Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. History of Plastics
1.2. Development of Plastic Particle
1.3. Plastic Particle Sources
1.4. Degradation of Plastic Particle
1.4.1. Physical Degradation
1.4.2. Chemical Degradation
1.4.3. Biodegradation
1.5. Migration of MPs in the Environment
2. Risk of Plastic Particles Entering the Human Body via the Food Chain
2.1. Common Categories of Plastics
2.2. Common Plastic Particles in Food
2.2.1. Water
2.2.2. Milk
2.2.3. Sugar
2.2.4. Salt
2.2.5. Seafood Food
3. Impacts of MPs on Human Metabolism
3.1. Ingestion Route
3.2. Inhalation Route
3.3. Skin Contact Route
3.4. Organs Affected by MPs
3.4.1. Gastrointestinal System
3.4.2. Respiratory System
3.4.3. Blood and Immune System
3.4.4. Brain and Nervous System
3.4.5. Embryo and Placenta Barrier
3.4.6. Reproductive System
3.4.7. Liver
3.4.8. Skin
3.4.9. Cancer
4. Current Regulations and Prospects for Plastic Products
4.1. Regulations for Plastic Products Used in Various Countries/Regions
Relevant Regulation/Policies and Description | Region | Countries and Regions with the Implementation Year | References Sources | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Limiting the use of disposable plastic products | An environmental protection measure for minimizing the impact of plastic waste on the environment by enacting corresponding regulations and laws. | Asia: Several delivery platforms and restaurants have limited or complete prohibitions on providing disposable utensils and straws. |
| [300,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,308] |
Europe: Serving plastic knives, forks, bowls, plates, and cups at restaurants is prohibited. Denmark was the first country to introduce an upstream tax on imports or at the manufacturing level (plastic bag fee). |
| [306,309,310,311,312] | ||
America: Several cities have imposed bans or restrictions, such as New York’s prohibition on plastic foam containers. |
| [294,306,313] | ||
Africa: Some countries have implemented prohibitions or restrictions on plastic products, such as Kenya’s prohibition on the use of plastic bags. |
| [301,306,314,315] | ||
Oceania: Step-by-step approaches have been taken, such as New Zealand’s project to phase out cotton labels and straws. |
| [306,316] | ||
Plastic Bag Charges | This policy will reduce the use of plastic bags, encourage people to reuse bags or other alternatives, shift to an eco-friendlier way of shopping, and raise awareness of environmental protection and sustainable development. | Asia: A fee will be charged to customers who request plastic bags and is enforced by the merchant. |
| [122,304,306,317,318,319] |
Europe: A fee will be charged to customers who request plastic bags, and is enforced by the merchant. Ireland was the first country to introduce a plastic bag tax of EUR 0.22. |
| [306,320,321] | ||
America: Merchants charge a fee to customers who request plastic bags (prices vary by region). Mexico has implemented a prohibition on the provision of plastic bags by merchants. |
| [307,321,322,323] | ||
Africa: A fee will be charged to customers who request plastic bags, enforced by the merchant. Kenya is the first in Africa to prohibit all plastic bags. |
| [301,307,321,324,325,326] | ||
Oceania: A fee will be charged to customers who request plastic bags and is enforced by the merchant. Samoa has prohibited plastic bags with a thickness of less than 50 µm |
| [306,307,321] | ||
Prohibited products containing plastic microbeads | Prohibition of plastic beads in care and cleaning products because MPs cannot be fully filtered by wastewater stations, leading to serious contamination and hazards while encouraging the development of sustainable alternatives. | Asia: Several countries have made relevant policies for enforcement. Taiwan has implemented the “Law on Prohibiting Microbeads.” |
| [122,303,306,318,327] |
Europe: Policy on reducing the use of plastic beads has been fully implemented |
| [306,327,328] | ||
America: Microbeads are prohibited in laundry and personal care products. |
| [307,327] | ||
Africa: Several countries have made relevant policies for enforcement. South Africa has implemented the “Wash, Detergent, Cosmetics, and Perfume Act”, which prohibits the use of microbeads. |
| [121,301] | ||
Oceania: Several countries have made relevant policies for enforcement. New Zealand implemented the “Microbeads Prohibition Act”, which prohibits microbeads in beauty and care products. |
| [306,329] |
4.2. Reducing Plastics Builds on the Linkage of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chronicle Year | Representative Event | References | |
---|---|---|---|
15th century | Start using natural rubber | [4] | |
1839 | Co-heating of rubber and sulfur into elastic and plastic polymers | [5] | |
1869 | Created the first synthetic plastic “celluloid.” | [6,7,8] | |
1909 | Invented the first artificial plastic- phenolic resin. Commonly known as bakelite | [9,10] | |
1920 | The term polymer and polymer officially appeared | [11] | |
1926 | The earliest synthetic plastic Polyvinyl Chloride | [12,13] | |
1930 | Extracted polystyrene | [14] | |
1933 | Synthesized polyethylene | [9,15,16,17] | |
1954 | The advent of polypropylene | [18,19] | |
1967 | The Birth of PET Bottle—Polyethylene Terephthalate | [20,21,22] | |
2004 | Coined the word microplastics | [23] | |
2016 | Microplastic pollution is officially listed as the second-largest issue in environmental and ecological science. | [24,25,26] | |
2023 | Taiwan banned the use of polyvinyl chloride in food packaging starting in July. | [27] |
Plastic Classification Level | Subcategory | Size | Representative Item | Symbolic Picture |
---|---|---|---|---|
Macroplastic | - | 25 mm | Plastic bottle | - |
Mesoplastic | - | 2–25 mm | Plastic debris | - |
Microplastic | Primary Microplastics | 1 µm–5 mm | Microbeads | |
Colloidal particles | ||||
Secondary Microplastics | Net | |||
Tires | ||||
Nanoplastic | Invisible to the naked eye | <1 µm | - | - |
Category | Degradation Method | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Physical degradation | Thermal degradation Mechanical degradation | Ease of operation | Limited scope of application Toxic gas release Not easily degraded completely | [61,63,64,80] |
Takes less time | Limited scope of application Toxic gas release Not easily degraded completely | |||
Can recover energy | Limited scope of application Toxic gas release Not easily degraded completely | |||
Chemical degradation | Photodegradation | More environmentally friendly | Incomplete degradation Time-consuming Affected by the environment | [64,86,89] |
High versatility | Incomplete degradation Time-consuming Affected by the environment | |||
Incomplete degradation Time-consuming Affected by the environment | ||||
Biodegradation | Microbial decomposition Metabolic Mechanisms in Organisms | More environmentally friendly | Potentially harmful to organisms in case of incomplete degradation | [94,97,98,105,106] |
Less extra pollution | Affected by the environment | |||
It can be used in a targeted manner | Influenced by microbiota |
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Lin, Y.-D.; Huang, P.-H.; Chen, Y.-W.; Hsieh, C.-W.; Tain, Y.-L.; Lee, B.-H.; Hou, C.-Y.; Shih, M.-K. Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review. Toxics 2023, 11, 747. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747
Lin Y-D, Huang P-H, Chen Y-W, Hsieh C-W, Tain Y-L, Lee B-H, Hou C-Y, Shih M-K. Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review. Toxics. 2023; 11(9):747. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Yan-Duan, Ping-Hsiu Huang, Yu-Wei Chen, Chang-Wei Hsieh, You-Lin Tain, Bao-Hong Lee, Chih-Yao Hou, and Ming-Kuei Shih. 2023. "Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review" Toxics 11, no. 9: 747. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747
APA StyleLin, Y. -D., Huang, P. -H., Chen, Y. -W., Hsieh, C. -W., Tain, Y. -L., Lee, B. -H., Hou, C. -Y., & Shih, M. -K. (2023). Sources, Degradation, Ingestion and Effects of Microplastics on Humans: A Review. Toxics, 11(9), 747. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747