ultimately overwhelmed the cellular defense capacity. Furthermore, quantitative analysis of silver ions (Ag+) release coupled with comparative toxicity assays of Ag+ and Ag NCs confirmed that the toxicity originates from the Ag NCs themselves, rather than from the released Ag+. Transcriptional level analysis revealed that Ag NCs altered the expression of genes involved in photosynthesis and metal detoxification. Collectively, this study reveals a unique toxicity mechanism for Ag NCs distinct from that for Ag NPs and Ag+, highlighting the potential ecological risks posed by ultrasmall nanomaterials.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080683

Authors: Zhuang Liu Yonghai Gan Chengcheng Ding Zheng Wang Jiabao Yan Rujiao Tan Yang Li Jun Luo Yibin Cui

The rapid expansion of machine learning applications in heavy metal risk research has generated a large but fragmented body of literature, necessitating a systematic summary of various methodologies. This survey examines 182 research articles from Web of Science, Scopus, and IEEE Xplore over the past 10 years, providing a comprehensive analysis of the application of prevalent machine learning algorithms across research areas related to heavy metal risks, covering more than 30 algorithms and 9 research areas. The results show that regional risk assessment, risk source analysis, risk driver analysis, and research on the pathogenicity of HMs are the four most frequently applied areas of machine learning, accounting for 80.06% of all applications. Classical machine learning, especially a series of tree-based algorithms, dominates across all applications, accounting for 69.93% and 42.74%, respectively. In addition, some auxiliary algorithms, particularly those for feature analysis, are often used in conjunction with machine learning, primarily to interpret model predictions and analyze risk sources or drivers. Three principal methodological challenges emerge from our review: (1) poor model generalizability across different environmental conditions; (2) insufficient reliability of predictions; and (3) difficulty in obtaining high-quality training data. Some current literature is also constrained by small sample sizes, regional bias, limited field validation, and insufficient integration of multi-omics data with machine learning pipelines. To address these gaps, we advocate for the routine adoption of explainable AI techniques with rigorous stability checks, the development of publicly available, field-validated benchmark datasets, and greater integration of mechanistic knowledge with data-driven models.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080682

Authors: Xing Li Lei Zheng

The global surge in industrial waste generation has raised substantial concerns regarding occupational exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and the associated adverse health effects. However, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding the relationships among size-resolved airborne particulate matter (PM)-bound PFASs, internal exposure, and early-stage health damage. We conducted a panel study at a waste recycling plant in southern China, collecting 15 size-resolved PM samples and 280 repeated first morning void urine samples from 20 workers over 45 consecutive days. Relationship between size-resolved PM-bound PFASs, internal exposure, and oxidative stress biomarkers (OSBs:8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), malondialdehyde (MDA)) were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Our results indicate that short-chain PFASs predominated in both matrices. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for urinary short-chain PFASs ranged from fair to excellent (ICC > 0.4). Notably, inhalation of PFASs in PM2.1–10 correlate more strongly with internal exposure than those in PM2.1. For the first time, we observed suggestive quantitative associations between OSBs and multiple short-chain PFASs in urine. More importantly, 8-OHdG levels were mainly correlated with PFASs in PM4.7–5.8 and PM9.0–10, with each unit increase in ln-transformed average daily intake (ADI) associated with a 10.2–12.6% increase in urinary 8-OHdG levels (p < 0.05). Similarly, MDA levels were primarily associated with PFASs bound to PM5.8–9.0, with each unit increase in ln-transformed ADI corresponding to an 8.0–14.6% increase in MDA (p < 0.05). These findings are exploratory and warrant further confirmation in independent cohorts. Nevertheless, this study highlights the need for more exposure monitoring and health impact assessments regarding PM2.1–10-bound short-chain PFASs among the occupational population.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080681

Authors: Xin Wu Yuling Dong Ao Li Changjian Xie

Copper-based nanopesticides are increasingly explored as nano-enabled alternatives to conventional copper pesticides because they may improve deposition, antimicrobial efficacy, and material-use efficiency. Their environmental risk, however, cannot be inferred from total copper concentration or from the toxicity of pristine particles alone. After agricultural application, copper-based nanoforms may be transported to soils, drainage waters, wetlands, and sediments, where aggregation, dissolution, aging, sulfidation, organic complexation, and biological processing reshape their speciation and bioavailability. This review critically examines copper-based nanopesticides at the benthic interface, with emphasis on environmental transformation, synchrotron-resolved speciation, lower-trophic invertebrate exposure, trophic transfer, and food-web risk. We highlight that sediment-associated organisms are not only toxicity endpoints but also biological processors and vectors of transformed copper species. Evidence from stable-isotope tracing, dietary exposure studies, mesocosms, and micro-food-web experiments shows that copper-based nanoforms can enter aquatic, benthic, and terrestrial food chains. However, most studies demonstrate transfer or accumulation rather than consistent biomagnification across trophic levels. We further argue that future risk assessment should move beyond single-material and single-endpoint testing toward transformation-aware, route-specific, and food-web-relevant frameworks. Integrating total copper analysis with particle-specific measurements, synchrotron-based speciation where analytically feasible, realistic lower-trophic exposure models, and ecosystem-level endpoints will be essential for evaluating the long-term risks of copper-based nanopesticides.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080680

Authors: Anna Puścion-Jakubik Dominika Jabłonka Daria Wojciuk Renata Markiewicz-Żukowska Katarzyna Socha

Sport-related food supplements are widely used by physically active individuals and athletes, but their chemical safety may vary with formulation, raw-material origin, and manufacturing practices. This study determined the mercury (Hg) content in 50 selected sports-related food supplements available on the Polish market and performed a screening exposure assessment based on the maximum manufacturer-recommended daily portion. Total Hg content was measured by atomic absorption spectrometry using an Advanced Mercury Analyzer AMA-254. The median Hg content was 9.008 µg/kg (interquartile range: 5.287–21.938 µg/kg; range: 0.395–51.694 µg/kg), and no statistically significant differences were found among supplement categories. All concentrations were below the European Union maximum level of 0.1 mg/kg for food supplements. For a 100 kg adult, all product-specific Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) values were below 1 in the hypothetical 100% inorganic Hg scenario. In the conservative 100% methylmercury scenario, three gel products with maximum recommended intakes of 300 g/day yielded THQ values of 1.040–1.551, although their contributions to the tolerable weekly intake remained below 100% (55.98–83.51%). Because only total Hg was determined, these calculations represent bounding screening scenarios rather than species-specific risk estimates. The findings demonstrate that regulatory compliance based on Hg concentration should be complemented by serving-size-based exposure assessment and support continued monitoring and direct Hg speciation in high-consumption sports supplements.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080679

Authors: Di Xu Yunqi Liu Deli Xu

Polypropylene microplastics (PP-MPs) are ubiquitous in our daily lives, but their toxicological effects on mammals remain poorly understood. This study investigated the toxicity effects of PP-MPs on C57BL/6 mice using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and transcriptome sequencing. Female and male mice were randomly classified into the control and PP-MPs-treated groups, respectively, and the experiment lasted for 5 weeks. We found that PP-MPs exposure did not affect the levels of immunoglobulin G (IgG), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ), indicating that humoral immunity and inflammatory levels were not influenced by PP-MPs treatment. However, PP-MPs exposure reduced the PHA response in female mice, but not in male mice. It also did not alter the wet mass of testicles and ovaries, nor the levels of testosterone and estradiol. Exposure to PP-MPs altered the expression of the testicular genes. G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathways, olfactory receptor activity, and protein digestion and absorption were downregulated in the PP group. Collagen genes (Col9a3, Col11a2, Col27a1, Col26a1, Col7a1) play a significant role in downregulating protein digestion and absorption. In addition, PP-MPs exposure caused a change in beta diversity of gut microbiota, indicating the alteration of their community structure. PP-MPs exposure reduced the relative abundance of the probiotic Lactobacillus. Changes in the gut microbiota may be related to the expression levels of testicular genes. Overall, PP-MPs exposure altered both the community structure of the gut microbiota and the expression levels of testicular genes in mice, and collagen genes may serve as a critical factor influencing testicular function.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080678

Authors: Lei Wang Xiang Ning Meng Yang Shengli Wang

Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a promising biotechnology for environmental remediation; however, the high cost of conventional chemical-grade calcium sources limits its large-scale scalability. This study evaluated the feasibility of utilizing an aqueous extract of natural attapulgite clay as a sustainable, low-cost calcium source for MICP-mediated arsenic (As) immobilization in both aqueous and soil systems. Among the tested minerals, Baiyin attapulgite (group B) exhibited the highest calcium content (62,808.94 mg kg−1) and minimal toxic metal impurities, providing a favorable chemical matrix for biomineralization. At an optimal solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:10, Lysinibacillus fusiformis LF and Enterococcus LZU-1 successfully induced calcite precipitation driven by the attapulgite extract. In batch aqueous remediation experiments (20 days), the attapulgite extract significantly enhanced As removal efficiency compared to the controls; As removal rates peaked at 66.4% for strain LZU-1 (with LZ1 extract) and 65.8% for strain LF (with group B extract), drastically outperforming the standard CaCl2 groups (31.2–37.3%) and blank controls (21.8–24.5%). Concurrently, soil incubation experiments (30 days) demonstrated that the combined application of attapulgite and MICP bacteria reduced the highly bioavailable exchangeable As fraction from 0.115 to approximately 0.03 mg kg−1, while effectively driving its transformation into more stable carbonate-bound and organic-bound fractions without causing secondary soil salinization. Morphological and mechanistic analyses revealed that, compared to the well-defined euhedral crystals in the CaCl2 control, the precipitates mediated by the clay extract exhibited distinctly irregular, defect-rich rhombohedral structures. This structural disruption was governed by the natural matrix effect of attapulgite, which simultaneously supplied dissolved Ca2+ and provided an abundance of fine clay fragments, calcite micro-grains, and associated amorphous Fe/Al/Mn-bearing phases. These constituents acted as physical scaffolding and heterogeneous nucleation sites that became embedded in the growing CaCO3 lattice, driving the formation of highly reactive, defect-rich clay-calcite-arsenic composite precipitates that efficiently encapsulated arsenate. Mantel analysis further revealed that the remediation efficiency was significantly correlated with key environmental variables including Ni, V, Ca. These findings highlight the dual-system potential of natural attapulgite as an inexpensive, eco-friendly calcium alternative for sustainable MICP-based remediation of As-contaminated water and agricultural soils.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080677

Authors: Haofei Shen Nan Jiang Ahui Liu Na Wang Jiawei Gao Xiaoyan Sun Xiaoling Ma Xiaorong Luo

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental pollutants, but evidence concerning their effects on endometrial injury and adverse pregnancy outcomes remains limited. Therefore, we employed the Targeted Risk Assessment of Environmental Chemicals (TRAEC) strategy to integrate evidence concerning endometrial injury and adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with exposure to MNPs. Following targeted screening, 21 unique studies yielded 24 literature-derived evidence entries. Together with one additional in vitro evidence item from the present study, 25 evidence items were included in the final CES calculation. The available evidence was quantitatively integrated across four predefined TRAEC dimensions: Reliability Scores, Weight of Concentrations, Risk Intensity, and Correlation Scores. Under the tested in vitro conditions, exposure to PS-NPs increased intracellular ROS accumulation, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, promoted apoptosis, and decreased the expression of key endometrial receptivity proteins, namely HOXA10, FOXO1, and ITGB3, in primary human endometrial stromal cells. Based on this combined evidence pool, the final Comprehensive Evidence Score was 7.67, corresponding to a preliminary moderate-risk classification within the predefined TRAEC framework. In summary, the TRAEC strategy provides a structured approach for integrating multi-level evidence and deriving a framework-specific health-risk classification for exposure to MNPs.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080676

Authors: Min Gi Masaki Fujioka Arpamas Vachiraarunwong Satoko Kawachi Guiyu Qiu Runjie Guo Yurina Kawamura Juncheng Pan Yukina Kusunoki Anna Kakehashi Shugo Suzuki Hideki Wanibuchi

Occupational cholangiocarcinoma among printing workers in Japan has raised concern regarding the carcinogenic hazards of chlorinated organic solvents, particularly 1,2-dichloropropane (1,2-DCP) and dichloromethane (DCM). Because workers were often exposed to multiple solvents, this study examined whether DCM modifies 1,2-DCP-associated hepatocellular tumor development in mice. Male C3H/HeN mice were administered a corn oil vehicle, 1,2-DCP alone at 500 mg/kg bw, or 1,2-DCP and DCM at 500 mg/kg bw each by oral gavage twice weekly for 52 weeks. Combined exposure significantly increased the incidence of hepatocellular adenomas (HCAs) compared with both the vehicle control and 1,2-DCP-alone groups. Tumor multiplicity was also significantly higher in the 1,2-DCP + DCM group than in the 1,2-DCP-alone group. HCAs from the 1,2-DCP + DCM group showed increased cell proliferative activity, 29 uniquely altered differentially expressed genes, significant upregulation of Gpc3 and Igfbp1, and downregulation of Dcn, consistent with altered tumor-associated molecular features. Canonical pathway analysis indicated suppression of xenobiotic metabolism, bile acid metabolism, and peroxisomal function in treatment-associated HCAs. These findings indicate that DCM co-exposure enhanced 1,2-DCP-associated hepatocellular tumor development and altered tumor-associated molecular features in mice, highlighting the importance of considering combined solvent exposure in chemical carcinogenic risk assessment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080675

Authors: Jun Luo Tianhao Li Hao Meng Yanbing Pan Xiaoling Lei Yu Wen Guoming Zeng Da Sun

Antibiotic contamination has become an emerging challenge in water treatment and environmental protection due to the increasing discharge of antibiotics and their transformation products, which exhibit ecological toxicity and resistance to degradation. Conventional treatment technologies often show limitations in antibiotic removal, including insufficient efficiency, high operational costs, and potential secondary pollution. Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) has attracted extensive attention as a promising remediation material for antibiotic wastewater treatment owing to its large specific surface area, strong reducing capability, and excellent adsorption properties. However, the practical application of nZVI is still restricted by particle aggregation and surface passivation, which reduce its reactivity, stability, and long-term performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in nZVI-based materials for antibiotic removal, with emphasis on preparation strategies, surface modification approaches, removal mechanisms, and integrated treatment technologies. The performance of pristine nZVI and modified nZVI-based systems in antibiotic degradation and removal is systematically discussed. Furthermore, current challenges, including material deactivation, iron leaching, environmental risks, and scale-up limitations, are critically evaluated, and future perspectives toward efficient, stable, and sustainable antibiotic wastewater treatment are proposed.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080674

Authors: Irina Dzhumaniiazova Tatiana S. Filatova Artem V. Shamshura Denis V. Abramochkin

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of crude oil are recognized cardiotoxicants in fish; however, all electrophysiological evidence to date derives from acute exposure experiments. This study examined the effects of prolonged (5–8 h) incubation of isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes from the navaga cod (Eleginus nawaga, Walbaum, 1792) with 10% WSF (total dissolved tricyclic-PAH concentration in the tens-of-nM), 3 µM phenanthrene (Phe), or 3 µM 3-methylphenanthrene (3-MP) on action potential (AP) parameters and the underlying ionic currents using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. WSF and 3-MP reduced AP amplitude and maximum rate of depolarization through suppression of the fast sodium current (INa), whereas Phe and 3-MP shortened AP duration, associated with decreased density and a hyperpolarizing shift in steady-state activation of the rapid delayed rectifier potassium current (IKr). The L-type calcium current and inward rectifier potassium current remained unaffected by all treatments. Notably, the effects of prolonged incubation differed qualitatively from previously reported acute responses to the same compounds, suggesting the involvement of indirect mechanisms such as reactive oxygen species production and activation of intracellular signaling cascades. These findings demonstrate that subchronic PAH exposure produces distinct and potentially proarrhythmogenic alterations in fish cardiac electrophysiology that cannot be predicted from acute exposure data alone.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080673

Authors: Sofoklis Stavros Panagiotis Christopoulos Eriketi Kokkosi Efthalia Moustakli Athanasios Zikopoulos Anastasios Potiris Maria Daskalaki Ioannis Arkoulis Ismini Anagnostaki Ioanna Vassilaki Nikolaos Kathopoulis George Daskalakis Peter Drakakis

Bisphenols, phthalates, and other plastic-associated compounds are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), common environmental contaminants that can disrupt hormonal homeostasis. Human exposure to such chemicals occurs mainly through food packaging, consumer goods, medical devices, and the environment, starting right from early development stages up to adulthood. These chemicals might cause damage to male reproductive systems as a result of being anti-androgens and estrogenic chemicals. However, the proper development of the male reproductive system requires well-regulated hormonal signaling pathways; hence, exposure to such compounds during the developmental stages poses a great risk. Environmental exposure to plastics during fetal development may influence the development of the testes, reduce the function of the Leydig cells, disrupt steroidogenesis, and produce epigenetic modifications, as documented through studies. This has been shown to increase the risk of developing reproductive disorders and reduce the production of testosterone. Therefore, one of the pathophysiological links between endocrine disruptor exposure and ED might be testosterone deficiency. Apart from disrupting testosterone production, the plastic-sourced EDCs could influence various physiological processes associated with erectile performance, such as those related to vasculature, inflammation, metabolism, and endocrinology. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the scientific data on the effect of plastic-based EDCs on testosterone regulation and male reproductive health has been provided. The role of developmental programming, endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, epigenetics, and vascular dysfunction has been explored in detail. Moreover, the possible involvement of micro- and nanoplastics has also been reviewed. From the data that is currently available, there seems to be a physiologically plausible association between plastic-based contaminants, testosterone dysregulation, and adverse reproductive outcomes.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080671

Authors: Linaloe Manzano-Pech Maria Elena Soto Juan Carlos Torres-Narváez Raúl Martínez-Memije Vicente Castrejon-Tellez Verónica Guarner-Lans Sara Caballero-Chacón Félix Leao Rodríguez-Fierros María de la Luz Ibarra-Lara Israel Pérez-Torres

Ingestion of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (HSL) provides antioxidants with beneficial effects for several pathologies with underlying oxidative stress. However, excessive, chronic consumption of the antioxidant-rich diet with HSL in healthy rats may possibly induce reductive stress (RS) with damaging effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate if the consumption of an infusion of 6% HSL for two months alters the function and structure of the myocardium. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were divided into three groups: Control (C), HSL infusion at 6% for two months (HSL 6%), and a washout group that received HSL 6% for two months followed by two months of natural water (HSL ± 6%). Myocardial performance during ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) was evaluated by using the isolated Langendorff heart model, accompanied by surface electrocardiography and histopathological analyses. Chronic 6% HSL intake increased systolic pressure (p ≤ 0.03), NrF2 expression, and elevated coronary vascular resistance, while it depressed mechanical performance and led to bradycardia and critical, extended asystolic/sinus pauses. Histopathology showed dense, permanent networks of interstitial and perivascular collagen encapsulating the hypertrophied cardiomyocytes. Chronic 6% HSL infusion was associated with myocardial structural, mechanical, and hemodynamic alterations, and with electrical changes during I/R. The washout group showed possible partial functional differences associated with withdrawal, although interpretation is limited by the longer study period.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080672

Authors: Xinyu Wen Rui Zhang Qianli Hong Hui Li Yan Yao Meixian Mo Binbin Ren Huawei Zhang

Heavy metals in surface waters pose significant risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of multiple heavy metals (V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Cd) was performed using extensive surface water samples from the Meili Snow Mountains glacier basin, southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Results showed that heavy metal concentrations were higher in glacier meltwater than in downstream rivers, with significant variability observed in both the glacier basin (0.00300–33.4 μg/L) and downstream rivers (0.00500–2.85 μg/L), attributable to local geological processes and regional atmospheric deposition of transported particulate pollutants. Elevated total heavy metal concentrations at Sinong River and Qunatong River were primarily driven by uneven distribution of specific metals, likely from both anthropogenic and natural sources. Principal component analysis extracted three components that grouped heavy metals into Mn–Co–Ni–Cd, Cu–Zn, and V–Cr associations, indicating mixed geogenic and anthropogenic sources, with long-range atmospheric transport from surrounding polluted regions being a notable contributor. Risk assessments indicated low ecological risks (ERI < 150) and safe non–carcinogenic risks (HI < 1), with children exhibiting higher susceptibility than adults and As being the primary contributor. Although the carcinogenic risks (TCR: 10−6–10−4) were acceptable, ingestion of As and Ni posed higher risks, especially in the Yubeng River basin for adults. These findings provide valuable insights for water resource management and health protection in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080670

Authors: Ayla Sandıkcıoğlu Gümüş

Background: Radon in drinking water is a potential source of ionizing radiation exposure, yet long-term monitoring data from active tectonic regions remain limited. This study investigated 222Rn activity concentrations in drinking-water wells along the Sultandağı Fault (Afyonkarahisar, Türkiye) and assessed age-dependent radiological risks. Methods: 222Rn concentrations were measured at two-week intervals in 15 drinking-water wells between June 2021 and June 2022 using a WG-1001 water–gas separation system and an AB-5R radiation monitor. Annual effective dose (AED) and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) were calculated for infants, children, and adults. Results: 222Rn concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 26.64 Bq L−1, with a mean of 6.12 ± 2.79 Bq L−1. Only one well exceeded the USEPA guideline level (11.1 Bq L−1), whereas all measurements remained below the WHO reference level (100 Bq L−1). Seasonal mean concentrations varied between 5.48 ± 2.53 and 7.08 ± 3.32 Bq L−1. Mean AED values were 35.94, 13.17, and 15.63 μSv y−1 for infants, children, and adults, respectively. Corresponding ELCR values were 1.26 × 10−4, 0.46 × 10−4, and 0.55 × 10−4. Conclusions: The results indicate generally low radiological risk from radon in drinking water within the study area, although elevated values were observed in some wells. Higher age-specific dose and risk estimates were obtained for infants. These findings provide long-term data on groundwater 222Rn variability in an active fault zone and support regional radiological risk assessment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080669

Authors: Ruirui Wang Yanlong Gan Jian Hu Xinyu Mi Jianyu Ni Zhiyong Liu Wenhan Cheng Chuanyu Chang

Rapid industrialization, shipping, and petrochemical development have increased metal concentrations in coastal island ecosystems of eastern China. However, historical baseline information prior to large-scale coastal development remains scarce. This study investigated the concentrations and ecological risks of metals (Sr, Ni, V, Cr, Cu, Zn, Cd, Ba, Pb) in surface sediments collected in 2008 from the Zhejiang island sea areas, and used principal component analysis (PCA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) to identify potential sources and estimate their contributions. Results showed that metals posed low to moderate ecological risks, with elevated risk levels occurring in Liuheng, Zhoushan, Daxie Island sea areas. Ni, Sr, Cu, Zn and Cd showed a certain degree of enrichment, whereas Cd presented the highest ecological risk. Three possible sources were identified: industrial activities (29.92%), combustion–lithological source (36.51%), and natural weathering (33.57%). Pb, Zn, Cu, and Cd appear to be primarily derived from industrial inputs, whereas V, Ni, and Cr showed a closer association with combustion–lithological sources. These results provided a historical geochemical baseline for this rapidly industrializing island sea areas in China and a reference framework for evaluating long-term environmental changes associated with coastal development, port expansion, and maritime activities in the East China Sea.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080668

Authors: Ekramy M. Elmorsy Amina A. Farag Amal M. Abdel-Kareim Marwa M. M. Fawzy Mohammed A. Gebba Samar Fawzy Gad Nashwa E. Ahmed Shimaa K. Mohamed Hamada S. Salem Ebtssam Beder Sahar Soliman

Chlorfenapyr (CFP) is a widely used pesticide associated with nephrotoxicity through oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This study investigated the protective effects of limonene (LM) and its nano-liposomal formulation (LM-LNPs) against CFP-induced renal injury in rats. Animals were divided into six groups—control, LM, LM-LNPs, CFP, CFP + LM, and CFP + LM-LNPs—and treated orally for 30 days. CFP exposure resulted in marked renal dysfunction, histopathological and ultrastructural damage, suppression of the NRF2/HO-1/NQO1 antioxidant pathway, depletion of endogenous antioxidants excessive generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, lipid peroxidation products, and DNA damage. These changes were accompanied by activation of NF-κB/COX-2-mediated inflammation, mitochondrial respiratory impairment, disrupted energy metabolism, and induction of apoptosis. Co-treatment with LM significantly ameliorated these alterations, whereas LM-LNPs produced greater improvements in renal function, tissue architecture, redox homeostasis, mitochondrial function, and inflammatory and apoptotic signaling. Immunohistochemical analyses further confirmed enhanced NRF2 expression and reduced NF-κB immunoreactivity in LM-LNP-treated kidneys. Overall, nano-liposomal delivery enhanced the renoprotective efficacy of limonene, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic strategy against pesticide-induced kidney injury.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080667

Authors: Arianna Sgariboldi Nicola Chirico Ester Papa

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is among the metrics used as midpoints in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of the Life Cycle Assessment. However, GWP values are not always available. In recent years, predictive modelling approaches have been increasingly developed to address existing data gaps. In this study, new Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationship (QSAR) models were developed to support climate impact assessment by predicting GWP and Radiative Efficiency of chemicals from the molecular structure. These models, which are built using Multiple Linear Regression, are designed to comply with the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) principles for QSAR use for regulatory purposes: they are transparent, validated, characterized by a quantitative domain of applicability and based on interpretable molecular descriptors. These QSARs are characterized by lower complexity, in terms of the number and type of descriptors, and easier applicability than other models with similar performance available in the literature for the same endpoints. A dedicated case study shows how the new QSARs can be applied to screen a large dataset including more than 13,000 possible alternatives to harmful chemicals. These results show that the new models may be suggested as valuable support in LCIA procedure and for the screening of environmentally preferable and safer alternatives.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080666

Authors: Ahmet Ali Berber Cansu Akbulut

Nano- (NPs, <1 µm) and microplastics (MPs, 1 µm–5 mm) are ubiquitous contaminants whose toxicity to invertebrates carries implications at the individual scale and (although not yet quantitatively validated) at the population scale. This semi-systematic narrative review organizes available evidence within an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework, linking primary molecular initiating events (MIEs) to adverse outcomes while flagging evidence strength at each step. It involves a structured synthesis that applies selected PRISMA 2020 transparency principles, namely disclosed databases, a priori eligibility criteria, and explicit harvest and de-duplication counts, but does not attempt the exhaustive paired screening, formal risk-of-bias scoring, or quantitative meta-analysis of a full systematic review; this design was chosen because the marked heterogeneity of particle physicochemistry, exposure regimes, and endpoint metrics across the available literature makes pooled statistical synthesis premature. Evidence is appraised across Daphnia, Artemia, Chironomus, Caenorhabditis elegans, Eisenia, marine mollusks, and crustaceans. Polymer chemistry, size, surface charge, weathering, biofilm formation, additives, and adsorbed co-contaminants shape uptake and downstream toxicity. Reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial dysfunction, lysosomal destabilization, and ER stress recur as coupled key events downstream of four MIEs (direct membrane interaction, protein corona formation, surface-catalyzed redox chemistry, and Trojan horse delivery). Multi-omics datasets converge on dysregulated stress, repair, apoptotic, immune, and inflammatory programs; epigenetic marks are increasingly considered as substrates for persistent and potentially heritable toxicity, although stable transgenerational transmission remains poorly demonstrated. The review delivers (i) an AOP map with evidence-strength annotations (strong, moderate, emerging), (ii) a structured cross-study synthesis comparing NP and MP effect profiles, and (iii) a critical layer that reinterprets biphasic and apparently contradictory data as mechanistically informative once particle physicochemistry and tissue context are resolved. Progress will depend on standardized characterization, environmentally realistic mixtures, and AOP-anchored designs that distinguish experimentally demonstrated mechanisms from inferred mechanisms and theoretical extrapolations.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080665

Authors: Marina Krasnopyorova Igor Gorlachev Pavel Kharkin Olga Milts Sergey Lukashenko Mariya Severinenko Diana Akhmetzhanova Amangul Bold Valentina Slyadneva

To assess the environmental impact of uranium mining operations in southern Kazakhstan, the elemental and radionuclide composition of soil samples collected from settlements in the Kyzylorda Region was investigated. The analysis was carried out using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and gamma-ray spectrometry. Mean concentrations and variation ranges were determined for 28 chemical elements, including uranium, lead, antimony, and gamma-emitting radionuclides such as 137Cs, 40K, 232Th, 238U, 226Ra, 210Pb, and 241Am. The analysis of the specific activities of the artificial radionuclides 137Cs and 241Am was carried out in order to assess the influence of the Semipalatinsk Test Site on the soils of the study area. Based on the obtained data, heavy metal pollution indices, ecological risk indices, and radiological parameters were calculated to evaluate the potential environmental and human health impacts. Most elements were present at levels below average crustal abundances, suggesting limited anthropogenic influence. Slight exceedances for uranium, lead, and antimony are likely associated with regional geochemical features. Radiological assessment indicated that the radiation environment remains within internationally accepted limits. The lifetime cancer risk values for exposure of humans to natural radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th, 40K and 137Cs from soil at 1 m above ground level ranged from 0.19 × 10−3 to 0.30 × 10−3, with an average of 0.24 × 10−3. Nearly all sampling points remained below the risk threshold of 0.29 × 10−3, indicating minimal radiological hazard. The carcinogenic risk remained within the acceptable regulatory range for both adults (2.0 × 10−5) and children (4.4 × 10−5), whereas the non-carcinogenic hazard index for children (1.3) slightly exceeded the screening threshold of 1. This finding identifies children as the most sensitive receptor group under the conservative assumptions of the applied screening methodology. The study demonstrates the applicability of combined chemical and radiometric methods for comprehensive environmental assessments in uranium mining regions. The results are of interest both in terms of methodology and in understanding the local geochemical and radiological landscape.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080664

Authors: Humza Rashid Edward Wilson Haya Alhmly Amy A. Hunter Wig Zamore Misha Eliasziw Doug Brugge

Ultrafine particles (UFPs; <100 nm) can penetrate biological barriers and trigger inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction, yet they remain largely unregulated and understudied relative to PM2.5. This scoping review, conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, systematically searched PubMed and Scopus for epidemiological studies examining ambient UFP exposure and mortality. Of 704 articles screened, 21 studies published between 2007 and 2025 met inclusion criteria. Fourteen assessed short-term exposure (≤1 month) using time-series or case-crossover designs with central-site particle number concentration monitors, and seven assessed long-term exposure using land-use regression, chemical transport, or machine learning models. A majority of both short-term (10 of 14) and long-term (6 of 7) studies reported positive associations between UFP exposure and mortality, particularly for respiratory outcomes. The strongest associations were observed in studies using higher-resolution or source-specific exposure methods, a pattern consistent with reduced misclassification. However, exposure assessment approaches varied widely in spatial resolution, instrument type, and particle size definitions, introducing substantial heterogeneity that limits comparability across studies. These findings underscore the need for standardized UFP measurement protocols, high-resolution exposure assessment, and further investigation of disparities in exposure and health outcomes to inform regulatory consideration.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080663

Authors: Mengyang Ni Fangru He Chuanjia Jiang Hongyang Wang

Persulfate-based Fenton-like oxidation is one of the most promising technologies for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) remediation of groundwater contamination, yet the mechanisms affecting persulfate activation efficiency remain underexplored. Herein, we investigated the efficiency and mechanisms of peroxydisulfate (PDS) and peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation by cobalt-doped pyrite (Co-FeS2) nanoparticles for degradation of 4-chlorophenol (4-CP), a model groundwater contaminant. Notably, the degradation kinetics in the Co-FeS2/PDS system exhibited a unique “three-stage” characteristic, wherein the 4-CP degradation rate underwent a jump during the 3–5 min phase. This kinetic anomaly stems from the specific generation dynamics of ferryl species (FeIV=O), which experienced a 3 min lag phase followed by a rapid burst. Theoretical calculations revealed that surface-accumulated SO42− reduces the thermodynamic energy barrier for FeIV=O formation, which accounts for this rapid generation subsequent to the initial lag phase. Furthermore, while hydroxyl (•OH) and sulfate (SO4•−) radicals were critical in both systems, •OH concentration was higher than SO4•− concentration in the Co-FeS2/PDS system, whereas the Co-FeS2/PMS system exhibited the reverse trend. Moreover, homogeneous persulfate activation mediated by dissolved Fe(II) contributed to 4-CP degradation, but to different degrees in the two systems. This study provides mechanistic insights into persulfate-based ISCO processes for groundwater remediation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080662

Authors: Bao Guo Junzhuang Chang Aolu Liu Minjie Li Lianghong Guo Shujun Cheng Hui Wang Qian Ba

Cadmium (Cd), a ubiquitous environmental toxicant, poses substantial health risks even at low-dose chronic exposures. In this study, we developed a mouse model with chronic low-dose dietary Cd exposure (100 nM CdCl2 in drinking water for eight months) to investigate its impacts on cognitive and neuropathological alterations. Behavioral assessments demonstrated that Cd-exposed mice exhibited pronounced deficits in spatial learning, memory retention, and working memory compared with control mice. Histopathological analyses of hippocampus uncovered accelerated Alzheimer’s-like neuropathology, marked by elevated β-amyloid plaque immunoreactivity and tau hyperphosphorylation. Concurrently, neuroinflammatory responses were markedly upregulated, shown as astrocytes activation and pro-inflammatory Th17 cell signatures in parenchyma. Brain transcriptomic profiling revealed extracerebral prostaglandin signaling following Cd exposure, a finding consistent with elevated prostaglandins detected in the gut. Crucially, these outcomes were gut microbiota-involved: antibiotic-mediated microbiota depletion attenuated dietary Cd-enhanced cognitive impairments, neuroinflammation, and prostaglandin upregulation, underscoring the critical role of intestinal microbes in mediating Cd neurotoxicity. Furthermore, in vitro co-culture experiments demonstrated that Cd potentiated prostaglandin production in intestinal epithelial cells—an effect amplified by gut bacterial stimuli. This observation suggests a mechanism under which peripheral prostaglandins may contribute to central inflammatory cascades. Together, these findings support a gut-brain mechanism underlying dietary Cd-exacerbated neurodegeneration and highlight gut homeostasis and prostaglandin signaling as promising therapeutic targets for mitigating Cd-associated neurodegenerative disorders.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080661

Authors: Yaolong Xu Fujun Ma Hong Chang

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of persistent pollutants, and China’s electroplating industry is a major source of their emissions. This paper systematically reviews the sources, occurrence characteristics, and treatment technologies of PFASs in electroplating wastewater. The chrome plating process is the primary source of PFASs, with concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS), and 6:2 chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonate (6:2 Cl-PFESA, F-53B) in some chromium mist suppressants reaching up to 985, 735, and 875 g/kg, respectively. Monitoring data from 15 electroplating parks and 97 enterprises revealed that 29 PFAS were detected in electroplating wastewater, with long-chain compounds dominating and PFOS concentrations reaching up to 3.6 × 107 ng/L. Non-target screening further identified the widespread presence of various concealed PFAS, including monohydro-substituted perfluorobutanoic acid (H-PFBA) and sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzenesulfonate (OBS). Regarding treatment technologies, coagulation/flocculation showed very poor PFAS removal efficiency; flotation achieved up to 88% removal of perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) but was constrained by process integration; biological treatment led to an increase in dissolved-phase PFAS concentrations; ion exchange resins achieved 98% removal of PFOS but were ineffective for short-chain PFASs due to their low affinity and rapid breakthrough; membrane technology achieved nearly 100% removal of long-chain PFASs but faced challenges, such as membrane fouling and concentrate disposal. This paper aims to provide a reference for PFAS pollution control in China’s electroplating industry.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080660

Authors: Lei Jiang Li-Jun Zhou Shengxing Wang Siwen Chen Xiaoli Shi Qinglong L. Wu Kaining Chen

As the primary component of harmful algal blooms, cyanobacteria exhibit unique adaptation strategies under environmental stress. The impact of erythromycin (ETM), a common macrolide antibiotic in aquatic environments, on colonial cyanobacteria remains unclear. This study examined the chronic toxic effects of different ETM concentrations (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 20 and 100 μg/L) on colonial Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) under varying nutrient conditions. Results showed that at 0.01–1 μg/L, ETM could promote the growth of M. aeruginosa, while high concentrations of ETM (≥10 μg/L) significantly inhibited growth (p < 0.05). Low-level ETM exposure accelerates M. aeruginosa growth by boosting PSII efficiency, extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) production, and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). Metatranscriptomic and metabolomic analyses further reveal that this stimulation is underpinned by enhanced trace-element uptake, reinforced carbon cycling, and increased biosynthesis of proteins, polysaccharides, and chlorophyll precursors. High-level ETM exposure inhibited the growth of M. aeruginosa, as evidenced by decreased photosynthesis, damaged membranes and suppressed metabolic activity. Metatranscriptomic and metabolomic analyses showed the upregulation of photosynthesis andpathways, metabolic pathways, and the accumulation of potent allelochemicals in P-limited cells exposed to 10 µg/L ETM relative to 10 µg/L ETM in nutrient-replete BG11 medium. Furthermore, phosphorus deficiency may enhance the potential of net methane formation. These findings underscore the complex interactions between antibiotic exposure and nutrient stress in cyanobacteria, with significant implications for environmental management of antibiotic contamination.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080659

Authors: Sylwester Sommer Iwona Buraczewska Anna Korzeniowska-Sobczuk Katarzyna Sikorska

Due to the advanced plans for the development of nuclear power plants in Poland, those who are to live around nuclear facilities may have unjustified doubts about their own radiation safety. Moreover, when future power plant workers will be potentially exposed to low, cumulative doses of ionizing radiation, it seems important to develop cytogenetic methods for showing the actual genotoxic effects of environmental or occupational nuclear influences. The method of analyzing the frequency of chromosomal type aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes remains one of the most significant possibilities in achieving this goal. Three techniques are used to monitor aberration frequency, i.e., most commonly, Giemsa staining (FPG), FISH, or M-FISH. The types of aberrations determined by Giemsa-staining preparation will be described in detail, and issues with the nomenclature of these aberrations will be discussed. To effectively explore small changes in aberration yields, studies of aberration rates in non-exposed populations are needed. Such a dataset has been generated at the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology (INCT), Warsaw, Poland. This database would allow for the assessment of the genotoxic impact of planned nuclear facilities, the impact of radon in areas within its increased concentration, or the impact of such a working environment on, for example, medical workers working with radiation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080658

Authors: Yunxiao Jin Longping Luo Shixu Zhang Zheng Yuan

With the continued advancement of industrialization and urbanization in northwestern China, heavy metal contamination of loess sites has become an increasingly serious environmental issue. Heavy metals such as copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) are toxic, persistent, and readily retained by the mineral-pore framework of loess, which makes remediation difficult and threatens regional ecological security and human health. This study investigated electrokinetic (EK) remediation of artificially prepared loess co-contaminated with Cu and Pb using tartaric acid (TA), citric acid (CA), and disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) as catholytes. Cu was generally removed more effectively than Pb because Pb was less adsorbed and immobilized more strongly. All three chelators enhanced metal desorption and migration through complexation, particularly in the cathode-side section. EDTA produced the greatest enhancement because it formed stable, negatively charged complexes with Cu and Pb over a broad pH range. Relative to the deionized-water control, EDTA increased the overall removal efficiencies of Cu and Pb to 55.4% and 27.2%, respectively, and promoted their transfer from the soil to the anolyte. These findings demonstrate that chelator-assisted EK treatment, particularly with EDTA, can effectively improve Cu and Pb removal from loess, while field application requires control of energy use, residual chelator, and post-treatment metal mobility.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080657

Authors: Xiaohui Du Minghui Wei Linglu Qu Wei Tang Chao Yu Zhongzhi Zhang Yang Yu Yang Li

Secondary inorganic aerosols (SIAs) are critical components of regional air pollution, yet uncertainties in bottom–up emission inventories lead to biases in the simulation of nitrate (PNO3−) and ammonium (PNH4+). This study utilizes a joint NOx−NH3 inversion inventory constrained by satellite observations to investigate the response characteristics of SIAs to precursor reductions in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region during July 2020. Results indicate that the a priori emission inventory significantly underestimated NH3 emissions in the BTH region, with a posteriori emission in cities such as Shijiazhuang and Handan increasing to 2–3 times the a priori levels, while NOx emissions were slightly underestimated. Sensitivity analysis conducted via Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions (CAMx)—Decoupled Direct Method (DDM) reveals that the sensitivities of PNO3− and PNH4+ to precursor variations are higher in south–central BTH; specifically, the sensitivity of PNO3− concentration to NOx emission abatement under the a posteriori inventory rises substantially compared with a priori estimates, with relative growth rates spanning 33% to 308% across the study domain. Scenario simulations demonstrate that synergistic NOx and NH3 control is the most effective strategy, reducing PNO3− and PNH4+ concentrations by 2.27 ug/m3 and 0.77 ug/m3, respectively.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080656

Authors: Xuelian Li Ying Cai Mengcao Liu Guang Wang Lina Gao

The reproductive and developmental toxicity of diquat (DQ), a widely used herbicide, during pregnancy remains insufficiently characterized. This study investigated the effects of repeated DQ exposure on fetal development and maternal metabolism in pregnant Sprague–Dawley rats. The rats were administered sublethal doses of DQ (28.88 and 57.57 mg/kg), and maternal serum sex hormones, fetal skeletal development, and serum metabolomic profiles were evaluated. Compared with controls, serum estradiol levels were significantly decreased in the high-dose exposure group, whereas luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels remained unchanged. Significant alterations in malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione levels indicated oxidative stress in exposed rats. Severe fetal skeletal ossification deficits and developmental delays were observed, with incomplete or failed ossification of the occipital bone, sternum, caudal vertebrae, and pelvis, with litter-level incidences reaching 100%. Metabolomic analysis identified distinct serum metabolic profiles between DQ-exposed and control groups, suggesting ovarian steroidogenesis, phenylalanine metabolism, and aldosterone synthesis and secretion as key pathways affected by DQ toxicity. These findings suggest that repeated maternal exposure to DQ induces oxidative stress, disrupts metabolic and hormonal homeostasis, and causes delayed fetal skeletal development. This study provides novel evidence for understanding the reproductive and developmental toxicity of DQ and its potential metabolic mechanisms.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080655

Authors: Guangling Li Lanfen Xie Linling Lv Runqiang Liu Yanbing Wu Jiangtao Li Renhai Wu

This study aims to identify microbial strain resources capable of degrading diflufenican and elucidate their degradation characteristics, with the goal of mitigating the phytotoxicity hazards associated with the prolonged use of this persistent herbicide. A degradation strain was isolated, purified, and screened from wheat field soils that had been subjected to diflufenican treatment using an enrichment culture method. The taxonomic classification of the strain was determined through a comprehensive analysis of its morphology, physiology, biochemistry, as well as its 16S rRNA gene sequence. The results demonstrated that the screened bacterial strain 88-1 could utilize diflufenican as its metabolic carbon source and was identified as Enterobacter hormaechei, a facultative anaerobe. The degradation efficiency of strain 88-1 on diflufenican was closely associated with cultivation time, the initial concentration of the herbicide, temperature, pH, and inoculation amount of the strain. Additionally, the degradation rate exhibits a positive correlation with the biomass of the strain. Under optimal conditions (40 mg/L diflufenican, 30 °C, pH 8.0, 10% inoculum), the highest observed degradation efficiency and viable cell density over the 120 h incubation period were 55.11% and 8.05 × 106 CFU/mL, respectively. Furthermore, rapid biotransformation commenced within 24 h, yielding a cascade of metabolites, with 2-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenoxy)pyridine-3-carboxamide identified as the primary metabolite. These findings suggest that strain 88-1 holds promise for the bioremediation of soils contaminated with diflufenican.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080654

Authors: Xinyi Lu Gaohui Liu Lixiao Wu Runzhi Cui Bao Xiang Hongliang Wang Honghai Xue

Coastal wetlands are important sinks for heavy metals, yet the linkage between vertical redistribution, quantitative source contributions, and ecological–health risk drivers remain insufficiently understood. This study collected the stratified sediment samples from three depth intervals (0–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm) from 28 representative sites in the coastal wetlands of western Bohai Bay, and evaluated the spatial distribution, vertical variation, pollution status, potential sources, and ecological–human health risks of eight heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb). The mean concentrations were below the Class I limits of the Marine Sediment Quality Standard. Most metals were close to or slightly below regional background values, whereas Cu and As showed mild enrichment and Cr was higher than values reported for Bohai Bay and Hangzhou Bay. Vertical profiles were generally homogeneous, with weak enrichment of specific metals, probably due to sediment resuspension, tidal disturbance, and bioturbation. Pollution assessment based on the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), Nemerow pollution index (PN), and pollution load index (PLI) consistently indicated low contamination levels, with Hg and Pb as the main contributors to the regional pollution load. Source apportionment indicated that heavy metals were jointly influenced by lithogenic background (38.9%), atmospheric deposition (31.1%), and local anthropogenic activities (30.0%). Ecological risk assessment showed that the integrated risk index (RI) remained within the low-risk category, although Hg consistently fell within the moderate-risk range and Cd approached the moderate-risk threshold. Health risk assessment showed that both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were within acceptable limits for all receptor groups. Children had higher risks in core residential areas, whereas adults showed higher risks in non-core industrial–agricultural zones because of increased exposure frequency. The source–risk analysis indicates that non-carcinogenic risk is mainly associated with background-derived Cr, whereas carcinogenic risk is primarily linked to anthropogenic As inputs. These findings indicate that source contributions and risk contributions are not necessarily consistent, highlighting the need for source-oriented risk management in industrialized coastal wetlands.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080653

Authors: Shu Wu Qian Xu Weiyin Zhuang Xiaonan Gu Yujing Chen Qian Chen Yu Liu Mengfan Li Lizi Lin Li Cai Hongwei Tu

The impact of particulate matter (PM) on pediatric sleep has been documented, yet the roles of particle size and particulate constituents remain poorly understood. This study aims to evaluate the associations between early-life exposure to different sizes of PM and specific chemical constituents of PM2.5 and sleep in toddlers. In this birth cohort in Guangzhou, China, 514 mother–child pairs with follow-ups at age two between 2017 and 2018 were eligible for participation. Using high-resolution ground-level grid data, we estimated PM exposure (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) and major chemical constituents of PM2.5 during the early-life period. The sleep of two-year-old toddlers was assessed using the Chinese version of the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire. We used multivariable linear and logistic regression models to analyze the associations between PM exposure and sleep. Quantile g-computation was applied to assess the joint exposure effects of PM2.5 chemical constituents on sleep. An interquartile range (IQR) increase in PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 exposure during early life was associated with reduced nighttime sleep duration (β = −0.18; 95%CI: −0.32, −0.04; β = −0.23; 95%CI: −0.38, −0.08; β = −0.21; 95%CI: −0.35, −0.07). Combined early-life exposure to PM2.5 constituents correlated with reduced nighttime sleep duration, with SO42− being a major contributor. Regardless of particle size and PM2.5 constituents, we identified consistent findings during pregnancy. We found positive associations between prenatal PM exposure and reduced nighttime sleep in two-year-old toddlers. The PM2.5 constituent SO42− appears to be the major contributor to these associations.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080652

Authors: Tingting Fan Feiyang Xia Da Ding Xiang Wang Tao Long Shaopo Deng Lingya Kong

Less attention has been paid to soils with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) below agricultural land risk screening values, even though they continue to accumulate these elements. In this study, four typical areas in Ningxia were selected to determine the concentrations of cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) in 176 samples collected from 130 sampling sites across seven matrices. A refined mass balance model was developed by partitioning irrigation input into suspended-solid and supernatant phases and crop removal into grain and straw components. The model was used to analyze the contributions of various input and output factors and to predict future soil Cd/As concentrations and their related health risks via soil exposure. The input fluxes of Cd and As in the four regions ranged from 1.31 to 3.25 g·ha−1·yr−1 and 71.43 to 146.99 g·ha−1·yr−1, respectively, mainly contributed by irrigation water (40~64%), especially suspended solids in irrigation water, and atmospheric deposition (23~40%). The output fluxes of Cd and As were 0.89~1.43 g·ha−1·yr−1 and 13.81~33.86 g·ha−1·yr−1, respectively, dominated by crop harvesting (36~82%). The differences in input and output fluxes were mainly caused by the regional industrial structure and agricultural planting structure. The predicted results showed that soil Cd and As concentrations in all regions would not exceed regulatory limits after 100 years in the current scenario. A health risk assessment based on soil ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation showed that the hazard indices for Cd and As were negligible, but their total carcinogenic risk reached notable levels. Over time, Cd-specific carcinogenic risk for children increased in several scenarios and transitioned from negligible to notable risk, with soil ingestion being the dominant exposure pathway. According to the results, targeted mitigation strategies, including the regulation of atmospheric deposition, optimization of irrigation water quality, and adoption of straw off-field practices, show potential to effectively limit the accumulation of potentially toxic elements in agricultural soils.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080651

Authors: Tianmu Peng Sumaira Gul Fengshuo Huang Yang Zhao Licheng Peng Muhammad Amjad Khan Rafia Zainab Peng Guo Tauseef Ahmad Junhua Yin Zongyin Zhang Qin Liu Mingfu Lyu Yin Xie Qing Huang

Biodegradable film mulching has been developed as promising alternative to overcome the adverse effects posed by conventional polyethylene film mulching in cropping systems. However, evidence regarding whether conventional polyethylene and biodegradable film mulching affect soil fauna in cropping systems still remains unknown. This study was therefore designed to examine the differences in the responses of soil fauna and selected physicochemical parameters under different mulch treatments, i.e., polyethylene film mulch (PE), biodegradable film mulches (BMs1–5), biodegradable paper (BP) and no-mulch control (CK), in a rice cropland. The results demonstrated that all mulch treatments significantly increased soil temperature (p < 0.001) and reduced soil pH (p < 0.05) and electrical conductivity (p < 0.01) without significantly affecting soil organic content and water content compared to CK. Regarding soil fauna, during the growing stage, the abundance of soil fauna under all of the mulch treatments declined (39%) compared to CK. However, during the harvesting stage, soil faunal abundance was 54% and 45% higher under BP and BMs, respectively, compared with PE. No significant differences were observed in richness, diversity, or evenness among the mulch treatments. This study provides insight into the benefits of environmentally friendly film mulching in terms of biodiversity conservation and soil health.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080650

Authors: Giusy Bonanno Ferraro David Brandtner Carolina Veneri Pamela Mancini Agata Franco Daniele Congiu Marcello Iaconelli Monica Monaco Maria Del Grosso Giulia Errico Elisabetta Suffredini Giuseppina La Rosa

The detection of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in wastewater is commonly based on targeted PCR assays, limiting analysis to predefined genes. Consequently, the structure of wastewater resistomes often remains poorly characterised. Targeted enrichment sequencing offers an alternative approach for comprehensive resistome profiling. A panel targeting 2786 ARGs was applied to eight influent–effluent wastewater samples collected over one year from a large wastewater treatment plant in central Italy. Sequencing data were analysed at both the ARG and Antimicrobial Agent Categories (AACs) levels, and seasonal variation was explored using a ratio-based clustering approach. Overall, 743 ARGs were detected in both influents and effluents, with 84% of them. The resistome showed a strongly uneven structure, with a limited number of highly abundant ARGs accounting for ~60% of total abundance, while more than 500 genes were detected at ultra-low abundance. Thirty-five AACs were represented. Seasonal resistome profiles were generally stable, although winter samples showed a distinct enrichment pattern involving multiple ARGs, particularly tetracycline-associated ARGs. This structure was evident in influents becoming less defined in effluents. Targeted enrichment sequencing provided a broader view of the wastewater resistome, revealing a large pool of ARGs and seasonal patterns that would likely remain undetected using conventional PCR-based approaches.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080649

Authors: Magdalena Długosz-Lisiecka Agnieszka Adamus-Włodarczyk Aleksandra Zymni Teresa Jakubowska Kamil Biały Michał Biegała

This study primarily aimed to evaluate how the chemical form and carrier medium of radionuclide contamination influence the effectiveness of skin decontamination procedures. In addition, the study sought to identify decontamination strategies that align with recommended practices while reducing reliance on intensive mechanical cleaning methods. Although skin damage was not directly evaluated, the findings provide valuable information for improving the safety of decontamination procedures used by personnel handling radioactive materials and by emergency responders involved in radiological and CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) incidents. Accidental spills of radiopharmaceuticals in laboratories and medical facilities, as well as contamination associated with uranium mining, fuel-cycle operations, spent fuel management, and the decommissioning of nuclear facilities, may involve radioactive isotopes present in a variety of chemical forms and solutions. Fresh porcine skin was used as an experimental model, and skin temperature was maintained at 37 °C to simulate physiological conditions. Europium-152 (152Eu) was selected as the model radionuclide. Deionized water, concentrated nitric acid (HNO3), saturated sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, and ethanol were used as carrier media representing different chemical environments of 152Eu contamination. To simulate realistic contamination scenarios, contaminating solutions were allowed to dry on the skin surface before decontamination. The influence of contaminant chemistry, carrier medium, and drying conditions on radionuclide penetration and subsequent decontamination effectiveness was investigated. Particular attention was given to the extent to which different physicochemical forms of contamination affected radionuclide removal from the skin. The results demonstrated that the chemical form of the contaminant and the drying conditions were key factors determining decontamination efficiency. Among the tested methods, a decontamination kit consisting of a soap-based solution, the complexing agent DTPA, and an absorbent non-woven swab achieved the highest radionuclide removal efficiency. These findings indicate that successful radionuclide decontamination depends strongly on the physicochemical properties of the contaminant. The combined use of a complexing agent, detergent-based formulation, and absorbent material can significantly enhance radionuclide removal from contaminated skin surfaces. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of considering contaminant chemistry when developing effective and safe decontamination protocols for radiological and CBRN incidents.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080647

Authors: Yayun Zhang Fei Liu Hao Zhou Jingwen Chen Lei Jiang Changchun Yan Xiaodong Li Dingming Xue Jiangfei Wang

Chlorophenylacetonitriles are known as one of the emerging nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) in chlorinated drinking water due to their concerned cytotoxicity and genotoxicity compared to regulated carbonaceous DBPs. However, under low-dose exposure, the in vivo pathological consequences of chlorophenylacetonitriles remain largely unresolved. Here, C57BL/6J mice were exposed to 2-chlorophenylacetonitrile (2-CPAN) via drinking water (100 ug/L) for six months, and an integrated histopathological and genome-wide transcriptomic approach was employed to mechanistically characterize its multi-organ toxicological consequences. 2-CPAN ingestion significantly suppressed body weight (35.9 ± 2.0 g vs. 47.6 ± 11.6 g, p < 0.05) and induced severe gastroenteropathy—including gastric lamina propria inflammatory infiltration, intestinal villous blunting, crypt disorganization, transmural mononuclear infiltration, and abrogating epithelial barrier integrity. Intestinal barrier failure drove portal translocation of luminal PAMPs, potentially triggering splenic white pulp atrophy, red/white pulp boundary dissolution, and parenchymal changes consistent with fibrotic remodeling. Splenic RNA sequencing revealed a bipartite transcriptomic reprogramming: upregulated pathways were enriched in the ribosome, MAPK signaling, cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction, and chemokine signaling pathways. A proteotoxic stress module (Hspa1a, 9.4-fold; Hspa1b, 10.2-fold) and a chemokine effector hub (Ccl2, 3.43-fold; Ccl5, 2.9-fold; Ccl19, 2.58-fold; Ccl21a, 2.15-fold) were identified by the STRING network. Downregulated pathways converged on cell cycle suppression, with concurrent loss of Ccne1/Ccne2 and Cdc6 (G1/S block), Ccnb1 and Plk1 (G2/M arrest), and Rrm2/Tars3/TrnM (dNTP and aminoacyl-tRNA starvation), collectively forcing splenic lymphocytes into irreversible proliferative failure. These findings provide the first mechanistically resolved in vivo evidence that chronic 2-CPAN exposure drives a potential gut–spleen toxicological axis, underscoring the urgent need to incorporate organ endpoints by long-term exposure into N-DBP risk assessment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080648

Authors: Jodi Schilz Erica Dashner-Titus Karen Torczynski Laurie Hudson

Many metals in the environment are nephrotoxic. To better understand both similar and dissimilar responses to different metals, we compared RNA sequencing data from primary human proximal tubule epithelial kidney cells treated with arsenic, cadmium, vanadium, or uranium for 6 or 24 h. At 24 h post-treatment, arsenic- or cadmium-treated cells shared processes related to metal stress response and detoxification. Distinct characteristics of arsenic exposure included terms associated with membrane transport, immune/inflammatory signaling, and renal/urogenital development. This was in contrast to cadmium, where proteostasis and protein quality control were the dominant themes. Vanadium and uranium had limited overlaps with either arsenic or cadmium or one another. Response to vanadium revealed solute transport and stimulus detection as well as cell cycle/mitotic regulation and chromosome segregation. Uranium exposure was associated with RNA processing/splicing, proteostasis/ER stress and apoptotic signals, but there were fewer DEGs to define GO terms and themes. The results demonstrate that arsenic and cadmium initiate robust and partially overlapping transcriptional responses as early as 6 h, reflecting shared mechanisms of metal toxicity alongside individual metal-specific signatures. In contrast, uranium and vanadium elicit minimal early (6 h) transcriptional responses but develop more robust signatures by 24 h. These findings demonstrate that environmentally relevant metals act through both shared mechanistic pathways and distinct, metal-specific mechanisms. Understanding their individual and overlapping transcriptional mechanisms is critical for interpreting health risks associated with human exposure.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080646

Authors: Lei Chen Na Wang Qian Zhang Xinghua Zhang Zhihua Li Weidong Jing

Oxidative stress is a central mechanism underlying the toxicity of fine particulate matter (PM2.5); however, the source-specific chemical drivers of particle-associated oxidative potential remain incompletely understood. In this study, the oxidative potential (OP) of ambient PM2.5 in Xi’an was investigated during winter and summer using the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay, with particular emphasis on the toxicological roles of water-soluble metals and emission sources. PM2.5 exhibited significantly higher volume-normalized OP (DTTv) in winter, indicating an enhanced particle-associated oxidative stress burden during the heating period. Notably, although water-soluble metals accounted for only a minor fraction of PM2.5 mass, interpretable machine learning analysis (XGBoost–SHAP) identified potassium and manganese as dominant contributors to OP, highlighting the importance of biomass burning tracers and redox-active transition metals in particle-mediated reactive oxygen species generation. Source apportionment further revealed pronounced seasonal contrasts: dust sources contributed substantially to wintertime OP primarily due to their large mass loading, whereas traffic-related emissions dominated OP in summer owing to their high intrinsic oxidative toxicity. Overall, these findings suggest that variations in PM2.5 oxidative potential are more closely associated with chemical composition and source-specific oxidative activity than with particle mass alone, providing additional insight into the factors influencing PM-related health risks.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14080645

Authors: Beatriz C. Rocha Manuela D. Machado Eduardo V. Soares

This work aimed to evaluate the combined effects of an antibiotic (erythromycin, ERY) and an herbicide (metolachlor, MET), at environmentally relevant concentrations, on the physiology of the freshwater microalga Raphidocelis subcapitata. For this purpose, firstly, the alga was exposed to each toxic compound to determine the respective effect concentrations after 72 h (72h-EC values). Subsequently, the alga was exposed to mixtures composed of 72h-EC10, 72h-EC25, and 72h-EC50 values of each toxicant, and interaction analysis was conducted using the independent action (IA) model. Overall, the mixtures of ERY and MET inhibited algal growth synergistically. Regarding photosynthetic performance, exposure to the mixtures of toxicants, generally resulted in a reduction of the maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) (Fv/Fm), the effective photochemical yield of PSII (ΦPSII), and the electron transport rate (ETR). However, MET antagonizes the negative effects of ERY on photosynthesis, particularly at lower concentrations of the antibiotic (72h-EC10 and 72h-EC25). The exposure to ERY–MET mixtures resulted in an overall increase in photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and carotenoids), likely reflecting a compensatory response by the alga to counterbalance impaired photosynthetic function. Nonetheless, overall pigment analysis indicated an antagonistic interaction between the two toxicants, as the magnitude of this increase was lower than predicted by the IA model. The results presented here provide new insights into the toxicological interactions between ERY and MET in microalgae and contribute to addressing the critical knowledge gap regarding the ecotoxicity of pharmaceutical–herbicide mixtures in aquatic environments.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070644

Authors: Xiaotian Zhang Xiaoran Gong Shanshan Di Miaomiao Teng

Water pollution and its ecological consequences have become central concerns in watershed governance and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Conventional ecotoxicological research on water pollution has long relied on physicochemical monitoring, laboratory-based single-species exposure tests, and morphology-based biological surveys. Although these approaches have provided essential support for pollutant identification, toxicity characterization, and environmental standard setting, they remain insufficient for resolving community-level responses, food-web perturbations, and ecosystem degradation under multiple-stressor conditions. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a promising molecular tool because it is non-invasive, highly sensitive, high-throughput, and capable of detecting multiple taxa simultaneously. In aquatic systems, eDNA applications have expanded from biodiversity detection to pollution diagnosis, ecological health assessment, restoration monitoring, and early warning of ecological risk, while increasingly being integrated with eRNA, multi-omics approaches, machine learning, hydrological modeling, and ecological network analysis. However, several challenges still constrain its broader application, including incomplete methodological standardization, false-positive and false-negative detections, insufficient reference databases, limited quantitative capacity, scale mismatches caused by transport and mixing, and difficulties in causal attribution. This review synthesizes recent progress in the use of eDNA for water-pollution research, with emphasis on its technical workflow, major application domains, integrative analytical frameworks, and methodological boundaries. More specifically, three main points are highlighted: (1) eDNA is shifting water-pollution research from single-species toxicity characterization toward community- and ecosystem-level ecological interpretation; (2) its greatest value lies in its integrative role at the interface of biodiversity monitoring, ecological risk assessment, and management-oriented decision support; and (3) future progress will depend on improvements in standardization, quantitative inference, regional reference databases, and multi-source data integration. Overall, this review clarifies how eDNA can contribute to more robust, ecologically meaningful, and management-relevant assessment of water pollution.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070643

Authors: Thanawat Komonnithiphong Kotchakorn Khammoon Sakaewan Ounjaijean Kongsak Boonyapranai Hataichanok Chuljerm Kanokwan Kulprachakarn Wiritphon Khiaolaongam Anurak Wongta Surat Hongsibsong Sawaeng Kawichai

Barbecue (Moo Kratha) restaurants are prevalent in Chiang Mai City, Thailand. However, their PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions, compounded by the region’s severe seasonal smoke haze, remain poorly characterized. This study investigated the chemical composition and carcinogenic risk of PM2.5-bound PAHs in this present environment. Ten PM2.5 samples were collected from ten charcoal Moo Kratha restaurants during peak evening hours in February 2026 (early dry season) using a portable air sampler operated as a fixed-location (area) sampler positioned at the customer dining table (2 L min−1, 180 min) on quartz fiber filters, and the 16 US EPA priority PAHs were analyzed by GC-MS. Carcinogenic risk was assessed using benzo[a]pyrene toxicity equivalent (TEQBaP) concentrations and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for adult and child customers (diners) via the inhalation pathway. The mean concentrations of PM2.5 and total PAHs were 87.64 µg m−3 and 132.74 ng m−3, respectively, with carcinogenic PAHs contributing 52.3%; the mean TEQBaP of 15.34 ng m−3 provides an internal index of the carcinogenic potency of the PAH mixture. The mean inhalation ILCR for a frequent diner was 2.82 × 10−5 for adults and 2.12 × 10−5 for children, rising to 6.16 × 10−5 and 4.62 × 10−5, respectively, at the most contaminated site; even an occasional (monthly) diner exceeded the 10−6 negligible threshold. These findings indicate that charcoal Moo Kratha restaurants are distinct, persistent sources of carcinogenic PAHs that place diners within the upper part of the tolerable cancer-risk range; worker exposure is expected to be higher but was not quantified here, underlining the need for ventilation and occupational-health strategies.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070642

Authors: Laura Botto Mario Mauri Simone Serrao Alessandra Bulbarelli Elena Lonati Emanuela Cazzaniga Edoardo Ratti Giuseppe Paglia Paola Palestini

The overlap between the geographic distribution of COVID-19 outbreaks and pollution levels suggested a strong correlation between exposure to atmospheric particulate matter and an increased risk of developing severe forms of disease. This correlation has been highlighted by several epidemiological studies, indicating the existence of shared molecular mechanisms. Emerging evidence has highlighted the important role of lipid rafts in facilitating viral entry into cells. Specifically, the receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein interacts with sialylated glycans of the monosialic ganglioside GM1 and GM2 that are particularly enriched in lipid rafts. This interaction has been proposed to facilitate ACE2 recognition by the spike protein and may contribute to early events involved in viral attachment and entry. Here, we reveal that A549 alveolar lung cells, after DEP exposure, exhibit a significant shift in ACE2 into lipid rafts, accompanied by an increase in the immature form of ADAM17, the sheddase responsible for ACE2 cleavage. Additionally, DEP exposure results in a significant increase in IL-6 release, while no changes were observed in IL-8 and sACE2 release. This treatment does not cause significant alterations in protein levels or membrane redistribution of COX-2 and HO-1, proteins involved in the inflammatory response and oxidative stress following exposure to air pollution, and linked to COVID-19 pathogenesis. Finally, lipidomic analysis by UHPLC-MS revealed that DEP exposure induces a significant increase in GM2 levels, and a concomitant decrease in GM1 and GM3 levels. Together, these results indicate that DEP exposure remodels lipid raft-associated molecular features in A549 cells, including ACE2 membrane redistribution, altered ganglioside composition, and increased IL-6 release. Although these changes may be relevant to cellular mechanisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility, the present study does not directly assess viral binding, viral entry, or infection, and further functional studies are required.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070641

Authors: Xiaoxiao Chen Chiqun Shan Yiming Ge Yuli Lin Bo Fu Canrong Zheng Yuhua Huang Shaoyou Lu

Neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) are widely used neuroactive pesticides, but biomonitoring evidence among older adults remains limited. This multicenter cross-sectional study characterized urinary exposure profiles of NEOs and their metabolites among 419 older adults from South China. Ten urinary NEO biomarkers, including six parent compounds and four metabolites, were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. NEOs were frequently detected in urine samples; except for thiacloprid and acetamiprid, with detection frequencies of 81.67% and 65.48%, respectively, all other compounds were detected in more than 90% of participants. Among the parent NEOs, clothianidin had the highest median concentration (1.402 μg/L), followed by dinotefuran (1.240 μg/L) and thiamethoxam (0.888 μg/L). The main metabolite was N-desmethyl-acetamiprid (1.643 μg/L). Looking at the overall composition, dinotefuran, clothianidin, thiamethoxam, and N-desmethyl-acetamiprid were the biggest contributors to the total urinary NEO burden, though their shares varied by region and recruitment center. Correlation analysis pointed to common co-exposure patterns, especially between thiamethoxam and clothianidin, and between imidacloprid and its metabolites. In exploratory analyses, N-desmethyl-thiamethoxam showed a positive correlation pattern, with significant positive correlations with glucose, glycated hemoglobin, triglycerides, and alanine aminotransferase (all q < 0.01). CLO was positively correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (q < 0.05). These findings indicate widespread co-exposure to multiple NEOs among older adults in South China and highlight the need for longitudinal studies to clarify exposure sources, temporal variability, and potential health implications.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070640

Authors: Aurelia Nechifor Paul Albu Alexandra Grosu Geani-Teodor Man Vlad-Alexandru Grosu

Among the micropollutants of medium-depth waters in isolated inhabited areas, the inorganic ones deserve special attention: nitrate anion (NO3−) and phosphate anions (HxPO4−(3−x)). The individual removal of these anions from water is widely studied, with different methods being found: chemical, ion exchange, or biological. This paper presents a membrane method for the simultaneous removal of nitrate anion and phosphate anions from dilute synthetic aqueous solutions. The developed method is nanofiltration using composite membranes made of cellulose acetate (CA) and silver nanoparticles (Agnp). The composite membranes were made by phase inversion of the dimethylformamide (DMF) solution containing the two components (CA–Agnp) on a polypropylene (PP) capillary fiber using deionized water as a coagulant. The DMF solution of CA containing Agnp was obtained by dissolving black-and-white cinematographic films (exposed and unexposed to light). CA–Agnp–PP composite membranes were tested for the simultaneous removal of nitrate anion and phosphate anions from aqueous solution by nanofiltration at pressures ranging from 5 to 25 bars. A removal of over 98% of phosphate anions and more than 95% of nitrate anions was achieved. Fluxes of 10 L·m−2·h−1 were obtained for the working pressure of 15 atm, depending on the pH, flow rate, and concentration of the feed water. The variable parameters considered were also the concentrations of CA and Agnp.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070639

Authors: Ruo Chen Jie Chen Junyan Tao Wei Huang

2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid (PBSA) is a commonly used organic ultraviolet (UV) filter frequently found in aquatic environments, raising substantial ecological health concerns. While some toxic effects of PBSA on aquatic organisms have been reported, its intergenerational developmental and neurotoxic risks remain poorly understood. In this study, we established a zebrafish life-cycle exposure model to explore the intergenerational toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of PBSA (0.2, 2, and 20 μg/L). Offspring were categorized into three exposure groups: parental exposure only (F0+/F1−), parental exposure with continuous F1 exposure (F0+/F1+), and only F1 exposure without parental treatment (F0−/F1+). Our findings demonstrate the transfer of PBSA from parental gonads to F1 embryos. Parental lifetime exposure significantly inhibited somitogenesis and increased mortality and malformation rates in the F1 generation, with the most pronounced developmental damage observed in the F0+/F1+ group. Whole-mount immunohistochemistry revealed that PBSA notably reduced motor neuron axon length in F1 larvae, accompanied by downregulation of developmental-related genes including gap43, mbp, and shha. Mechanistically, the F0+/F1− group exhibited a marked increase in MDA levels. Excessive ROS accumulation and reduced CAT activity were specifically observed in the F0+/F1+ group, whereas the F0+/F1− and F0−/F1+ groups showed significantly elevated CAT activity, jointly driving developmental and neurotoxic changes. In silico predictions indicated low acute aquatic toxicity of PBSA, contradicting its observed intergenerational risks. Our findings demonstrate that parental lifetime PBSA exposure can induce significant intergenerational neurodevelopmental toxicity in zebrafish offspring by disrupting oxidative balance and neural gene expression, with continuous offspring exposure further aggravating the adverse effects. This research underscores that traditional single-generation toxicity assessments underestimate the ecological dangers of UV filters. It also offers new insights into the environmental risk evaluation of PBSA and similar emerging contaminants.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070638

Authors: Crinela Dumitrescu Claudia Stihi Roxana Elena Ionete Elisabeta-Irina Geană Corina Teodora Ciucure Petre Brețcan

Groundwater is a vital resource for drinking water supply, agriculture, and industrial activities. However, contamination by organic pollutants may pose significant threats to both ecosystem integrity and human health. This study assessed the environmental and human health risks associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in groundwater collected from 27 localities in the central–northeastern Romanian Plain. The concentrations of naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection. Benzo[a]pyrene concentrations ranged from <LOD to 0.08 ng/L, while total concentrations varied between 2.56 to 11.2 ng/L. The environmental risk associated with groundwater contamination was classified as low to moderate, with total risk coefficients ranged from 0.2 to 2.3. Potential contamination sources were identified using the diagnostic ratio method, complemented by multivariate statistical analysis, indicating predominantly pyrogenic and mixed pyrogenic–petrogenic sources. Human health risk assessment indicated that groundwater ingestion posed neither non-carcinogenic risks (Hazard Index, HI < 1) nor unacceptable carcinogenic risks. The Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values ranged from 5.7 × 10−9 to 2.2 × 10−8 for infants, 2.7 × 10−9 to 1.0 × 10−8 for children, and 1.5 × 10−9 to 6.1 × 10−9 for adults.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070637

Authors: Yinglu Tao Wenjun Xie Lei Xu Cailing Shi Xiangrui Wang Gaoqi Li Chufei Yu

The widespread occurrence of antibiotics in the environment threatens public health and ecosystem safety. This review summarizes the global occurrence of antibiotic contamination across the different environmental media, i.e., water systems, solid wastes, and soils, and provides a comprehensive analysis of physical, chemical, and biological removal methods, including their mechanisms, application advantages and disadvantages. It is deduced that physical methods aid in antibiotic enrichment, which leads to residual accumulation and fails to achieve complete degradation. In comparison, chemical methods are more efficient and rapid, but they are largely limited by high costs and secondary pollution. Biological methods, despite being appealing due to their low costs and environmental friendliness, may generate and spread antibiotic-resistant bacteria. To overcome the disadvantages of these conventional treatment methods, this review emphasizes the significant potential of integrated antibiotic removal systems, such as coupled advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), physical methods combined with AOPs and chemical methods combined with biological methods, which could achieve superior treatment performance. Future research should focus on optimizing and simplifying coupled systems and developing innovative treatment methods to enhance removal efficiency, reduce operational costs, and minimize secondary toxicity, thereby enabling effective antibiotic pollution remediation. This review summarizes the global state of antibiotic residues and stresses the importance of combined treatment methods for enhancing antibiotic degradation and removal, providing the valuable insights for green and efficient antibiotic treatment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070635

Authors: Siqi Xu Yiyong Xu Yufei Yang Qifei Huang Qingqi Die

Long-term open-air storage of coal gangue (CG) can generate leachates containing oxidizable components contributing to chemical oxygen demand (COD), together with sulfate (SO42−) and fluoride (F−), yet their source-term behavior remains poorly understood. In this study, batch and column leaching tests were conducted on multi-source CG samples and combined with ToF-SIMS (surface compositional mapping), solid-phase TOC gradient leaching, and PHREEQC-XGBoost-SHAP modeling (coupled geochemical–machine learning analysis). Batch-leachate COD levels ranged from 4.6 to 68.0 mg/L, while SO42− and F− concentrations reached maxima of approximately 317 and 1.29 mg/L, respectively. During column leaching, COD levels and SO42− concentrations were highest at low liquid-to-solid ratios (L/S) and subsequently decreased, with maximum initial values of 186.6 and 3074 mg/L, respectively, whereas F− exhibited delayed and persistent release at approximately 0.3–2.3 mg/L. Solid-phase TOC did not directly predict the COD response, and ToF-SIMS revealed aliphatic organic fragments associated with aluminosilicate surfaces that weakened or were redistributed after leaching. The COD–DOC discrepancy further indicated that dissolved organic matter alone could not fully explain the COD response, although the possible contribution of inorganic reducing species requires direct verification. Within the modeled framework, the sulfate source-term coefficient accounted for 69.4–76.9% of the modeled influence at L/S = 0.5–2.0 L/kg, while the influence of the HFO surface complexation increased during later leaching. In contrast, the F− source-term coefficient remained dominant over L/S = 0.5–10.0 L/kg, accounting for 97.0–97.9% of the modeled influence. These findings support parameter- and stage-specific monitoring and pollution control at CG disposal sites.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070636

Authors: Xun Pan Rukun Cao Mengxue Ge Mengqi Dong Weiwei Ben

As a widely adopted approach for the resource utilization of pig manure, the ability of composting to reduce risk pollutants such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has gained significant attention. Temperature plays a pivotal role in determining the effectiveness of composting, with the maximum composting temperature and duration of high temperature being key indicators of compost quality. This study investigated the influences of adjusting the thermophilic stage on the dynamics of ARGs during pig manure composting. The results revealed that the adjustment strategies of thermophilic stage controls (i.e., prolonging the duration of the thermophilic stage or raising the maximum temperature) slightly promoted the absolute abundance of total ARGs by 0.72–0.99 logs, whereas their relative abundance was notably reduced by 49.7~64.1%. Some ARGs (i.e., tetW, tetO, tetM, fexA, fexB, ermA, and ermB) could be effectively removed by the composting, whereas sulI, sulII, aadA, and tetL enriched the horizontal gene transfer and diversified the potential bacterial hosts. The variations of ARG profiles and the succession of bacterial communities could be divided into two stages, which coincided with the organic carbon (OC) content (82%). The nutrient factors, especially the OC content, were strongly relative to several ARGs, implying that the organic nutrient could be an important driving force in shaping ARG distribution, potentially by influencing bacterial community succession. Three potential opportunistic pathogens (Mycobacterium, Bordetella and Bacillus) exhibited positive correlations with enriched ARGs, highlighting the potential risks of the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant pathogens though the application of compost products.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070634

Authors: Umberto Cornelli Claudio Casella

Human biological matrices such as blood, placenta, lung tissue, and stool have been demonstrated to contain microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), indicating systemic dispersion and long-term environmental exposure. According to novel experimental findings, these xenobiotics may interact with pathways that overlap with the early pathophysiology of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, potentially serving as metabolic disruptors. High levels of MP/NP exposure are thought to alter intestinal permeability structurally, which may have an impact on enteroendocrine L-cell environments and the ensuing incretin responses. In animal studies, downstream effects include altered bile acid balance and microbiome remodelling, which is defined by a decrease in taxa that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These xenobiotics’ portal translocation provides a plausible mechanism for subclinical hepatic inflammation, which may function in tandem with conventional risk factors to disrupt normal metabolic signalling. We consider the translational theory of “MP drainage” as a conceptual approach to lower intestinal particle bioavailability in order to address these theoretical interactions. Nevertheless, its long-term safety, metabolic advantages, and therapeutic effectiveness are yet unknown and require further confirmation. This perspective provides a framework for creating hypotheses that will direct future experimental and epidemiological studies in environmental metabolic toxicity.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070633

Authors: Grzegorz Nałęcz-Jawecki Marta Kozak Joanna Giebułtowicz Milena Wawryniuk Agata Drobniewska

Buspirone is an anxiolytic drug used for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Even though it was patented 50 years ago, it is still among the top three most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety medications in the US. Its fate in the environment and ecotoxic effects have not yet been assessed. In this study, the direct and indirect (with humic acids) photodegradation of buspirone was assessed using the SunTest CPS+ sunlight simulator in two radiation ranges: 280–800 nm and 290–800 nm. The concentration of buspirone and the formation of photoproducts were assessed using liquid chromatography with a diode array and mass spectrometry detector. Toxicity was assessed using biotests with luminescent bacteria and protozoan Spirostomum ambiguum, as well as in silico analyses on daphnia, fish, and protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis. Buspirone was degraded by sunlight. Expanding the radiation range from 290 to 280 nm accelerated degradation. Humic acids, however, had no effect in either case. The structures of 24 phototransformation products have been proposed. Neither buspirone nor most of its photodegradation products were toxic. Only two derivatives had a calculated 96h-LC50 value for fish below 1 mg L−1. The obtained results indicate a low environmental risk of buspirone.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070632

Authors: Alberto Angioni Mattia Casula Virgilio Stillittano Francesco Corrias

Background: Copper is a trace element involved in key physiological and biochemical processes in humans, animals, and plants, and its homeostasis is tightly regulated. However, excessive exposure may cause adverse health and environmental effects. Copper-based plant protection products contribute to dietary exposure to copper and remain indispensable for the control of several crop diseases. Methods: This review summarizes the current state scientific and regulatory evidence on agricultural copper, identifies major knowledge gaps, and discusses strategies to support its sustainable use. A structured literature review was conducted using the PECO framework to define eligibility criteria, while key principles of the PRISMA 2020 statement were applied to improve the transparency of study identification and selection. Results: The available evidence confirms the dual role of copper as an essential micronutrient and a potentially toxic element, with adverse effects depending on exposure level, chemical form, bioavailability, and physiological status. Although copper remains an effective agricultural tool, long-term use may promote soil accumulation and environmental impacts. Current environmental risk assessment frameworks, originally developed for organic chemicals, do not fully account for the environmental behavior of inorganic metals. The review also examines copper occurrence, biological functions, agricultural uses, environmental fate, toxicity, and regulatory frameworks. Conclusions: Sustainable copper use requires balancing crop protection benefits with human health and environmental protection. Dietary exposure from authorized copper-based PPPs is generally considered negligible according to current EFSA PRIMo assessments, whereas occupational exposure and environmental accumulation remain important concerns. Future environmental risk assessment frameworks should better account for the environmental fate, natural background concentrations, bioavailability, and speciation of inorganic metals such as copper, thereby improving the scientific basis of regulatory decision-making.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070629

Authors: Huizi Yuan Ziyan Chen Weicheng Zhao Mingyang Li Yinghong Wang Xingru Li Fangkun Wu

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), extensively employed as flame retardants and plasticizers, have emerged as ubiquitous contaminants in indoor environments following the phase-out of brominated flame retardants. However, the occurrence patterns, source characteristics, and exposure implications of emerging OPE congeners across diverse urban indoor microenvironments remain inadequately elucidated. In this study, twenty-eight OPE congeners were quantified in settled dust collected from eight representative indoor microenvironments and one outdoor reference site in Beijing, China. Total OPE concentrations exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, ranging from 8.46 to 42.60 mg kg−1, with the highest levels observed in subway stations and laboratories. Non-halogenated OPEs dominated the contamination profile, accounting for 80.7% of the total OPEs, whereas Tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP), 2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP), Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) collectively contributed 85.1% of the overall burden. Correlation analysis and positive matrix factorization revealed that indoor OPE contamination was primarily associated with emissions from building materials, polymer-containing consumer products, furniture, and electronic equipment. Transformation-associated compounds such as Bis(2-butoxyethyl) hydroxyethyl phosphate (BBOEHEP) were detected in indoor dust, pointing to the plausible presence of OPE transformation processes in such enclosed settings. Exposure assessment demonstrated that dust ingestion accounted for over 98% of total OPE intake, resulting in substantially higher exposure levels in children than in adults. Although estimated non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks remained below established health-based thresholds, exposure was disproportionately driven by a limited number of congeners, particularly EHDPP, TCIPP, TCEP, and TEHP. These findings highlight the growing contribution of replacement OPEs to indoor chemical burdens and underscore the importance of incorporating transformation products and indoor aging processes into future exposure and risk assessments frameworks.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070631

Authors: Semyon M. Tyan Irina B. Ivshina

Meloxicam, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, is commonly used as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug in both human and veterinary medicine. Owing to its heterocyclic structure, toxicity to invertebrates, vertebrates, and microorganisms, and potential to biomagnify through the food webs, meloxicam persists in the environment and poses a risk to ecological health. There is still a paucity of information on meloxicam as a pharmaceutical contaminant. It is not included in priority lists, which means its environmental risk is often underestimated. This paper provides an integrative overview of the currently available literature (2009–2026) on the environmental occurrences, ecotoxicity, transport pathways, and removal strategies of meloxicam. The distribution of meloxicam has been most extensively studied in aquatic environments, whereas information on soils, plants, and terrestrial fauna remains limited. Bioaugmentation is the most promising strategy for reducing ecotoxicological risk, although its effectiveness against meloxicam has so far been confirmed only in a few model systems. The evidence presented here underscores the importance of strict regulation of meloxicam use and routine environmental monitoring. We hope this review will be useful to ecologists, microbiologists, and regulatory agencies developing strategies to mitigate pharmaceutical contamination.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070630

Authors: Zhe Wu Guocheng Hu Yunhui Li Dayong Wang

As an emergent contaminant, 6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) causes toxic effects in organisms, including induction of immunosuppression. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) serves as an important cofactor for some metabolisms. We aimed to examine the role of thiamine pyrophosphokinase TPK-1 in modulating 6-PPD-induced immunosuppression. Using Caenorhabditis elegans as the animal model, 6-PPDQ-exposure treatment was applied to nematodes from the L1 larval stage to adult day 3, and innate immune response was assessed by the expression of antimicrobial genes. In nematodes, 6-PPDQ (1–10 μg/L) elevated TPP content, which was due to an increase in the expression of tpk-1, and RNAi of tpk-1 could block 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Meanwhile, RNAi of tpk-1 strengthened expressions of mitochondrial UPR (mt UPR) marker genes (hsp-6 and hsp-60) by activating three transcription factor (TF) genes (atfs-1, ubl-5, and dve-1) in 6-PPDQ-exposed nematodes. RNAi of mitochondrial UPR marker genes and three TF genes aggravated 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. TPK-1 acted upstream of these three TF genes to modulate 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Moreover, RNAi of tpk-1 inhibited the expression of complex III/IV subunit genes, and RNAi of these complex III/IV subunit genes conferred resistance to 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Additionally, these complex III/IV subunit genes functioned upstream of TF genes (atfs-1, ubl-5, and dve-1) to regulate 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression. Therefore, our data provide a novel basis for 6-PPDQ-induced immunosuppression mediated by activation of TPK-1 and the following mt UPR suppression.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070628

Authors: Lulu Yan Jiaqi Su Changbo Zhu

Nanoplastic particles are increasingly detected in aquatic environments, yet whether cellular stress responses persist after exposure cessation remains unclear. Here, Lateolabrax maculatus rostral (LMR) cells from spotted sea bass were continuously exposed for up to 30 passages (105 days) to nominal 20 nm carboxylated fluorescent polystyrene particles (20 μg/mL), followed by 10 particle-free passages (recovery). Long-term exposure was associated with reduced proliferation and pronounced changes in cell surface morphology and ultrastructure. Although NP-associated fluorescence became undetectable during recovery, several nuclear-associated alterations persisted throughout the 10-passage recovery period, including TEM-observed nuclear-envelope alterations, filamentous actin (F-actin) reorganization, and sustained elevation of phosphorylated H2AX (γ-H2AX) foci. Several nuclear pore complex (NPC) genes were downregulated during exposure and rebounded after particle removal, whereas the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic distribution of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) remained shifted. Together, these findings indicate that prolonged exposure to this nanoscale polystyrene particle formulation was associated with nuclear stress responses that did not fully resolve within the 10-passage recovery window in fish cells. Because bulk-polymer and chemical-extract (leachate) controls were not included, nanoscale-specific effects cannot be distinguished from contributions of polymer chemistry, surface functionalization, fluorescent dye, or other formulation-related effects.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070627

Authors: Zhitao Tang Rongkui Su Chuansheng Chen Yiting Luo Mingli Chen Shunhong Huang Xiancheng Ma

Antibiotic residues pose a serious threat to environmental safety. In this study, nitrogen/boron co-doped biochar (NBLB) was successfully prepared using lignosulfonate, an industrial byproduct, as the precursor via a one-step impregnation–pyrolysis method. NBLB was applied to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade tetracycline (TC) in water. The results showed that NBLB-activated PMS degraded 93.4% of TC within 60 min, which was 42.6%, 20.4%, and 27.8% higher than those of undoped biochar, nitrogen-doped biochar, and boron-doped biochar, respectively. Additionally, the NBLB/PMS system exhibited high tolerance to common aqueous anions such as Cl−, CO32−, PO43−, NO3− and SO42−. BET tests indicated that the specific surface areas of undoped, N-doped, B-doped, and NBLB were 133.98, 280.22, 304.13, and 342.35 m2 g−1, respectively, exhibiting a significant enhancement in the specific surface area of NBLB. The co-doping of N and B constructed a hierarchical pore structure, providing an efficient dispersion platform for active sites such as C=O, BC2O, and pyridinic-N. Quenching experiments and EPR detection demonstrated that the degradation of tetracycline (TC) in the NBLB/PMS system followed a synergistic oxidation mechanism dominated by 1O2 and O2•−, supplemented by •OH and SO4•−. This study prepared high-performance nonmetallic catalysts through a solid waste resource utilization strategy, providing a green and feasible path for the treatment of antibiotic pollution.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070626

Authors: Sara Damiano Francesca Paola Nocera Consiglia Longobardi Valeria Iervolino Carlo Romei Angela Amoresano Carolina Fontanarosa Gennaro Battaglia Rossana Schena Annunziata Romano Nadia Piscopo Antonio Raffaele Giuseppe Rizzo Serena Montagnaro Roberto Ciarcia

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are reliable bioindicator species for assessing environmental pollution. In this pilot study, we measured concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) in liver, diaphragm, and testicular tissues from wild boars collected across seven districts of Avellino province (liver/diaphragm: n = 87; testicles: n = 50). Pb reached its highest median value in the diaphragm (0.43 mg/kg w.w.; maximum 14.80 mg/kg), while Cd showed a pronounced affinity for hepatic tissue (median 0.15 mg/kg; maximum 0.62 mg/kg). Zn was the most abundant element overall, particularly in the diaphragm (median 20.51 mg/kg; maximum 46.81 mg/kg). Se concentrations were generally below the detection limit (<0.001 mg/kg), with only occasional outliers. Sex-related differences were evident: males accumulated more Pb in the liver, while females had higher levels of Cd and As. Spatial patterns identified AVMFS009 and AVAR009 as hotspots for Cu, Zn, and Cd, while AVCP003 emerged as the main hotspot for As. Overall, the results reinforce the role of wild boars as effective bioindicators in southern Italy.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070625

Authors: Ming-Ye Hu Xiang-Yu Hou Xiao Huang Xue-Lu Yu Fang Liu Ji-Shun Yang

Exposure to diverse naturally occurring biotoxins—originating from fungal, plant, and algal sources—poses a severe and escalating threat to global public health. The liver, due to its pivotal role in toxin metabolism, faces an increased risk of injury from toxin accumulation. Although extensive research has been conducted on toxin-induced hepatic injury, the heterogeneity of oxidative stress mechanisms across different injury phenotypes (such as necrosis, steatosis, and fibrosis) remains poorly understood. This review systematically addresses this gap by establishing oxidative stress as the central, convergent mechanism underlying biotoxin-induced liver injury. By critically comparing representative toxins, we examine the role of oxidative stress in various biotoxin-induced hepatic injury phenotypes and their underlying molecular mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss the specific involvement of interconnected signaling cascades—specifically the Nrf2, NF-κB and MAPK pathways—in orchestrating different modes of cell death (including apoptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis), and summarize antagonistic strategies for biotoxin-induced hepatic injury from an oxidative stress perspective, highlighting their translational potential and providing a robust rationale for developing broad-spectrum, redox-targeted therapies.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070624

Authors: Jia Xu Ting Wang Tingting Ku

Air pollution has been widely recognized as a major environmental risk factor for human morbidity and mortality [...]

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070623

Authors: Jingyu Zhao Yingnan An Jiankai Shi Libing Ma Xiaoying He Ying Liu Chuncheng Liu

The effects of scandium on skeletal muscle cells remain poorly understood. This study aims to determine whether scandium chloride (ScCl3) affects C2C12 myoblast proliferation, and the cellular responses were assessed using CCK-8, flow cytometry, RNA-seq, and bioinformatic analyses after treatment with 0.01 mM and 1 mM ScCl3. We verified that 1 mM ScCl3 significantly promoted cell proliferation by inducing the G1/S phase transition, while the low concentration had no significant effect. However, GO enrichment analysis failed to capture proliferation-related terms among the top 20 ranked terms. To address this, we grouped genes based on their expression patterns and combined transcription factor activity inference with Hallmark pathway enrichment. This strategy identified distinct functional modules responsive to scandium, involving mitosis, myogenesis, and metabolism, with key regulators including Foxo1, Rela, and myogenic transcription factors. Collectively, our findings suggest that scandium may exert regulatory effects on myoblast proliferation and modulate genes involved in differentiation and metabolism by coordinating multiple functional modules.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070622

Authors: Yuanyuan Yu Sujuan Hou Yifei Li Yajuan Wang Qisijing Liu Qirong Zhang Shijun Ni Chen Li Liqiong Guo Cha Han

Background: Previous studies have explored the association between ambient ozone (O3) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). However, little is known about the association of O3 with different GDM clinical classifications—diet-controlled GDM (GDMA1) and insulin-treated GDM (GDMA2), and whether temperature modifies the associations. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study including 11,491 pregnant women between 2017 and 2023 in Tianjin, China. O3 exposure levels for each participant were assessed using the Tracking Air Pollution in China dataset. Logistic regression models were employed to analyze the associations of trimester-specific O3 exposure with GDMA1 and GDMA2. Distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM) was used to identify potential critical gestational weeks of O3 exposure. Ambient temperature was categorized using the 10th and 90th percentiles to evaluate the effect modification of extreme temperatures on these associations. Results: No statistically significant association was observed in the fully adjusted trimester-specific models. In the weekly-specific DLNM analyses, we observed 5–12 weeks before pregnancy and 26–28 gestational weeks as sensitive windows where O3 exposure was weakly associated with elevated GDMA1 risk, and 11–25 gestational weeks for GDMA2. Each 10 μg/m3 increase in O3 during pregnancy was associated with small increases in the odds of GDMA1 (28 weeks: OR = 1.019, 95% CI: 1.002, 1.035) and GDMA2 (25 weeks: OR = 1.018, 95% CI: 1.002, 1.035). High temperatures appeared to strengthen the observed association between preconception O3 exposure and GDMA1. Additionally, O3 exposure during pregnancy may increase the risk of GDMA1 among women aged <35 years, preconception obesity, gestational hypertension, and family history of diabetes. Conclusions: This study suggests possible weak weekly-specific associations between O3 exposure and GDM classifications and indicates that ambient high temperature may modify the O3-GDM association. These findings should be interpreted cautiously and require confirmation in future studies.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070621

Authors: Ahmed A. A. Aioub Ahmed Fayez Omar Ahmed S. Hashem Hosny Kesba Sherif El-Ganainy Wael Elmenofy Mohamed El-Mogy Mostafa Almaghaslah Mustafa Shukry Zhang Lijun Qichun Zhang Sarah I. Z. Abdel Wahab

Glyphosate (GLY), one of the most extensively applied broad-spectrum herbicides worldwide, frequently contaminates soil and aquatic ecosystems, posing serious threats to human health, non-target organisms, soil microbial communities, and environmental sustainability. In the present study, phytoremediation using Medicago sativa (MS) was evaluated for the removal of GLY from contaminated soil under greenhouse conditions, with remediation efficiency enhanced through inoculation with two bacterial bioagents, Bacillus sp. h10 (BS) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa KZFS4 (PA). Biochemical parameters, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and malondialdehyde (MDA), together with detoxification-related gene expression, were investigated in the roots and leaves of MS exposed to GLY stress. The combined application of MS with BS + PA, followed by MS + PA and MS + BS, significantly decreased GLY residues in soil and increased GLY accumulation in plant roots and leaves after 1, 3, 7, and 10 days compared with MS treatment alone. In vitro batch equilibrium experiments demonstrated that BS and PA desorbed 33.63 and 40.56 µg g−1 of GLY, respectively, thereby enhancing its removal from soil. The persistence of GLY was highest in contaminated soil without treatment, exhibiting a half-life (t1/2) of 52.66 days, whereas the shortest half-life (6.69 days) was recorded in soil treated with MS combined with BS and PA relative to sterilized contaminated soil. Furthermore, inoculation with BS and PA markedly increased SOD and CAT activities in MS tissues, while significantly reducing H2O2 and MDA accumulation, indicating alleviation of oxidative stress. GLY exposure also triggered substantial upregulation of detoxification-associated genes, including cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferases (GST), glycosyltransferases (GTs), and ABC transporters in MS. These findings demonstrate that the integration of BS and PA with phytoremediation effectively accelerates GLY dissipation and reduces pesticide-associated toxicity in contaminated soils and plants.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070620

Authors: Yi-Tzai Chen Rui Qi Jian Ma Ang Cai Bongsup P. Cho Deyu Li

DNA sequence context plays a critical role in modulating the mutational effects of DNA damage. Here, we investigated how base identity influences the replication bypass and mutagenicity of a site-specific dG-AAF (2-acetylaminofluorene) bulky adduct in the well-defined AG*N and TG*N sequence contexts. By selecting adenine and thymine as 5′-flanking bases and systematically varying the 3′-base, we established a controlled system to examine sequence-dependent lesion replication. We found that the 5′-flanking base strongly affects the bypass profile, with AG*N sequences exhibiting uniformly low bypass (≤9.7%) and TG*N sequences showing markedly elevated bypass (23.6–50.4%) with strong sequence dependence. These differences may arise from the structure of the dG-AAF, whose conformation heterogeneities are sensitive to the flanking sequence context. In contrast, mutagenicity remains consistently low across all sequences examined, with a low frequency of point mutations and no detectable frameshift events. These results reveal a clear decoupling between lesion bypass efficiency and replication fidelity, where sequence context strongly controls lesion tolerance but has limited impact on mutagenicity. In total, our findings demonstrate that DNA sequence affects lesion processing, providing insights into how local sequence context shapes genome stability and mutational processes.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070619

Authors: Wenkai Wang Pengfei Che Jinjin Wang Yue Rao Jian Luo Jianbin Chen Junxi Wang Yanchang Kun

The Anning River, traversing the mineral-rich Panxi region, is highly susceptible to contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs). This study systematically investigated the contamination profiles, source apportionment, and probabilistic human health risks of eight PTEs in the surface sediments of the basin. Index-based evaluations revealed that Cd acts as the dominant ecological threat, exhibiting extreme enrichment, whereas V, Cr, and Ni reflect natural background signatures. Receptor modeling via Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) successfully decoupled four distinct sources: mining and smelting emissions (Cd, Zn), natural lithogenic weathering (V, Cr, Ni), mixed traffic/urban inputs (Pb, Cu), and a Tl-specific mixed source. Crucially, while deterministic approaches suggested safe exposure levels, probabilistic Monte Carlo simulations uncovered hidden vulnerabilities: children face a striking 60.51% probability of exceeding the acceptable total carcinogenic risk (TCR) threshold of 1.0 × 10−4, primarily governed by Cr and Ni. These findings underscore the urgent need for differentiated environmental management in similar mining-impacted basins. Specifically, stringent source controls for Cd must be implemented alongside exposure pathway interruptions to safeguard vulnerable demographics from Cr and Ni.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070618

Authors: Jiani Zhang Yangmei Fei Shu Huang Yang Li Yujiao Cui Jiahong Li Shuo Li Xiaotong Wang Jiaxin Shi Fanlong Kong

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), characterized by diverse chemical substituents, have emerged as widely used flame retardants and plasticizers, replacing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) under global regulatory actions. However, due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and multiple toxic effects, OPEs are now recognized as emerging pollutants and have attracted extensive research attention. This review systematically compares structurally distinct OPEs in terms of their environmental occurrence, physicochemical properties, mobility, and biodegradation fate. We place special emphasis on recent advances in microbial degradation and enzymatic transformation pathways under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, with a focus on key degrading strains, metabolic intermediates, and underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, factors influencing biodegradation rates (including compound structure, microbial community composition, and environmental variables) are comprehensively examined. By identifying critical research gaps and proposing future directions, this review aims to provide a scientific foundation for sustainable management and effective risk assessment of OPEs in the environment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070617

Authors: Bekmyrza Zhumash Yskak Aliya Paramonova Tatyana Irzhanov Zhassulan Nugmanov Almabek Yermoldina Gulnaz Tokusheva Assel Fominov Vladimir Bulaev Aleksandr Lyanga Petr Zhumalynov Kuanysh Bozhekenova Zheniskul

Iron ore mining is often assumed to pose a low soil-contamination risk because magnetite is dense and metal-poor. We tested this assumption around the Sokolov–Sarbai magnetite–skarn complex (Kostanay Region, Kazakhstan) by sampling soils at four settlements and a nearby background site, analyzing sixteen elements in pseudo-total and exchangeable forms, and comparing classical pollution indices with disaggregated US EPA health risk metrics on the same dataset. The two frameworks diverge sharply. Integrated indices (PLI, PERI) classify the area as low-risk, yet the child hazard index (US EPA cobalt reference dose) exceeds one at all four settlements, driven almost entirely by cobalt—a single, highly mobile element released from the late-stage sulfide paragenesis of the host skarn against an already cobalt-rich regional background. This relative result—cobalt as the dominant contributor and Rudny City as the most affected settlement—is robust to exposure-parameter variation and, at Rudny City and Konstantinovka, to unfavorable bioaccessibility assumptions. Carcinogenic risk stays within the acceptable range and reflects regional-background nickel and chromium rather than a mining increment. For single-element, regionally elevated contaminants, integrated indices can therefore understate a genuine child health hazard; adequate assessment requires mobile-fraction characterization and bioaccessibility-explicit risk computation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070616

Authors: Elisa Bustaffa Cristina Aprea Alessandro Barbieri Alessandro Benassi Andrea Borghini Saverio Caini Piergiuseppe Calà Filippo Cellai Amalia Gastaldelli Francesco Faita Miriam Levi Stefano Masi Simona Mrakic Sposta Katia Russo Anna Solini Fabrizio Minichilli

Human Biomonitoring (HBM) is a key tool for assessing human exposure to environmental contaminants and identifying early biological changes potentially associated with adverse health effects. However, as contaminated sites are characterized by multiple pollutants, exposure pathways and biological targets, a structured decision-support process is required to guide exposure assessment, biomarker selection, and early health-risk evaluation. This manuscript does not report biomonitoring results but describes the methodological process used to design the INSINERGIA_RT HBM study in two contaminated areas of Tuscany, Italy. The study design integrated environmental evidence, toxicological knowledge, epidemiological priorities, biomarker relevance, analytical feasibility, logistical considerations, and public health needs. Instead of proposing a universally applicable framework, the manuscript presents a structured approach that may support the design of HBM studies in similarly complex settings. Biomarkers are organized within a hierarchical model reflecting successive stages of the biological response to environmental exposure. A central feature is a mechanistic, multi-level approach encompassing upstream pathways (oxidative stress and inflammation), early markers of adverse effects and subclinical organ damage, including cardiovascular, renal, and respiratory alterations, and integrative indicators of cumulative biological responses, such as telomere length, epigenetic changes, and metabolomic profiles. Applicability is illustrated through an ongoing HBM study in Livorno and Piombino (Tuscany).

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070615

Authors: Yanxin Hu Zhengcheng Song Lu Qiao Xinyu Liang Shaochen Yang Junyao Yan Langfei Wei Jinjuan Li Ping Li

Methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation in rice is a major source of human MeHg exposure in some inland areas, yet the mechanism controlling mercury (Hg) accumulation in high geological background (HGB) regions remains poorly understood. Here, a field-scale remediation experiment was conducted in a karst HGB region of Guizhou, China, using a synergistic strategy combining selenium foliar spraying and calcium oxide-based soil conditioner. The combined treatment reduced total Hg and MeHg concentrations in rice grains by 63.0% and 80.0%, respectively. The root uptake from the soil–water system was found to be the primary pathway controlling Hg transfer into rice grain. Mechanistically, the soil conditioner increased soil pH and reduced bioavailable Hg, porewater Hg, and soil MeHg by 53.6%, 59.8%, and 62.6%, respectively, whereas selenium foliar spraying promoted Hg–Se complexation and reduced Hg mobility in the paddy system. In parallel, the combined treatment suppressed Hg-methylating microorganism (e.g., Geobacter decreased by 65%) and hgcAB gene (hgcA: −65%; hgcB: −58%), while enriching Hg-resistant taxa and merA-mediated detoxification pathway. These coupled physicochemical and microbial processes substantially reduced Hg bioavailability, MeHg production, and Hg bioaccumulation in rice grain of the paddy ecosystem, providing an effective strategy for mitigating Hg-related food safety risk in the karst HGB region.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070614

Authors: Roxana Matei Anda Baroi Toma Fistos Irina Fierascu Radu Fierascu

Heated tobacco products (HTPs) generate an inhalable aerosol by heating tobacco instead of burning it as conventional cigarettes do. Although several harmful and potentially harmful constituents (HPHCs) are generally reduced compared with conventional cigarette smoke, the World Health Organization’s list of nine priority toxicants (WHO 9) may not fully reflect the chemical complexity of HTP aerosols. The main goal of this review is to evaluate the occurrence, quantitative levels, and toxicological relevance of HPHCs identified in IQOS aerosols and to propose an expanded toxicant panel for aerosol characterization. The review was conducted according to PRISMA 2020 recommendations using literature retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection database. The studies included in the present review consistently report lower levels of many combustion-related toxicants in IQOS aerosols, compared with conventional cigarette smoke, particularly for carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. However, several toxicologically relevant compounds, including carbonyls, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, phenolics, and trace metals, remained detectable in several studies. An expanded panel of twenty priority toxicants was proposed, based on toxicological relevance, frequency of detection, regulatory significance, and analytical feasibility. The proposed panel extends beyond the WHO 9 framework while preserving regulatory applicability and analytical practicality. The findings support the need for harmonized methodologies and broader toxicant monitoring strategies for the comparative assessment of heated tobacco products.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070613

Authors: Teferi Aschalew Nega Mihret Kendie Wolie Enkuahone Abiyu Kassa Alemken Berie Teshager Kenaw Abeye Adimasu Weiying Feng Chia Min Ho

Agricultural soil contamination by potentially toxic elements is a global concern due to its impacts on food safety and human health, yet comprehensive assessments remain limited in many regions of Ethiopia. This study provides an integrated assessment of PTE contamination in agricultural soils of the North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia, by evaluating physicochemical properties, pollution levels, and human health risks. Soil parameters, including pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, organic matter, moisture content, total nitrogen, and available phosphorus, varied among sampling sites. Soil pH ranged from moderately acidic to near-neutral, indicating variations in soil acidity likely associated with differences in moisture content, organic matter, and land management practices, while electrical conductivity values indicated non-saline conditions suitable for agriculture. Concentrations of PTEs (As, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg) were generally within permissible limits established by WHO and FAO. Pollution indices revealed predominantly natural background levels for As, Zn, Cd, and Pb, whereas Hg exhibited moderate to strong contamination, with the Geoaccumulation Index and Contamination Factor identifying Hg as the primary environmental risk element. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed that hazard quotients and hazard indices for both adults and children were below 1, indicating negligible health risks. Carcinogenic risk assessment demonstrated that all calculated risks were within the acceptable range (10−6–10−4), although children showed higher total cancer risk (TCR) values than adults due to greater exposure intensity and lower body weight. Arsenic was identified as the dominant contributor to carcinogenic risk across all sampling sites. The findings demonstrate that agricultural soils in the study area are generally safe with respect to the investigated PTEs; however, Hg contamination indices indicate a potential environmental concern requiring continued monitoring. Sustainable soil management practices, including effective pH management and liming of strongly acidic soils (pH < 5.5), are recommended to improve soil quality, reduce PTE mobility and bioavailability, and minimize future accumulation of hazardous elements while maintaining agricultural productivity.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070612

Authors: Hasti Ziaei Jam Paul Bireta Danny Reible

This study assessed the leachability and methylation potential of total mercury (THg) associated with internal deposits in subsea oil and gas pipeline segments that are abandoned on the seafloor. The studies were conducted for up to 28 weeks under anaerobic conditions in static microcosms in which mercury-contaminated scale was exposed directly to sediments. The scale had an XRF-measured surficial THg concentration ranging between 15 and 3000 µg/cm2. Release to sediment contacting the scale was rapid with no significant changes noted in THg concentrations after 6 weeks. THg released to sediments from intact pipeline coupons with low THg (15.5–124 µg/cm2) released an average of 16% of the THg mass present in the coupon into the sediments while those with higher THg (457–1367 µg/cm2) released an average of just 0.85% of the THg present in the coupon. Additional studies were conducted with all scale shaved into microcosms to simulate rapid and complete corrosion of the pipeline. The resulting sediment concentrations showed that the XRF-measured surficial THg accounted for all of the THg in the scale. In both sets of experiments, peak methyl mercury (MeHg) sediment concentration (measured at 8 and 12 weeks) averaged just 0.05% of the THg in the sediment. MeHg in the sediment was not correlated with the mass of THg measured in the scale and showed only a weak correlation with sediment THg suggesting that much of the THg is unavailable for release and methylation. The sediment MeHg concentration was positively correlated with leachable THg measured as filtered THg (passing 0.45 µm filter) (R2 = 0.81). The methods presented here provide a means of assessing mercury release from pipeline scale and its implications in other environments.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070611

Authors: Justyna Śniadach Aleksandra Starosz Aleksandra Kicman Kamila Jończyk Anna Michalska-Falkowska Damian Pachniewski Sylwia Szymkowiak Napoleon Waszkiewicz Kamil Grubczak

Particles exhibiting fluorescence after Nile Red staining have been increasingly investigated in human biological samples in the context of microplastic exposure, but their clinical relevance remains unclear. In this study, Nile Red-positive microparticles were quantified in whole blood from chronic users of different nicotine-delivery systems and non-user controls. The study included 73 nicotine users, including conventional cigarette smokers, e-cigarette users, and heated tobacco product users, as well as an age- and sex-matched control group. Only participants without diagnosed chronic somatic disease were enrolled. Microparticles were quantified by flow cytometry after Nile Red staining. Associations with age, nicotine dependence assessed with the FTND and FTQ, motivation to quit smoking assessed with the Schneider Motivation Test, and selected hematological and biochemical parameters were also analyzed. In the overall analysis, the mean number of microparticles was higher in nicotine users than in controls, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.38). In subgroup analyses, higher particle counts were observed in conventional cigarette smokers and heated tobacco product users compared with controls. No significant difference was found for e-cigarette users. Higher particle counts were also observed in older participants and in participants with greater nicotine dependence. Participants with higher particle counts more often showed stronger nicotine dependence and lower motivation to quit smoking. These results suggest that circulating Nile Red-positive microparticle counts may differ according to the type of nicotine product used and selected behavioral characteristics. However, the subgroup findings should be interpreted with caution due to the exploratory design and limited statistical power.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070610

Authors: Claudia Araceli Dávila-Camacho Silvia Alejandra Santos-Escobar María del Refugio Castañeda-Chávez Magnolia Gricel Salcedo-Garduño Fabiola Lango-Reynoso

Microplastics (MP) are emerging pollutants found in the Veracruz Reef System National Park (PNSAV). They are widely distributed in the aquatic environment and are ingested by organisms either accidentally or because they are mistaken for food. In this article, the author analyses the physicochemical characteristics of reef sediments using visual identification, Nile Red (NR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) of microplastics found in sediments adjacent to reefs; this allowed us to determine their distribution within the PNSAV. A total of 687 microplastics per kilogram of dry sediment were quantified, including fibres (98.5%), films (1.4%), and fragments (0.01%). The predominant colour was transparent (60.2%), followed by blue (16%) and red (12%). Based on their MP distribution, the sites were classified into two groups: north and south. The sampling stations with the highest concentrations of MP are located in the group of reefs south of the PNSAV, with the Anegadilla Reef being the most affected station. SEM/EDS analyses revealed elemental spectra dominated by carbon and oxygen, which is consistent with the expected elemental composition of polymeric materials. Peaks of chlorine were detected in some MP particles, suggesting the possible presence of chlorinated polymers, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In addition, elements such as titanium, silicon, and nickel were identified, which could be associated with inorganic particles adhering to the surface or with additives commonly incorporated during the manufacture of plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The presence of elements such as titanium and nickel were detected; these are found in additives used in the manufacturing of polymers.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070609

Authors: Chiara Maria Motta Bice Avallone Chiara Fogliano Raffaele Panzuto Elisabetta Piva Sara Pacchini Paola Venditti Gianluca Fasciolo Patrizia Cretì Salvatore De Bonis Simona Di Marino Rosa Carotenuto

Cadmium is a common contaminant of both saline and freshwater environments. It has no biological function but readily penetrates tissues, causing significant oxidative stress and consequent damage throughout the organism. In this work, we examined the effects of this metal on the nauplii of Artemia salina, a model for testing toxicity in larval zooplanktonic species, and to evaluate the impact of contaminants on natural populations. An environmentally realistic concentration (15 µg/L) and two higher concentrations (150 and 1500 µg/L) were used. The presence of metals in culture media and nauplii was verified by atomic absorption spectroscopy, while oxidative stress levels were assessed by measuring hydroperoxides, carbonyl groups, ROS, and total antioxidant capacity. Mortality and growth rates were the conventional toxicity endpoints analysed. In parallel, morphological alterations were assessed in toto and in section. Attention was directed to the gut, the primary site of metal uptake and reabsorption, and to effects on protein patterns. The results demonstrated significant dose-independent Cd uptake by the nauplii and dose-dependent oxidative stress. Consequent alterations in brush border organisation and yolk and lipid resorption were assessed. Modest teratogenic effects were detected in naupliar eye pigmentation and paired-eye organisation. Oxidative stress and the marked changes in protein pattern justify the alterations observed, while the upregulation of the hsp26 and hsp60 genes indicates naupliar attempts to mitigate damage. In conclusion, this study confirms the effects of Cd toxicity on the development of Artemia salina nauplii and demonstrates interference with reserve resorption. This evidence indicates that this heavy metal can have a profound impact on zooplanktonic communities, which are essential to the stability of the entire aquatic food web.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070608

Authors: Almasa Lekpek Svetlana Đogo Mračević Zoran Dinić Aleksandra Šajnović Slavica Ražić Milan Stanković Branimir Jovančićević

Natural metal enrichment, combined with centuries of mining activity in the Rudnik Mountain region of Serbia, has led to the long-term accumulation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the soil. Although the investigated area lies outside the current zone of active exploitation, the persistence and mobility of accumulated PTEs, historical contamination can still affect the local population. This study integrated assessments of soil characterization, enrichment, sequential extraction-based fractionation, mobility, and bioavailability of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn, as well as the associated ecological and human health risks. Geochemical and environmental pollution indices further identified As, Pb, and Cd as the main contributors to environmental risk. Sequential extraction results based on the BCR protocol indicated significant bioavailability of Cd (32% in the exchangeable fraction) and Pb (74% in the reducible fraction). In contrast, over 80% of As was present in the residual fraction, indicating limited mobility and low bioavailability. Health risk assessment for the local rural population revealed significant potential health concerns at the investigated sites, with exceedances of the hazard index (HI) and carcinogenic risk (CR) values, primarily associated with As as the main contributing pollutant.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070607

Authors: Wan-Ting He Jing-Wen Huang Xuan Liu Muhammad Amjad Yan-Xu Chen Kun Zhao Yun-Ting Zhang Chu Chu Yang Zhou Li-Zi Lin Wen-Wen Bao Haseeb Moryani Ru-Qing Liu Xi-Fei Yang Pei-Pei Wang Guang-Hui Dong

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are emerging contaminants with potential risks to the environment and human health, but their link between fine particulate matter-bound chlorinated paraffins (PM2.5-bound CPs) and the risk of sleep disorders has not been reported. This large-scale, population-based study included 122,965 valid questionnaires from school-aged children in the Pearl River Delta region of China. Generalized linear mixed models, restricted cubic splines, weighted quantile sum regression and Quantile g-computation models were used to evaluate the individual and combined effects of PM2.5-bound CPs on sleep disorders. Mediation analysis assessed the potential role of body weight. Our findings showed that an interquartile range (IQR) increase in PM2.5-bound ∑CPs was linked to a higher risk of sleep disorders, and odds ratio ranging from 1.08 to 3.20. Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) were identified as key contributors of CPs and might interfere with important metabolic pathways. Further analysis indicated that body weight statistically accounted for part of the observed association between exposure to CPs and sleep disorders, with the proportion mediated ranging from 3.40% to 35.67%. Stratified analyses suggested stronger associations among girls and children under 12 years. These findings support prioritizing CPs management strategies to reduce their negative impact among children and adolescents.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070606

Authors: Chun Xiao Jinxi Chen Yin Yang Wu Ren Lihong Ai Yue Lu Hongjun Li Jiahui Zhang Jiangfei Cao

A lignosulfonate-derived iron–carbon composite catalyst was fabricated via hydrothermal pyrolysis and employed to activate peroxydisulfate (PDS) for tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) degradation. The optimized LFC possessed a porous carbon matrix uniformly decorated with Fe0/Fe3O4/Fe2O3 crystals, providing abundant active sites for catalytic reactions. The LFC/PDS system achieved nearly 100% TCH removal within 30 min at neutral pH and exhibited high efficiency over a broad pH range, strong anti-interference ability, and good universality for various organic pollutants. Mechanistic investigation confirmed that TCH degradation was dominated by a singlet oxygen (1O2)-mediated non-radical pathway, with minor contribution from radical species. The synergistic effect of iron cycle and surface functional groups promoted the generation of reactive oxygen species and 1O2. This research provides a low-cost, eco-friendly and efficient strategy for antibiotic wastewater treatment.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070605

Authors: Xiaoqiang Lv Cunzhi Li Yinan Zhang Qian Luo Ting Gao Hui Deng Huan Li Xinying Peng Jiachen Shen Siqi Liu Junhong Gao Zhiyong Liu

Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) is a nitramine explosive widely used in military and industrial fields. While emerging evidence suggests the neurotoxicity of HMX, the mechanisms underlying central nervous system (CNS) damage remain largely unknown. In the present study, we established a mouse model of 28-day subacute HMX exposure to explore HMX-induced neurotoxicity and underlying mechanisms in vivo. Behavioral assessments revealed that HMX increased spontaneous locomotor activity and central exploration in the open field test, and reduced immobility time in the forced swimming test, indicating abnormal emotional regulation. The Morris water maze further demonstrated impaired hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory in HMX-treated mice, as evidenced by prolonged platform latency. Histopathological analysis showed hippocampal demyelination in HMX-treated mice, accompanied by downregulation of myelin structural proteins (MBP, PLP1) and oligodendrocyte lineage proteins (OLIG2, CNPase). Additionally, proteomic analysis identified 173 differentially expressed proteins in the HMX-exposed hippocampus, which were enriched in myelination, synaptic transmission and neuroactive ligand–receptor interaction pathways. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that subacute HMX exposure induces behavioral deficits and demyelination in mice hippocampus, providing a novel mechanistic insight into HMX neurotoxicity and a theoretical basis for occupational health protection against HMX exposure.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070604

Authors: Huei-Ru Lin

The growing use of e-cigarettes as vehicles for illicit drug delivery has created an urgent challenge for forensic surveillance and public health in East Asia. This study analyzed 496 e-liquid samples seized by law-enforcement agencies in Eastern Taiwan (January–July 2025) using a full-scan GC–MS workflow validated in accordance with ANSI/ASB forensic toxicology standards. Overall, 80.8% of samples (n = 401) tested positive for psychoactive substances, with 35.4% (n = 142) containing polydrug mixtures. Etomidate dominated detections (87.0% of positive cases), followed by isopropoxate (25.4%), ketamine (9.7%), metomidate (8.5%), propoxate (7.2%), and methamphetamine (7.2%); cannabinoids (Δ9-THC and Δ8-THC) were comparatively rare (2.0% each). Predominant polydrug profiles included sedative–analog, sedative–dissociative, and sedative–stimulant combinations of acute toxicological concern. The present Eastern Taiwan dataset revealed a distinct etomidate-analog-centered adulterant profile, in marked contrast to the cannabinoid-dominated patterns reported in published seizure datasets from North America, Europe, and the Middle East. To our knowledge, seized-e-liquid surveillance data of this scale have not previously been reported for Eastern Taiwan. These findings highlight the value of seized-material toxicology as an early-warning component of forensic surveillance and support adaptive, class-level regulatory responses to the rapidly evolving landscape of designer-anesthetic vaping.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070603

Authors: Umberto Cornelli Giuseppe Zanoni Claudio Casella

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are now pervasive in human tissues, yet their biological behavior remains unexplained within conventional pharmacokinetic frameworks. Here, we propose that MNP distribution may follow a bioenergetic logic governed by cellular turnover and metabolic demand, rather than passive diffusion alone. Integrating the human autopsy literature datasets with programmatic biological parameters suggests that MNPs persist intracellularly and are propagated through cycles of cell death and renewal, establishing a previously unrecognized system of retention-driven recirculation. By integrating tissue-specific metabolic rates, macrophage abundance, and intracellular vulnerability indices across 19 organs, we define a hierarchy of susceptibility, with highest accumulation in the spleen, intestinal epithelium, lung, and bone marrow. This hierarchy maps onto clinical patterns of tissue dysfunction and supports a unifying mechanism in which oxidative stress, energetic instability, and chronic inflammation emerge as convergent responses to MNP burden. We further identify a minimal circulating signature—lactate, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)—that reflects systemic bioenergetic disruption associated with MNP exposure. Together, this framework offers a conceptual shift from diffusion-limited to turnover-driven accumulation models, providing testable hypotheses for future prospective validation.

Toxics doi: 10.3390/toxics14070602

Authors: Xinyi Zhu Jixia Hu Fangguo Lu Ziyi Liu Zhibin Wang Chang Liu Quan Zhu Jun Lu

As a major occupational hazard, crystalline silica (SiO2) poses a severe risk of pulmonary toxicity. While the irreversible fibrosis of late-stage silicosis has been extensively studied, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which SiO2 reprograms macrophage metabolism to drive early pathogenesis remain poorly understood. To elucidate this early immune-inflammatory response, we combined targeted metabolomics, pharmacological treatments, and nutrient deprivation in murine alveolar macrophages. Our results demonstrate that SiO2 exposure severely impairs the master antioxidant regulator, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), triggering excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and upregulated glutamine catabolism to drive pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage polarization. We demonstrated that Nrf2 activation with tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) redirected glutamine metabolic flux from pro-inflammatory catabolism to antioxidant anabolism, significantly attenuating SiO2-induced M1 polarization. Conversely, Nrf2 inhibition via ML385 exacerbated the inflammatory response. Furthermore, introducing a glutamine deprivation (−Gln) model revealed that restricting glutamine availability significantly attenuated the ability of Nrf2 to reverse M1 polarization, suggesting that its immune-protective effects largely depend on an intact glutamine metabolic pathway. Ultimately, our findings underscore the severe risks of silica exposure and identify the Nrf2–glutamine metabolic axis as a promising target, providing novel mechanistic insights and a robust basis for “antioxidant–metabolic” dual-target interventions in early-stage silicosis.