Toxics

24 pages, 2200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Personal PM_2.5 Exposure and Associated Factors Among Adults with Allergic Diseases in an Urban Environment: A Panel Study

by Shin-Young Park, Hyeok Jang, Jaymin Kwon, Chan-Mi Park, Cheol-Min Lee and Dae-Jin Song

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040317 (registering DOI) - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study analyzed the factors influencing personal PM_2.5 exposure levels among adults with allergic diseases in Seoul using a linear mixed-effects (LMEs) model. The average personal PM_2.5 exposure concentration of the study participants was 17.38 μg/m³, exceeding the World [...] Read more.

This study analyzed the factors influencing personal PM_2.5 exposure levels among adults with allergic diseases in Seoul using a linear mixed-effects (LMEs) model. The average personal PM_2.5 exposure concentration of the study participants was 17.38 μg/m³, exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) daily recommended guideline (15.00 μg/m³), though it was relatively low compared to global levels. Inter-individual exposure variability was approximately 43.5%, with exposure levels varying significantly depending on microenvironments. Notably, 58% of participants exhibited higher exposure on weekends compared to weekdays, likely associated with increased outdoor activities. The LMEs model results identified smoking (90.81% higher in smokers), temperature, relative humidity, outdoor pollutants (PM_2.5, O₃, CO), indoor PM_2.5 and CO concentrations, and time spent in residential environments as factors increasing exposure, while rainfall (91.23% reduction), wind speed, and air purifier use were identified as factors reducing exposure. These findings suggest that individual activity patterns and environmental factors significantly influence exposure levels, highlighting the need for personalized mitigation strategies and national fine dust policies. This study is expected to provide scientific evidence contributing to the reduction in health risks and improvement of quality of life for individuals with allergic diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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24 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessReview

Neurotransmitter Systems Affected by PBDE Exposure: Insights from In Vivo and In Vitro Neurotoxicity Studies

by Wendy Argelia García-Suastegui, Cynthia Navarro-Mabarak, Daniela Silva-Adaya, Heidy Galilea Dolores-Raymundo, Mhar Yovavyn Alvarez-Gonzalez, Martha León-Olea and Lucio Antonio Ramos-Chávez

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040316 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are synthetic halogen compounds, industrially used as flame retardants in many flammable products. PBDEs are environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative substances that were used from the 1970s and discontinued in the 1990s. PBDEs are present in air, soil, water, and [...] Read more.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are synthetic halogen compounds, industrially used as flame retardants in many flammable products. PBDEs are environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative substances that were used from the 1970s and discontinued in the 1990s. PBDEs are present in air, soil, water, and food, where they remain stable for a long time. Chronic exposure to PBDEs is associated with adverse human health effects, including cancer, immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, reproductive and metabolic disorders, motor and hormonal impairments, and neurotoxicity, especially in children. It has been demonstrated that PBDE exposure can cause mitochondrial and DNA damage, apoptosis, oxidative stress, epigenetic modifications, and changes in calcium and neurotransmitter levels. Here, we conduct a comprehensive review of the molecular mechanisms of the neurotoxicity of PBDEs using different approaches. We discuss the main neurotransmitter pathways affected by exposure to PBDEs in vitro and in vivo in different mammalian models. Excitatory and inhibitory signaling pathways are the putative target where PBDEs carry out their neurotoxicity. Based on this evidence, environmental PBDEs are considered a risk to human public health and a hazard to biota, underscoring the need for environmental monitoring to mitigate exposure to PBDEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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15 pages, 2947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

4′-Hydroxydehydrokawain Mitigate the Cytotoxicity of Citrinin in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells

by Seung Joon Lim, Sangsu Shin and Sang In Lee

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040315 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin that adversely affects livestock by contaminating stored grains, leading to significant health and economic impacts. This study investigates the toxicological effects of CTN on porcine small intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) and explores potential mitigation strategies using natural products [...] Read more.

Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin that adversely affects livestock by contaminating stored grains, leading to significant health and economic impacts. This study investigates the toxicological effects of CTN on porcine small intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) and explores potential mitigation strategies using natural products and chemical inhibitors. Our study demonstrates that CTN induces cytotoxicity through the TGF-β signaling pathway, triggering apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest. We examined cell viability, cell cycle progression, and gene expression changes in IPEC-J2 cells treated with CTN, 4′-Hydroxydehydrokawain (4-HDK), and LY-364947, a TGF-β receptor inhibitor. LY-364947 treatment confirmed that CTN-induced toxicity is mediated through TGF-β signaling. Although 4-HDK alleviated CTN-induced cytotoxicity by improving cell viability and reducing apoptosis, its direct involvement in TGF-β inhibition remains unclear. These results suggest that CTN disrupts intestinal epithelial cell homeostasis via TGF-β activation, whereas 4-HDK may exert protective effects through an alternative mechanism. Our study provides novel insights into CTN-induced toxicity mechanisms and highlights the therapeutic potential of 4-HDK as a mitigator of mycotoxin-induced cellular damage. Full article

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18 pages, 2129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis Techniques for Screening Potentially Toxic Elements in Soil

by Ilaria Guagliardi, Nicola Ricca and Domenico Cicchella

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040314 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Soil contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) poses a major environmental concern. The distribution and concentration of these elements can vary significantly in polluted areas, making detailed assessments crucial. A comprehensive analysis is essential to accurately characterise contamination patterns, as a foundation for [...] Read more.

Soil contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) poses a major environmental concern. The distribution and concentration of these elements can vary significantly in polluted areas, making detailed assessments crucial. A comprehensive analysis is essential to accurately characterise contamination patterns, as a foundation for effective site evaluation and remediation efforts. This study evaluates the effectiveness and reliability of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for determining PTEs in soil samples. Statistical analyses reveal significant differences between the two techniques for Sr, Ni, Cr, V, As, and Zn, likely due to variations in detection sensitivity, calibration methods, or matrix effects. Pb exhibits a weaker difference, suggesting a potential, yet statistically insignificant, difference between methods. Correlation analyses indicate a strong linear relationship for Ni and Cr, while Zn and Sr display high variability, limiting direct comparability. Bland–Altman plots highlight systematic biases, particularly for V, where XRF consistently underestimates concentrations compared to ICP-MS. These findings underscore the importance of selecting the appropriate analytical technique based on detection limits, sample characteristics, and measurement reliability. While both methods provide valuable insights for environmental monitoring, carefully considering their limitations is crucial for accurate contamination assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Potentially Toxic Elements Pollution in Urban and Suburban Environments II)

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12 pages, 1353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chlorella vulgaris Supplementation Attenuates Lead Accumulation, Oxidative Stress, and Memory Impairment in Rats

by Juan Pablo Diaz, Eduardo Pena, Samia El Alam, Cecilia Matte, Isaac Cortés, Leonardo Figueroa, Patricia Siques and Julio Brito

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040313 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Lead is a harmful heavy metal known to alter the environment and affect human health. Several industries have contributed to the increase in lead contamination, making it a major global concern. Thus, remediation strategies are necessary to prevent lead bioaccumulation and deleterious health [...] Read more.

Lead is a harmful heavy metal known to alter the environment and affect human health. Several industries have contributed to the increase in lead contamination, making it a major global concern. Thus, remediation strategies are necessary to prevent lead bioaccumulation and deleterious health effects. The aim of this study was to determine the capacity of the green microalga Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris or CV) to remove lead in an animal model and prevent the accumulation of this heavy metal in the principal organs (brain, liver, and kidney) and blood. Forty male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 10): control group (CT); C. vulgaris supplementation group, 5% of the diet (CV); lead acetate administration group, 500 ppm (Pb); and C. vulgaris supplementation group, 5% of the diet plus lead acetate administration group, 500 ppm (CV–Pb). After 4 weeks of exposure, we measured lead accumulation, memory function, oxidative stress, and antioxidant activity (SOD and GSH). Lead exposure altered memory function, increased oxidative stress in the brain and kidney, and increased SOD activity in the brain. Supplementation with C. vulgaris restored memory function to control levels; reduced oxidative stress in the brain and kidney; and decreased the accumulation of lead in the liver, kidney, and blood of rats exposed to lead. Based on our results, C. vulgaris is a lead chelating and antioxidant agent in animal models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Central Nervous System (CNS) Modulators)

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27 pages, 3486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological Risk Assessment Is a Living Science: A Study on Heavy Metal(loid) Contamination in Typical Greenhouse Production Systems in Central China

by Tingting Ma, Peng Wu, Yongchuan Guo, Tian Lei, Shengbo Guo, Huajin Chang and Yongming Luo

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040312 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

To clarify the heavy metal(loid) contamination characteristics and health risk in nine typical greenhouse production areas in Jingmen, Central China, the total concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in 176 soils and 332 vegetables were analyzed. Cadmium (100%) [...] Read more.

To clarify the heavy metal(loid) contamination characteristics and health risk in nine typical greenhouse production areas in Jingmen, Central China, the total concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in 176 soils and 332 vegetables were analyzed. Cadmium (100%) and Ni (4/44) exceeded the Chinese standard limits, while As (36/44), Cd (36/44), Cr (9/44), and Ni (1/44) exceeded the international soil quality standards. The As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb contents in all vegetables were over both the domestic and international standard limitations. The soil pollution levels of Hg and Cd and the potential ecological risk in Zhanghe and Lishi require more attention. Significant levels of Cu, Pb, and Cr in the soil and Hg, Ni, and Cu in edible vegetable parts were suggested to be mainly caused by daily agricultural production management. Although non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to vegetable consumers and greenhouse workers are acceptable across different age groups, more scientific management and remediation must be carried out simultaneously for sustainable production in the future, especially in GD and ZH. Updated standard values for the environment and food, together with the 2023 updated soil geochemical background values, should be applied in time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Health)

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15 pages, 3756 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Tryptophan Metabolism

by Hongyang Hu, Xiaoxun Lu, Miaoliang Wu, Zhi Bai and Xiaoshan Liu

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040311 - 17 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Tryptophan (Trp) is an important essential amino acid that plays a variety of physiological functions in the human body, including being a precursor of neurotransmitter and participating in immune regulation. Currently, more and more studies show that some pollutants in the environment can [...] Read more.

Tryptophan (Trp) is an important essential amino acid that plays a variety of physiological functions in the human body, including being a precursor of neurotransmitter and participating in immune regulation. Currently, more and more studies show that some pollutants in the environment can affect the metabolism of Trp and consequently affect human health. The present paper offers a comprehensive overview of prior research investigating the impact of environmental pollutants, including inorganic and organic contaminants, microplastics, and nanoplastics on the nervous system, immune system, digestive system, and maternal–fetal pregnancy, revealing their detrimental effects on Trp metabolism and human well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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25 pages, 5165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Effect of Dictyophora rubrovolvata Extract on Intestinal and Liver Tissue Toxicity Induced by Metformin Disinfection Byproducts

by Huijuan Liu, Dong Xiang, Jie Zhou and Jiao Xie

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040310 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 43

Abstract

Metformin disinfection byproducts Y and C have emerged as pollutants of concern in drinking water systems and are suspected to possess significant toxicity to mammals. However, effective strategies to mitigate the effects of Y and C exposure in mammals have not been thoroughly [...] Read more.

Metformin disinfection byproducts Y and C have emerged as pollutants of concern in drinking water systems and are suspected to possess significant toxicity to mammals. However, effective strategies to mitigate the effects of Y and C exposure in mammals have not been thoroughly formulated. This study aimed to investigate the toxicity and characteristic phenotypes of short-term, high-dose exposure to Y and C in the intestine and liver of mice and to evaluate the protective effects of Dictyophora rubrovolvata extract (DRE) on Y- and C-induced intestinal and liver damage. The results showed that exposure-induced intestinal toxicity manifested mainly as intestinal barrier dysfunction, induction of immune response and oxidative stress, and disruption of intestinal flora homeostasis. Hepatotoxicity was mainly characterized by histopathological changes such as vacuolar degeneration, abnormal liver function, and oxidative stress. Additionally, marked changes in gut microbiota and biochemical indicators were closely related to hepatic and intestinal injuries after exposure. DRE effectively alleviated Y- and C-induced intestinal and liver damage, reshaped the gut microbiota, and maintained gut–liver axis homeostasis. These findings provide new insights into the toxic effects of disinfection byproduct exposure through the gut-liver axis and suggest that functional food extracts may serve to protect against these adverse health outcomes. Full article

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17 pages, 1564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using the Coefficient of Conformism of a Correlative Prediction in Simulation of Cardiotoxicity

by Alla P. Toropova, Andrey A. Toropov, Alessandra Roncaglioni and Emilio Benfenati

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040309 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The optimal descriptors generated by the CORAL software are studied as potential models of cardiotoxicity. Two significantly different cardiotoxicity databases are studied here. Database 1 contains 394 hERG inhibitors (pIC50) and external 200 substances that are potential drugs, which were used to confirm [...] Read more.

The optimal descriptors generated by the CORAL software are studied as potential models of cardiotoxicity. Two significantly different cardiotoxicity databases are studied here. Database 1 contains 394 hERG inhibitors (pIC50) and external 200 substances that are potential drugs, which were used to confirm the predictive potential of the approach for Database 1. Database 2 contains cardiotoxicity data for 13864 different compounds in a format where active is denoted as 1 and inactive is denoted as 0. The same model-building algorithms were applied to all three databases using the Monte Carlo method and Las Vegas algorithm. The latter was used to rationally distribute the available data into training and validation sets. The Monte Carlo optimization for the correlation weights of different molecular features extracted from SMILES was improved by including the conformity coefficient of the correlation prediction (CCCP). This improvement provided greater predictive potential in the considered models. Full article

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16 pages, 1851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Road-Deposited Sediments and Correlation Distribution of DOM and Heavy Metals in Beijing, China

by Donghai Yuan, Pengmiao Li, Chenling Yan, Jinggang Wang, Xiaochen Bai, Yuhang Wei, Chen Wang and Yingying Kou

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040308 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Road-deposited sediments (RDS) from 28 sites in Beijing were studied and analyzed for eight heavy metals. In RDS, the levels of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb and V were 2.76, 1.11, 2.40, 1.65, 1.09, 6.52, 4.13 and 0.06 times the background [...] Read more.

Road-deposited sediments (RDS) from 28 sites in Beijing were studied and analyzed for eight heavy metals. In RDS, the levels of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb and V were 2.76, 1.11, 2.40, 1.65, 1.09, 6.52, 4.13 and 0.06 times the background values, respectively. The levels were rated in accordance with the geoaccumulation index (Igeo) as follows: Cd>Pb>Zn>Cu>Cr>Ni>As>V. In the four functional zones, the potential ecological risk index method showed that most of the heavy metals have environmental risk index values (

E_{r}^{i}

) of less than 40, but the multifactor environmental risk value (RI) for Pb in the transportation area exceeded 150. Four functional areas had Cd values greater than 160, exhibiting the highest risk. The human health risk assessment revealed that exposure pathways followed this decreasing order: ingestion > dermal > inhalation. Three DOM fractions were resolved in the sediments of the four functional zones, including terrestrial fulvic-acid-like fractions (C1), humic-acid-like fractions (C2), and tryptophan-like fractions (C3), and the DOM fractions were affected by both exogenous and endogenous sources. A positive correlation existed between DOM and Ni and Cu in the transportation zone, and the correlation between DOM and heavy metals in other zones was not apparent. In conclusion, heavy metals in different functional zones affected the concentration and characteristics of DOM, and there was a strong correlation between heavy metals and DOM concentration and features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Soil/Sediment Remediation and Wastewater Treatment)

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10 pages, 1117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental and Health Risk Assessment of Fugitive Dust from Magnesium Slag Yards

by Jing Hua, Yuanchao Zhao, Yuanzheng Zhang, Yining Zhu, Chang Liu, Fenghe Wang, Xiaowei Xu and Qi Yu

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040307 - 15 Apr 2025

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Abstract

During the natural cooling process of magnesium slag stockpiles in the open air, the phase transformation of gamma-dicalcium silicate (γ-C₂S) induces a powdering phenomenon, resulting in the generation of a large amount of PM10 and PM2.5 dust. Based on the dust [...] Read more.

During the natural cooling process of magnesium slag stockpiles in the open air, the phase transformation of gamma-dicalcium silicate (γ-C₂S) induces a powdering phenomenon, resulting in the generation of a large amount of PM10 and PM2.5 dust. Based on the dust emission model of stockpiles and the Gaussian dispersion model, combined with the Monte Carlo simulation method, this study conducted a quantitative assessment of the environmental risk of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Cr(VI)) in dust to the surrounding residential areas. The results show that the enrichment degree of heavy metals in PM2.5 is significantly higher than that in PM10. At a downwind distance of 1000 m, the exceedance multiples of Cr(VI), As, and Cd reach 131.5, 23.6, and 51.8 times, respectively. The total carcinogenic risk (9.2 × 10⁻⁷) and total non-carcinogenic hazard quotient (0.15) in the residential area are below the limits, but the contribution rates of As and Cd are relatively high. Sensitivity analysis further reveals that the moisture content of the stockpile, dust removal rate, and distance are the key control parameters affecting the environmental risk. Based on the research findings, it is recommended to increase sprinkling frequency, install windbreak nets, and promote magnesium slag utilization to effectively control dust risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Radioactive Substances)

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16 pages, 871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Element Uptake by Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) in Floating Lake Gardens

by Mohssen Elbagory, Farahat S. Moghanm, Ibrahim Mohamed, Sahar El-Nahrawy, Alaa El-Dein Omara, Madhumita Goala, Pankaj Kumar, Boro Mioč, Željko Andabaka and Ivan Širić

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040306 - 13 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The present study investigated the uptake and health risks of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) by lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) cultivated in floating lake gardens of Dal Lake, Srinagar, India. Rapid urbanization and anthropogenic activities have led to PTE contamination in the lake, [...] Read more.

The present study investigated the uptake and health risks of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) by lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) cultivated in floating lake gardens of Dal Lake, Srinagar, India. Rapid urbanization and anthropogenic activities have led to PTE contamination in the lake, raising concerns about food safety and ecological sustainability. The objectives were to evaluate the physicochemical properties of water and sediment and to quantify PTEs (Cd, Cu, Cr, Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn) accumulation in different tissues of N. nucifera with associated health risks. A systematic sampling approach was adopted across four zones of the lake, collecting water, sediment, and plant tissues (August to October 2024). The results showed significant PTE contamination, with sediment showing high concentrations of Fe (1610.51 mg/kg), Mn (31.48 mg/kg), and Cr (29.72 mg/kg). Bioaccumulation factors indicated preferential PTE accumulation in roots, with Fe exhibiting the highest uptake (95.11). Translocation factors were low for most PTEs, suggesting limited mobility to edible parts. Health risk assessment indicated that Cr posed the highest non-carcinogenic risk (HRI = 1.8000 in rhizomes). The cumulative target hazard quotient (THQ) remained below 1, suggesting no immediate risk, but long-term exposure warrants concern. The study provided valuable information on the necessity of continuous monitoring and pollution mitigation strategies to ensure the food safety of floating lake garden-derived crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Contamination and Its Effects on Ecosystems and Human Health: Challenges and Solutions)

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14 pages, 3680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of the Non-Reducing Biomineralization of Nuclide–Microbial Interactions by Machine Learning: The Case of Uranium and Bacillus subtilis

by Shirong Qiang, Leijin Liu, Siqi Li, Shuang Wang, Xinyang Huang, Jiaxin Yang, Jiayu Song, Yue Zhang, Yongxiang Huang and Qiaohui Fan

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040305 - 13 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Bacillus subtilis exhibits a great affinity to soluble U(VI) through non-reducing biomineralization. The pH value, temperature, initial uranium concentration, bacterial concentration, and adsorption time are recognized as the five environmental sensitive factors that can regulate the degree of non-reductive biomineralization. Most of the [...] Read more.

Bacillus subtilis exhibits a great affinity to soluble U(VI) through non-reducing biomineralization. The pH value, temperature, initial uranium concentration, bacterial concentration, and adsorption time are recognized as the five environmental sensitive factors that can regulate the degree of non-reductive biomineralization. Most of the current studies have focused on the regulatory mechanisms of these factors on uranium non-reductive mineralization. However, there are still few reports on the importance of these factors in influencing non-reductive mineralization, as well as on how to regulate these factors to increase the efficiency of non-reductive mineralization and enhance the enrichment of Bacillus subtilis on uranium. In this project, a DLNN deep learning neural network model was constructed to effectively predict the effects of changes in these five environmental sensitivity factors on the non-reducing mineralization of Bacillus subtilis to uranium. Accuracy (99.6%) and R² (up to 0.89) confirm a high degree of agreement between the predicted output and the observed values. Sensitivity analysis shows that in this model, pH value is the most important influencing factor. However, under different pH values, temperature, initial uranium concentration, adsorption time, and bacterial concentration have different effects. When the pH value is lower than 6, the most important factor is temperature, and once the pH value is greater than 6, the initial concentration is the most important factor. The results are expected to provide a theoretical basis for regulating the enrichment degree of U(VI) by Bacillus subtilis, achieving the maximum long-term stable fixation of U(VI), and understanding the environmental chemical behavior of uranium under different conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radioactive Contamination and Radionuclide Removal)

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19 pages, 1203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Maternal PM_2.5 Exposure with Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight: A Large-Scale Cohort Study in Northern Thailand (2016–2022)

by Pak Thaichana, Patumrat Sripan, Amaraporn Rerkasem, Theera Tongsong, Suraphan Sangsawang, Sawaeng Kawichai, Worawut Srisukkham, Chanane Wanapirak, Sirinart Sirilert, Natnita Mattawanon, Chotiros Phanpong, Krongporn Ongprasert, José G. B. Derraik and Kittipan Rerkasem

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040304 - 13 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Air pollution exposure has been increasingly linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the effects of PM_2.5 exposure throughout pregnancy on preterm birth, low birth weight (LBW), and small for gestational age (SGA). We analyzed a cohort of 16,965 [...] Read more.

Air pollution exposure has been increasingly linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the effects of PM_2.5 exposure throughout pregnancy on preterm birth, low birth weight (LBW), and small for gestational age (SGA). We analyzed a cohort of 16,965 pregnant women living in northern Thailand between 2016 and 2022. PM_2.5 concentration data were collected from two air quality monitoring stations operated by the Pollution Control Department (PCD) of Thailand. Logistic regression models were used to assess the association between daily PM_2.5 exposure and pregnancy outcomes. PM_2.5 exposure at levels exceeding 37.5 μg/m³ throughout pregnancy significantly increased the risk of preterm birth (aOR = 2.19, p < 0.001) and LBW (aOR = 1.99, p < 0.001) compared to the reference group (15.1–37.5 μg/m³). However, exposure at levels ≤15.0 μg/m³ also increased the risk for both outcomes compared to the same reference group. Subgroup analysis of high-risk pregnant women, including women aged > 35 years, with pre-pregnancy BMI (<18.5), pregnancy-induced hypertension, and nulliparous women, showed that the range of the critical PM_2.5 exposure threshold was 32.3–38.4 μg/m³ for preterm birth and 31.2–38.2 μg/m³ for LBW. This study highlights the significant association between PM_2.5 exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes and suggests the need for targeted interventions to mitigate its effects on maternal and child health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prenatal Chemical Exposure and Child Health Outcomes)

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15 pages, 2763 KiB

Open AccessReview

Deciphering Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Mechanistic Insights and Environmental Risks

by Yang Pei, Péter Hamar and De-Sheng Pei

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040303 - 12 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) presents a significant challenge to clinical treatment and environmental risks. This review delves into the complex mechanisms underlying MDR development in P. aeruginosa, such as genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer (HGT), [...] Read more.

The rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) presents a significant challenge to clinical treatment and environmental risks. This review delves into the complex mechanisms underlying MDR development in P. aeruginosa, such as genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer (HGT), and the interaction between virulence factors and resistance genes. It evaluates current detection methods, from traditional bacteriology to advanced molecular techniques, emphasizing the need for rapid and accurate diagnostics. This review also examines therapeutic strategies, including broad-spectrum antibiotics, novel drug candidates, combination therapies, and innovative approaches like RNA interference, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, and bridge RNA-guided gene editing. Importantly, this review highlights the distribution, migration, and environmental risks of MDR P. aeruginosa, underscoring its adaptability to diverse environments. It concludes by stressing the necessity for continued research and development in antimicrobial resistance, advocating for an integrated approach that combines genomics, clinical practice, and environmental considerations to devise innovative solutions and preserve antibiotic efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characteristics, Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Mechanisms of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

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22 pages, 16176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Benzo[k]fluoranthene at Two Temperatures on Viability, Structure, and Detoxification-Related Genes in Rainbow Trout RTL-W1 Cell Spheroids

by Telma Esteves, Fernanda Malhão, Eduardo Rocha and Célia Lopes

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040302 - 12 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and global warming impact aquatic ecosystems, eventually interacting. Monolayer (2D) cultures of cell lines, such as the rainbow trout liver RTL-W1, are employed for unveiling toxicological effects in fish. Nonetheless, three-dimensional (3D) models constitute an alternate paradigm, better emulating [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and global warming impact aquatic ecosystems, eventually interacting. Monolayer (2D) cultures of cell lines, such as the rainbow trout liver RTL-W1, are employed for unveiling toxicological effects in fish. Nonetheless, three-dimensional (3D) models constitute an alternate paradigm, better emulating in vivo responses. Here, ultra-low attachment (ULA) plates were used to generate ten-day-old RTL-W1 spheroids for exposure to a control, a solvent control (0.1% DMSO) and the model PAH benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF) at 10 and 100 nM and at 18 and 23 °C (thermal stress). After a 4-day exposure, spheroids were analyzed for viability (alamarBlue and lactate dehydrogenase), biometry (area, diameter and sphericity), histocytology (optical and electron microscopy), and mRNA levels of the detoxification-related genes cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A, CYP3A27, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), uridine diphosphate–glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), catalase (CAT), multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) and bile salt export protein (BSEP). Immunocytochemistry (ICC) was used to assess CYP1A protein expression. Neither temperature nor BkF exposure altered the spheroids’ viability or biometry. BkF modified the cell’s ultrastructure. The expression of CYP1A was augmented with both BkF concentrations, while AhR’s increased at the higher concentration. The CYP1A protein showed a dose-dependent increase. Temperature and BkF concurrently modelled UGT’s expression, which increased in the 100 nM condition at 23 °C. Conversely, CYP3A27, MRP2, and BSEP expressions lowered at 23 °C. CAT and GST mRNA levels were uninfluenced by either stressor. Overall, BkF and temperature impacted independently or interactively in RTL-W1 spheroids. These seem to be useful novel tools for studying the liver-related effects of temperature and PAHs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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68 pages, 1545 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Health Effects of Automotive Brake and Tyre Wear Particles

by Athanasia Christou, Barouch Giechaskiel, Ulf Olofsson and Theodoros Grigoratos

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040301 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Non-exhaust emissions from brakes and tyres are becoming the major transport-related contributor of particulate matter (PM) pollution in cities. Furthermore, tyre microplastics are the major contributor of unintentionally released microplastics in all environmental compartments. The European Union introduced for the first time worldwide [...] Read more.

Non-exhaust emissions from brakes and tyres are becoming the major transport-related contributor of particulate matter (PM) pollution in cities. Furthermore, tyre microplastics are the major contributor of unintentionally released microplastics in all environmental compartments. The European Union introduced for the first time worldwide limits for brakes (PM₁₀) and tyres (total abrasion mass) with the Euro 7 regulatory step. Thus, the interest in brake and tyre particles regarding health and environmental impacts has significantly increased in recent years. In this review, we summarise studies that assessed the impact of brake and tyre particles on human, mammalian, aquatic, and terrestrial cells and organisms. Furthermore, we summarise the studies that compared the impact of brake and tyre particles to other sources. We also critically examine the sampling methodologies of brake and tyre particles for health and environmental impact studies. Full article

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26 pages, 2709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Unintentional Acute Pesticide Poisoning (UAPP) Amongst Cotton Farmers in Tanzania

by Jones Ackson Kapeleka, Aiwerasia Vera Ngowi, Silvani Mng’anya, Sheila E. Willis, Joey P. Salmon, Keith F. Tyrell, Stephanie Williamson, Michael Eddleston and Alexander M. Stuart

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040300 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Pesticide poisoning is widely accepted as a major public health problem in low- and middle-income countries, especially in East Africa. However, a very high proportion of unintentional poisonings are either unreported or misreported. To help fill this knowledge gap, we investigated the scale [...] Read more.

Pesticide poisoning is widely accepted as a major public health problem in low- and middle-income countries, especially in East Africa. However, a very high proportion of unintentional poisonings are either unreported or misreported. To help fill this knowledge gap, we investigated the scale of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning (UAPP) in cotton-growing communities in Tanzania by conducting a cross-sectional survey of 1074 cotton farmers or farm workers. The findings from this study revealed a high incidence of self-reported negative health effects following occupational pesticide exposure, with 48% of respondents experiencing symptoms of UAPP within the previous 12 months. Furthermore, the substantial proportion of UAPP incidents were associated with a few highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs), particularly profenofos, lambda cyhalothrin, and co-formulations with both chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin. Of those reporting UAPP, only 6% sought medical treatment in a formal healthcare setting. The findings from this study clearly indicates an urgent need for improved pesticide regulation, the scale up of community surveillance, and the promotion of less hazardous alternatives to the use of HHPs. We provide policy recommendations and identify alternatives to HHPs for cotton pest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hazardous Effects of Pesticides on Human Health—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 1081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Statistical Exploration of QSAR Models in Cancer Risk Assessment: A Case Study on Pesticide-Active Substances and Metabolites

by Serena Greco, Cecilia Bossa, Chiara Laura Battistelli and Alessandro Giuliani

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040299 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Data generated using new approach methodologies (NAMs), including in silico, in vitro, and in chemico approaches, are increasingly important for the hazard identification of chemicals. Among NAMs, (quantitative) structure–activity relationship (Q)SAR models occupy a peculiar position by allowing (in principle) a toxicity estimate [...] Read more.

Data generated using new approach methodologies (NAMs), including in silico, in vitro, and in chemico approaches, are increasingly important for the hazard identification of chemicals. Among NAMs, (quantitative) structure–activity relationship (Q)SAR models occupy a peculiar position by allowing (in principle) a toxicity estimate on the sole basis of chemical structural information, leveraging upon toxicity profiles of already tested chemicals (a training set). Consequently, the metrics adopted for the estimation of both the congruence of the test chemicals with the training set and the risk categorization are of paramount importance. This paper comprises a small-scale, mainly methodological study to investigate these aspects and assess the general coherence between the results from different (Q)SAR models applied to the assessment of the carcinogenicity of pesticide-active substances and metabolites. The results of the present study underline the significant potential of using (Q)SAR models, together with limitations, such as inconsistencies in results across models and the intrinsic constraints of their applicability domain. The critical role of a priori strategies adopted in defining the applicability domain of the models is highlighted, emphasizing the need for user-transparent definitions. This is a crucial step for a sensible integration of the information coming from different NAMs. Full article

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18 pages, 2061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Aromatic Compounds and Hepatorenal Biomarkers Among Coking Workers: Insights from Mediation Analysis

by Dongming Chen, Hang Yu, Hailing Li, Guiying Li and Taicheng An

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040298 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Coking activities produce high concentrations of aromatic compounds (ACs) and related substances, which may have impacts on human health. However, the health effects of these substances on humans exposed to coking sites have not been fully elucidated. A total of 637 people were [...] Read more.

Coking activities produce high concentrations of aromatic compounds (ACs) and related substances, which may have impacts on human health. However, the health effects of these substances on humans exposed to coking sites have not been fully elucidated. A total of 637 people were recruited to participate in this cross-sectional study. Using multiple linear regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression, we investigated the relationships between the urinary parent or metabolite forms of ACs (including metabolites of PAHs and their derivatives, nitrophenols, and chlorophenols) and hepatorenal biomarkers (HRBs), including total bilirubin, aspartate aminotransferase/alanine aminotransferase, serum uric acid, creatinine, albumin/globulin, and urea. The HRBs adopted in this study can effectively represent the status of human liver and kidney function. Mediation analysis was performed to investigate the possible mediating relationship between ACs and HRBs using oxidative stress markers as mediators. Our study indicated that ACs were significantly associated with increases in TBIL, AST/ALT, A/G, and UA, as well as a significant decrease in Cr. UREA showed no association with ACs among coking workers. The oxidative stress markers 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine, 8-iso-prostaglandin-F2α, and 8-iso,15(R)-prostaglandinF2α mediated the induction of ACs on TBIL. Our results suggest that AC exposure in coking workers may be associated with adverse changes in hepatorenal biomarkers. This study highlights the significant impact of ACs from coking activities on workers’ hepatorenal biomarkers, providing crucial evidence for health risk assessment and prevention in affected populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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22 pages, 1266 KiB

Open AccessReview

Toxicity Assessment of Organophosphate Flame Retardants Using New Approach Methodologies

by Maryam Pyambri, Joaquim Jaumot and Carmen Bedia

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040297 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) have increasingly replaced polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in various consumer products and raw materials, due to regulatory restrictions on PBDEs. However, concerns about the toxicity and environmental persistence of OPFRs are growing. This review summarizes current research on the [...] Read more.

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) have increasingly replaced polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in various consumer products and raw materials, due to regulatory restrictions on PBDEs. However, concerns about the toxicity and environmental persistence of OPFRs are growing. This review summarizes current research on the toxicity of OPFRs, with a focus on New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) that aim to eliminate the need for animal testing. NAMs, including in vitro models, omics technologies, and computational methods, provide valuable insights into the cellular and molecular effects of OPFR exposure. Evidence suggests that OPFRs may disrupt multiple organ systems, including the nervous, hepatic, pulmonary, reproductive, and endocrine systems. Additionally, the metabolic transformation of OPFRs can increase their toxicity, raising concerns about long-term exposure risks. While NAM studies provide valuable insights, further research is needed to refine risk-assessment frameworks and improve our understanding of the long-term effects of OPFR exposure, particularly at concentrations found in the environment. This new knowledge will help develop more accurate regulatory guidelines and ensure the better protection of public and environmental health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Environmental Pollutants and Their Impact on Human Health)

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16 pages, 1157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Sex Steroid Hormones in the Association Between Manganese Exposure and Bone Mineral Density: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018

by Xiang Zhao, Jiayi Li, Jincong Yu, Yinhui Shi and Mengling Tang

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040296 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates the association between blood Mn and bone mineral density (BMD), focusing on the mediating role of sex steroids, using data from 8617 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013–2018. Weighted multiple linear regression models were used [...] Read more.

This study investigates the association between blood Mn and bone mineral density (BMD), focusing on the mediating role of sex steroids, using data from 8617 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013–2018. Weighted multiple linear regression models were used to examine the association of blood Mn and total BMD, and mediation analyses were used to explored the roles of total testosterone (TT), estradiol (E2), and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in the Mn-BMD relationship, stratified by sex and menopausal status. Blood Mn was negatively associated with BMD in both sexes, with a pronounced effect in postmenopausal women. SHBG mediated 37.16% of the Mn-BMD association in men, whereas no mediating effects were found in women. E2 exhibited a significant indirect effect, suggesting that reduced E2 levels may amplify Mn’s effect on BMD. These findings indicate that Mn exposure is associated with decreased BMD, potentially through alterations in sex steroids, highlighting the importance of considering hormone status when evaluating the impact of Mn exposure on BMD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Contamination and Its Effects on Ecosystems and Human Health: Challenges and Solutions)

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19 pages, 13101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Removal of As from Industrial Wastewater by Nanocomposite MnFe₂O₄@Fe-UiO-67

by Mengmeng Geng, Xianjin Qi and Junwei Feng

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040295 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Arsenic is a highly toxic element, and excessive levels can affect human health. Composites possess a larger specific surface area and better adsorption performance than single-MOF materials. In this paper, a simple novel nanocomposite (MnFe₂O₄@Fe-UiO-67) was synthesized by the [...] Read more.

Arsenic is a highly toxic element, and excessive levels can affect human health. Composites possess a larger specific surface area and better adsorption performance than single-MOF materials. In this paper, a simple novel nanocomposite (MnFe₂O₄@Fe-UiO-67) was synthesized by the one-pot method for the removal of arsenic from industrial wastewater. The synthesis and adsorption mechanism of the adsorbent were analyzed by a series of characterizations. The results showed that the adsorption behavior of MnFe₂O₄@Fe-UiO-67 was consistent with the pseudo-secondary kinetics and Langmuir isotherm model, i.e., it is a monomolecular layer chemisorption. Characterization by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) showed that the active site formed a strong coordination bond (As-O bond) with As ions to achieve efficient adsorption. At 298 K and pH = 10, the arsenic removal rate can reach 98.43%, and the adsorption capacity is 600.25 mg/g, which is more than most of the existing reported adsorbents. Through thermodynamic analysis, it is found that the adsorption of As ions by the adsorbent is a spontaneous exothermic process. It can exhibit excellent adsorption performance at room temperature without the need for additional energy consumption. This adsorbent has great development prospects in the treatment of wastewater. Full article

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12 pages, 4626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Microplastics on Ciprofloxacin Adsorption Dynamics and Mechanisms in Soil

by Qian Xu, Hanbing Li, Sumei Li, Ziyi Li, Sha Chen, Yixuan Liang, Yuyang Li, Jianan Li and Mengxin Yuan

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040294 - 11 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The co-occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics as emerging contaminants demonstrates significant ecological perturbations in soil matrices. Of particular scientific interest is the potential for MPs to mediate the environmental fate and transport dynamics of co-existing antibiotics. This study investigated MP-mediated ciprofloxacin (CIP) [...] Read more.

The co-occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics as emerging contaminants demonstrates significant ecological perturbations in soil matrices. Of particular scientific interest is the potential for MPs to mediate the environmental fate and transport dynamics of co-existing antibiotics. This study investigated MP-mediated ciprofloxacin (CIP) adsorption in lateritic soils. Batch experiments with polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and poly (ethylene-terephthalate) (PET) revealed soil components dominated CIP retention, while 10% (w/w) MPs reduced soil adsorption capacity by ≥10.8%, with inhibition intensity following PET > PE > PP. Adsorption thermodynamics exhibited significant pH dependence, achieving maximum sorption efficiency at pH 5.0 (± 0.2), which was approximately 83%. Competitive adsorption analysis demonstrated inverse proportionality between ionic strength and CIP retention, with trivalent cations exhibiting superior competitive displacement capacity compared to mono- and divalent counterparts. Isothermal modeling revealed multilayer adsorption mechanisms governed by hybrid chemisorption/physisorption processes in both soil and MP substrates. Spectroscopic characterization suggested differential adsorption pathways: MP-CIP interactions were primarily mediated through hydrophobic partitioning and π-π electron coupling, while soil–MP composite systems exhibited dominant cation exchange capacity and surface complexation mechanisms. Notably, electrostatic attraction/repulsion forces modulated adsorption efficiency across all experimental conditions, particularly under varying pH regimes. This work advances understanding of co-contaminant dynamics in soil ecosystems, informing risk assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plastic Contamination (Plastamination): An Environmental and Public Health-Related Concern)

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18 pages, 9296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3,3′,5,5′-Tetrabromobiphenyl (BB-80) and Its Hydroxylation Product (OH-BB-80) Mediate Immunotoxicity and Inhibit Embryonic Development in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) via the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

by Yongjian Shao, Yinan Zhang, Xiaofang Zhang, Yu Han, Zhiquan Liu, Jiafeng Ding, Binhao Wang and Hangjun Zhang

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040293 - 10 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) are metabolically transformed into monohydroxylated PBBs (OH-PBBs) in the environment and living organisms. Although OH-PBBs pose a significant health threat to organisms, little is known about the immunotoxicity of OH-PBBs. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to validate BB-80 [...] Read more.

Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) are metabolically transformed into monohydroxylated PBBs (OH-PBBs) in the environment and living organisms. Although OH-PBBs pose a significant health threat to organisms, little is known about the immunotoxicity of OH-PBBs. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to validate BB-80 and OH-BB-80 induced immunotoxicity and to explore the associated pathway mechanisms. Early development of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae was inhibited by 10 μg/L BB-80 and OH-BB-80, as indicated by negative changes in developmental indices. BB-80 and OH-BB-80 induced oxidative stress, significantly up-regulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and activated the antioxidant enzyme system at 10 μg/L. The mRNA expression levels of inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory chemokines were up-regulated, indicative of the onset of inflammation in zebrafish after BB-80 and OH-BB-80 exposure. In addition, downregulation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and NF-κB pathway-related genes was observed, suggesting that BB-80 and OH-BB-80 target the TLR/NF-κB signaling pathway. Molecular docking data showed that BB-80 and OH-BB-80 bound stably to TLR4. Taken together, BB-80 and OH-BB-80 mediate immunotoxicity and early developmental suppression associated with the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Our results further the understanding of BB-80- and OH-BB-80-induced immunotoxicity, highlighting the need for toxicological studies to examine the toxic effects of the transformation products of PBBs. Full article

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12 pages, 4545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Characterization of Aerobic and Facultative Anaerobic 17β-Estradiol Degrading Bacteria in Paddy Soils and Their Potential Mechanisms

by Wenxin Li, Shuo Yang, Hanye Ju, Chunyu Wang, Huike Ye, Xiaodong Ma, Yaqiong Wang and Mohan Bai

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040292 - 10 Apr 2025

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Abstract

17β-estradiol (E2) contamination resulting from the widespread use of animal manure poses a new threat to the agricultural environment. Since anaerobic environments have been reported to significantly extend the persistence of E2, estrogen pollution of anaerobic farmland soils (e.g., paddy soils) is of [...] Read more.

17β-estradiol (E2) contamination resulting from the widespread use of animal manure poses a new threat to the agricultural environment. Since anaerobic environments have been reported to significantly extend the persistence of E2, estrogen pollution of anaerobic farmland soils (e.g., paddy soils) is of particular concern, necessitating the development of in situ high-efficiency E2 bioremediation microorganisms. In this work, six E2-degrading strains were isolated from paddy soils, including strains from Elizabethkingia, Stenotrophomonas, Microbacterium, Ochrobactrum, Gordonia, and Acinetobacter. Among these strains, Ochrobactrum sp. AEPI-SP11 and Acinetobacter sp. AEPI-SP17 were able to degrade over 90% of 20 mg/L E2 within 5 days. Although both AEPI-SP11 and AEPI-SP17 exhibited strong tolerance to pH, temperature, and initial E2 concentrations (2, 5, 20, and 50 mg/L), only AEPI-SP17 was capable of biodegrading E2 under anaerobic conditions. Based on genomic analysis, we further obtained the whole genome sequences of AEPI-SP11 and AEPI-SP17 and identified and compared potential genes responsible for estrogen degradation in the two strains. Overall, this work significantly enhances our understanding of E2-degrading strains in paddy soils, offers valuable insights into the degradation mechanisms under varying conditions, and provides potential microbial resources for the effective control of E2 pollution in farmlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure and Toxicity of Emerging Organic Pollutants in Environment and Human)

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17 pages, 10620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Health Risks of Trace Metals in PM_2.5 Before and During the Heating Period over Three Years in Shijiazhuang, China

by Qingxia Ma, Shuangshuang Zou, Dongli Hou, Qingxian An, Peng Wang, Yunfei Wu, Renjian Zhang, Jinting Huang, Jing Xue and Lei Gu

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040291 - 10 Apr 2025

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Abstract

To explore the characteristics of PM_2.5 and assess the health risks to residents in Shijiazhuang before and during the heating period in 2019, 2020 and 2021, the hourly concentrations of PM_2.5 and its nine selected trace elements were determined. The results [...] Read more.

To explore the characteristics of PM_2.5 and assess the health risks to residents in Shijiazhuang before and during the heating period in 2019, 2020 and 2021, the hourly concentrations of PM_2.5 and its nine selected trace elements were determined. The results showed that the mass concentrations of PM_2.5 were 80.32 ± 50.21 μg m⁻³ (2019), 69.97 ± 41.91 μg m⁻³ (2020) and 58.70 ± 41.97 μg m⁻³ (2021) during the heating period, representing greatly improved air quality. The PM_2.5 levels in the heating period were 1.04~1.60 times greater than those before the heating period, while the total selected trace element concentrations were about 1.44~1.97 times higher, indicating that strict control for PM_2.5 in the heating period should be imposed. The overall hazard quotient (HQ) of the nine selected trace elements in the heating period were 1.08~1.42 times higher than those before the heating period, while the total cancer risks (CR) were decreased by 29.04% (2020) and 3.50% (2021). There were high health risks not only in local areas, but also in the south of Hebei, the north of Henan, and southern and central Shanxi. The health risks increased by 1.21~2.26 times from clean levels to heavy pollution levels. The leading element of HQ was Mn, while the dominant elements of CR varied from As to Co. Increases in PM_2.5 concentrations and HQ from before the heating period to during the heating period were observed, and there was even an inverse CR change between before the heating period and during the heating period, further identifying that air pollution control was efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Emissions Characteristics and Its Impact on Human Health)

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15 pages, 2266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rotenone Exposure During Development Conditions Parkinsonian Phenotype in Young Adult Rats

by Margarita Gómez-Chavarín, Patricia Padilla and Mireya Velázquez-Paniagua

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040290 - 10 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Current studies suggest that environmental toxins may play a significant role in the fetal origins of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Significant evidence from animal experiments has demonstrated that these toxins can disrupt fetal neurodevelopment. PD is a neurodegenerative disorder related to the loss of [...] Read more.

Current studies suggest that environmental toxins may play a significant role in the fetal origins of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Significant evidence from animal experiments has demonstrated that these toxins can disrupt fetal neurodevelopment. PD is a neurodegenerative disorder related to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (S. nigra) and accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) in the brain. Parkinson’s disease has long been associated with an idiopathic etiology, with environmental or ontogenetic factors as causes; however, the list of causal agents continues to expand as their effects are investigated at different stages of development. To explore the potential ontogenetic origins of PD, we exposed female rats subcutaneously (s.c.) to 1 mg/kg of the pesticide rotenone (ROT)—21 days during gestation, 21 days of breastfeeding, or 42 days in both periods—and assessed its long-term effects on their pups in adulthood. Our findings reveal that ROT exposure induces the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the S. nigra of adult rats. We administered ROT to dams during specific developmental stages and examined the nigrostriatal pathway and its functionality in offspring upon reaching young adulthood. Our results showed that perinatal ROT exposure led to (1) diminished motor skills, (2) greater concentrations of α-syn in the caudate nucleus (C. nucleus) and S. nigra, (3) reduced numbers of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive neurons, and (4) hypomethylation of global 5-methylcytosine DNA compared to control rats at 60 days of age. The effects were more pronounced in rats exposed to ROT in utero and in both the in utero and breastfeeding periods, with fewer effects observed in those exposed only during breastfeeding. Thus, our findings suggest that exposure to ROT during the early developmental stages predisposes rats to Parkinsonian symptoms later in adulthood. Full article

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25 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges in Ultra-Trace Beryllium Analysis: Utilizing Recent Extraction Techniques in Combination with Spectrometric Detection

by Lucia Nemček and Ingrid Hagarová

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040289 - 9 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Beryllium (Be) is one of the most toxic non-radioactive elements on the periodic table, and its presence or intake can negatively impact both the environment and human health. Classified as a carcinogen, Be is dangerous even at trace concentrations, stressing the necessity of [...] Read more.

Beryllium (Be) is one of the most toxic non-radioactive elements on the periodic table, and its presence or intake can negatively impact both the environment and human health. Classified as a carcinogen, Be is dangerous even at trace concentrations, stressing the necessity of developing reliable methods for quantifying it at very low levels. Spectrometric techniques for quantifying Be vary in sensitivity and applicability, with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) being the most sensitive for ultra-trace analysis. Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) is suitable for higher Be concentrations, but preconcentration techniques can significantly lower detection limits. Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS) provides enhanced sensitivity for low-level Be quantification, further optimized using pyrolytically coated graphite tubes and chemical modifiers such as Mg(NO₃)₂ or Pd(NO₃)₂. Effective separation and preconcentration techniques are essential for reliable Be quantification in complex matrices. Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), including single-drop microextraction (SDME) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), have evolved to reduce the use of hazardous solvents. When combined with ETAAS, surfactant-assisted DLLME using agents like cetylpyridinium ammonium bromide (CPAB) and dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (AOT) achieves preconcentration factors of approximately 25, reducing LOD to 1 ng/L. Vesicle-mediated DLLME coupled with ETAAS further enhances sensitivity, allowing detection limits as low as 0.01 ng/L in seawater. Cloud-point extraction (CPE), often employing Triton X-114, facilitates Be extraction using complexing agents or nanomaterials like graphene oxide. These advancements are critical for accurately quantifying Be at ultra-trace levels in diverse environmental and biological samples, overcoming challenges posed by low analyte concentrations and matrix interferences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contaminants and Human Health)

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17 pages, 8406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Freeze–Thaw Process on the Dynamic Changes in Body Weight and Metal in Groundwater of Seasonal Frozen Lakes: Experimental Study and Model Simulation

by Hui Zhang, Shengnan Zhao, Xiaohong Shi, Jinda Zhang, Zhimou Cui and Jingyi Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(4), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040288 - 9 Apr 2025

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Abstract

To investigate the changes in heavy metal content in the sub glacial water during the freezing and thawing process of seasonally frozen lakes, the Wuliangsuhai Lake in northern China was taken as the research object. The ice thickness, water depth, and heavy metal [...] Read more.

To investigate the changes in heavy metal content in the sub glacial water during the freezing and thawing process of seasonally frozen lakes, the Wuliangsuhai Lake in northern China was taken as the research object. The ice thickness, water depth, and heavy metal content at different depths of the lake were measured during the freezing and thawing periods. Based on a large amount of measured lake heavy metal data, MATLAB 2022b software is used to model data fitting and optimization identification, and wavelet analysis and 24 h sliding average method are used for verification analysis to describe the variation process of heavy metal concentration in ice water with depth and time. The results show that during the freezing and thawing periods of lakes, the water level is constantly changing, but the heavy metal content in the water below the ice follows the same distribution with water depth. During the freezing process, the heavy metal content in the water increases with the increase in ice thickness. A new numerical model describing the spatiotemporal distribution of heavy metals under the ice during the freezing period of the lake was obtained through calculation. The overall trend of the simulated contour lines is consistent with the measured values and has a small error. This study provides a reference for predicting the changes in heavy metal content under the ice cover during the freezing period in cold and arid regions. The model can be used to simulate the content values of heavy metals at different depths and times. Full article

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