Batteries

21 pages, 3410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Approach for State-of-Charge Estimation Accounting for Battery Aging

by Woongchul Choi, Younggill Son and Jiwon Kwon

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050182 - 20 May 2026

Accurate battery state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is a core function of battery management systems (BMSs) for electric vehicles (EVs), as it directly affects energy management, safety, and reliability. However, battery aging significantly degrades the accuracy of conventional SOC estimation methods by causing capacity loss, [...] Read more.

Accurate battery state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is a core function of battery management systems (BMSs) for electric vehicles (EVs), as it directly affects energy management, safety, and reliability. However, battery aging significantly degrades the accuracy of conventional SOC estimation methods by causing capacity loss, increased internal resistance, and changes in voltage response characteristics. To address these issues, this study proposes an aging-aware SOC estimation method that combines an equivalent-circuit model (ECM) with an extended Kalman filter (EKF). In the proposed framework, aging effects are explicitly incorporated by using offline-identified SOH-dependent model parameters, including effective capacity, RC parameters, and SOC–OCV characteristics, and scheduling these parameters within the EKF prediction and correction process according to the available SOH information. Furthermore, the performance of the proposed method is experimentally validated under an Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) using cylindrical lithium-ion cells with large current fluctuations. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed aging-aware EKF maintains stable SOC estimation performance not only in the initial battery state but also throughout the gradual aging process and up to the end of battery life. These results demonstrate the potential of SOH-scheduled, aging-aware EKF-based SOC estimation to improve SOC accuracy in aged batteries under the investigated laboratory and dynamic load conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Aging Mechanisms, Diagnosis Method and Lifetime Assessment)

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40 pages, 10883 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electro-Thermal Modeling and Simulation of a Battery-Integrated PECIN Multilevel Inverter Using a Switching Model Approach

by Sascha Speer, Christoph Terbrack and Christian Endisch

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050181 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Cascaded multilevel inverters constitute a promising system concept for battery electric powertrains due to their high efficiency, low harmonic distortion, and advanced battery management capabilities. This study presents a novel electro-thermal simulation framework for the symmetrical Parallel Enhanced Commutation Integrated Nested (PECIN) multilevel [...] Read more.

Cascaded multilevel inverters constitute a promising system concept for battery electric powertrains due to their high efficiency, low harmonic distortion, and advanced battery management capabilities. This study presents a novel electro-thermal simulation framework for the symmetrical Parallel Enhanced Commutation Integrated Nested (PECIN) multilevel inverter. The proposed model employs a control-oriented approach that enables the development and evaluation of advanced inverter and battery control algorithms, which exploit the extensive series-parallel reconfiguration capabilities of the PECIN topology. The framework is based on electrical and thermal equivalent circuit models to capture physical behavior and cross-domain interactions. Electrical network analysis employs algorithms that iterate over each phase-arm network, replacing high-dimensional matrix inversions and thereby enhancing computational efficiency. The overall model is readily adaptable to various system configurations, including different AC and DC charging modes, and scalable with respect to the number of submodules and phases. Simulation results for a 31-level multilevel inverter in a three-phase AC charging configuration demonstrate the model’s operational capabilities. Execution time analysis shows that the current distribution calculation is the key contributor to computational effort as the number of submodules increases, resulting in a quadratic growth of the overall computational time. Full article

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Graphical abstract

35 pages, 1400 KB

Open AccessReview

Sodium-Ion Batteries: Materials, Performance, and Application in Engineering Systems

by Subin Antony Jose, Blake Latos, Alvaro Hurtado, Jaylen Hurtado, Jacob Jenkins and Pradeep L. Menezes

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050180 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are emerging as a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their material sustainability and cost-effectiveness, helping address the high costs, supply limits, and environmental concerns associated with lithium. This paper reviews SIB materials, designs, and applications, and surveys [...] Read more.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are emerging as a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their material sustainability and cost-effectiveness, helping address the high costs, supply limits, and environmental concerns associated with lithium. This paper reviews SIB materials, designs, and applications, and surveys their electrochemical performance, challenges, and future prospects. Recent advances in electrode materials (e.g., layered oxides, hard carbon composites, metallic alloys) are greatly improving SIB stability, conductivity, capacity, and cycle life. Improvements in both solid-state and liquid electrolytes have likewise enhanced ionic conductivity, capacity retention, thermal stability, and safety. Despite their lower energy density, SIBs tolerate wider temperature ranges and carry a significantly lower risk of thermal runaway compared to lithium-based systems, making them attractive for industrial, transportation, and large-scale power storage. Continuous progress in materials and cell engineering is narrowing the performance gap between SIBs and LIBs. Meanwhile, nascent battery recycling strategies for SIBs show promise for economic and environmental viability. Overall, SIBs represent a promising option for safer, more accessible, and more sustainable energy storage technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Manufacturing: Current Status, Challenges, and Opportunities: 2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 15080 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Electrochemical Aging on the Mechanical–Electrical–Thermal Safety Response of Tabless 4695 Cylindrical Cells Under Quasi-Static Indentation

by Richard Polzer, Eva Heider, Christian Ellersdorfer, Ute Golla-Schindler, Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, Sergej Diel and Hans-Georg Schweiger

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050179 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

Electrochemical aging can alter the mechanical abuse tolerance of lithium-ion cells, but evidence for large-format tabless cylindrical cells remains limited. This study investigates commercial steel-cased 4695 cells under quasi-static hemispherical indentation at 100% State-of-Charge. Fresh cells were compared with two aged groups brought [...] Read more.

Electrochemical aging can alter the mechanical abuse tolerance of lithium-ion cells, but evidence for large-format tabless cylindrical cells remains limited. This study investigates commercial steel-cased 4695 cells under quasi-static hemispherical indentation at 100% State-of-Charge. Fresh cells were compared with two aged groups brought to 80% remaining capacity by either room-temperature cycling at 20 °C and 20 A or low-temperature/high-current cycling at −10 °C and 45 A. Aging shifted the onset of a major internal short circuit to lower displacement, force, and absorbed mechanical work. Relative to fresh cells, the mean displacement at internal short-circuit onset decreased by 15.9% after aging at 20 °C and 20 A and by 22.1% after aging at −10 °C and 45 A, while the corresponding force decreased by 10.8% and 19.4%. The absorbed mechanical work to short-circuit onset decreased by 24.0% and 37.3%, respectively. Peak surface temperatures did not clearly separate the groups, whereas integrating the surface-temperature rise over the first 30

s

after short-circuit onset revealed an increase from 6894

K

s

in fresh cells to 9872

K

s

and 13,777

K

s

in the two aged groups. The experiments also revealed a change in observed venting behavior, with top-terminal venting occurring more frequently in aged cells. These results indicate that, under the tested conditions, aging history can reduce mechanical abuse tolerance and modify post-failure severity in large-format cylindrical cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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15 pages, 12207 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structurally Robust Prussian Blue Nanocubes as High-Rate Cathode Materials for Sodium- and Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Narasimharao Kitchamsetti, Ana L. F. de Barros, Sungwook Mhin and HyukSu Han

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050178 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

Prussian blue (PB) nanocubes have been explored as promising cathode materials for high-performance sodium-ion (SIBs) and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). These nanostructures exhibit good cycling stability and electrochemical resilience. They are synthesized through a co-precipitation method followed by vacuum drying, resulting in a porous [...] Read more.

Prussian blue (PB) nanocubes have been explored as promising cathode materials for high-performance sodium-ion (SIBs) and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). These nanostructures exhibit good cycling stability and electrochemical resilience. They are synthesized through a co-precipitation method followed by vacuum drying, resulting in a porous and conductive nanocube framework. This architecture facilitates efficient ion diffusion, enhanced electrolyte accessibility, and effective mitigation of volume changes during cycling. In SIB applications, the PB nanocubes maintain stable performance over 300 and 400 cycles at current densities of 0.05 and 0.1 A g⁻¹, respectively, and deliver a capacity of 26.2 mAh g⁻¹ at 2.0 A g⁻¹. For LIBs, they exhibit sustained cycling over 200 and 300 cycles under similar conditions, with a capacity of 20.2 mAh g⁻¹ at 2.0 A g⁻¹. These findings underscore the structural benefits of PB nanocubes for dual-ion battery systems. Full article

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23 pages, 4267 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Linked PEG Networks as Flexible Electrolytes for Solid-State Sodium Batteries: Ionic Transport, Long-Term Stability and Life Cycle Assessment

by Johanna Montserrat Naranjo-Balseca, Cynthia Susana Martínez-Cisneros, Esperanza Batuecas, Bidhan Pandit, Belen Levenfeld, Alejandro Varez and Jean-Yves Sanchez

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050177 - 18 May 2026

Abstract

Solid-state sodium batteries based on polymer electrolytes offer a sustainable solution to overcome current and near-future needs regarding the growing energy and transport electrification issues. In this work, we propose the development of solvent-free polymer electrolytes based on an unsaturated polyether, which, once [...] Read more.

Solid-state sodium batteries based on polymer electrolytes offer a sustainable solution to overcome current and near-future needs regarding the growing energy and transport electrification issues. In this work, we propose the development of solvent-free polymer electrolytes based on an unsaturated polyether, which, once cross-linked, leads to an amorphous structure at room temperature that favors ionic transport towards reliable and robust solid-state sodium batteries operative at moderate temperatures. Using NaClO₄ and NaPF₆ as sodium salts, the best polymer electrolyte reaches an ionic conductivity in the range of 0.02 mS·cm⁻¹ (30 °C)–0.90 mS·cm⁻¹ (100 °C) with a lifetime superior to 2000 h after plating and stripping. Regarding electrochemical performance, a maximum specific capacity of 110.2 mAh·g⁻¹ (C/20) is obtained for the polymer electrolyte including NaClO₄, using Na and C/FePO₄ as anode and cathode, respectively, which represents about 65% of the theoretical value expected for FePO₄. In view of more sustainable energy storage devices, a life cycle assessment is also applied. While the polymer matrix is identified as the main environmental hotspot, the choice of Na salt significantly affects the overall impact, with NaClO₄ exhibiting lower climate change and particulate matter impacts than NaPF₆. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Electrolyte and Interfacial Engineering)

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30 pages, 21223 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physics-Informed SP-LSTM for State of Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries with Macro and Physical Feature Fusion

by Yujie Sun, Zigen Li, Jingrong Tang, Zishun Wang, Jiaxue Dong and Jing V. Wang

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050176 - 17 May 2026

Abstract

Accurately estimating the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries remains challenging for battery management systems. Traditional data-driven methods, such as long short-term memory (LSTM), lack physical interpretability and often fail to generalize across varying operating conditions. To address this, a physics-informed SP-LSTM [...] Read more.

Accurately estimating the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries remains challenging for battery management systems. Traditional data-driven methods, such as long short-term memory (LSTM), lack physical interpretability and often fail to generalize across varying operating conditions. To address this, a physics-informed SP-LSTM framework is proposed that integrates the single particle model (SPM) with a bidirectional LSTM network. A hybrid optimization strategy combining particle swarm optimization and the limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno with bounds (L-BFGS-B) is first used to identify key SPM parameters, which are then combined with macro external features (charging time, discharge energy, IC peak) to form a seven-dimensional fusion vector. A dual-stream Bi-LSTM architecture separately models fast-varying macro trends and slow-varying physical parameters, achieving robust SOH mapping. Validated on the NASA PCoE dataset, the proposed SP-LSTM achieves a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.0136 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.0089 on an independent test set (B0018), outperforming the baseline LSTM by 38.2% in RMSE. Noise robustness tests (0–3% voltage noise) and Sobol global sensitivity analysis further confirm its stability and interpretability. By embedding electrochemical priors into the data-driven pipeline, this work provides a practical physics-data collaborative framework for accurate and trustworthy battery SOH estimation. Full article

14 pages, 5402 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrode-Level Emulation of Temperature Impact in Commercial Li-Ion Batteries

by Matthieu Dubarry, Alexa Fernando and David Beck

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050175 - 16 May 2026

Abstract

Temperature affects the battery voltage response, and it is essential to take this influence into consideration for diagnosis purposes, as it could be misinterpreted for degradation. Temperature affects cell kinetics, and a good proxy to emulate this impact is to use electrode data [...] Read more.

Temperature affects the battery voltage response, and it is essential to take this influence into consideration for diagnosis purposes, as it could be misinterpreted for degradation. Temperature affects cell kinetics, and a good proxy to emulate this impact is to use electrode data at different C rates. This work further validates this concept by analyzing the relationship between temperature and rate at the electrode level for commercial graphite//LiFePO₄ and (silicon, graphite)//LiNi_0.8Mn_0.1Co_0.1O₂ cells. It will be shown that excellent emulation accuracy for both the voltage response and the capacity retention can be obtained for temperatures varying between −14 °C and 55 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Battery Health, Aging and Degradation Mechanisms)

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64 pages, 7181 KB

Open AccessReview

State-of-Health Estimation for Li-Ion Batteries of Real-World Electric Vehicles: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects

by Ren Zhu, Hamza Shaukat, Fatima Zahira, Hafiz Muhammad Huzefa, Muaaz Bin Kaleem and Heng Li

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050174 - 16 May 2026

Abstract

The accurate estimation of State of Health (SoH) for lithium-ion batteries in real-world electric vehicles (EVs) is critical for ensuring safety, reliability, optimal energy management, and lifecycle sustainability. Unlike laboratory-controlled conditions, real-world EV batteries operate under highly dynamic loads, irregular charging behaviors, diverse [...] Read more.

The accurate estimation of State of Health (SoH) for lithium-ion batteries in real-world electric vehicles (EVs) is critical for ensuring safety, reliability, optimal energy management, and lifecycle sustainability. Unlike laboratory-controlled conditions, real-world EV batteries operate under highly dynamic loads, irregular charging behaviors, diverse environmental conditions, and user-dependent driving patterns. This review provides a comprehensive and structured overview of recent progress in SoH estimation for real-world EV applications. The fundamentals of battery aging mechanisms are summarized, with a clarification of key SoH definitions, metrics, and influencing factors under practical operating conditions. Subsequently, existing methodologies are systematically categorized into physics-based models, data-driven approaches, hybrid/model-assisted frameworks, and uncertainty-aware probabilistic methods, with a focus on their strengths and limitations in real-world deployment. Key challenges, including domain shift, computational constraints, explainability, thermal variability, and data heterogeneity, are critically and systematically analyzed. Finally, future research directions are outlined, emphasizing transfer learning, foundation models, physics-informed AI, self-supervised learning, digital twins, and the need for standardized benchmarks. This review aims to provide researchers and practitioners with a clear roadmap toward reliable, scalable, and trustworthy SoH estimation for next-generation intelligent battery management systems in electric vehicles. Full article

8 pages, 717 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Beyond Conventional Systems: How Solid-State Batteries Empower Energy Storage and Microgrid Development in Extraterrestrial Extreme Environments

by Yue Wang, Dakang Peng, Peng Zhang, Jianquan Liang, Shilin Yang, Hanwen An and Jiajun Wang

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050173 - 16 May 2026

Abstract

The burgeoning commercial space sector demands next-generation energy systems that offer ultra-high specific energy, wide operational temperature ranges, intrinsic safety, and vacuum compatibility. These requirements severely challenge conventional lithium-ion batteries due to issues like electrolyte leakage and thermal instability. This perspective examines solid-state [...] Read more.

The burgeoning commercial space sector demands next-generation energy systems that offer ultra-high specific energy, wide operational temperature ranges, intrinsic safety, and vacuum compatibility. These requirements severely challenge conventional lithium-ion batteries due to issues like electrolyte leakage and thermal instability. This perspective examines solid-state batteries (SSBs) as a potential solution, leveraging their inherent leak-proof design, superior thermal tolerance, and robust solid electrolytes. We suggest that SSBs could become a key technology for applications such as lunar surface operations, deep-space probes, and high-speed vehicles. By addressing certain limitations of current power sources, SSB technology may help shape the energy architecture for future space exploration and commercialization. Full article

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21 pages, 7178 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Runaway Evolution, Propagation Mechanism and Multi-Dimensional Fire Investigation Methodology for 18650-Type NCA Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Juntao Wu, Yafei Fan, Haojun Zhang, Ziheng Wang, Jianhong Du and Diping Yuan

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050172 - 15 May 2026

Abstract

To address the critical industry challenges of insufficient thermal safety and reliability in the stacking design of lithium-ion battery (LIB) modules, as well as the lack of accurate traceability methods for LIB fire accidents, this study takes commercial 18650-type lithium, nickel cobalt aluminum [...] Read more.

To address the critical industry challenges of insufficient thermal safety and reliability in the stacking design of lithium-ion battery (LIB) modules, as well as the lack of accurate traceability methods for LIB fire accidents, this study takes commercial 18650-type lithium, nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA) LIBs as the research object. First, we systematically investigated the thermal runaway (TR) behavior of single cells under thermal and electrical abuse conditions, identified the significant discrepancies in TR behavior between the two abuse scenarios, quantitatively revealed a positive correlation between TR risk and state of charge (SOC), and determined that the core feature is that the maximum heat release occurs in the negative electrode of the battery. Subsequently, we quantitatively analyzed the influences of the initial TR trigger position and module stacking structure on the TR propagation characteristics within the module, and obtained the key conclusions that center-triggered TR exhibits a faster propagation rate and that the vertical stacking structure significantly aggravates the TR chain reaction. Finally, based on the TR process, this paper summarizes the burn mark characteristics caused by different triggers of thermal runaway in LIBs. The results of this study provide critical fundamental data for optimizing the thermal safety design of LIB modules, and offer a scientific basis for the formulation of LIB fire rescue schemes and the implementation of fire investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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19 pages, 20942 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Non-Doped Cubic Lithium Lanthanum Zirconium Oxide Nanofibers: Insights from In Situ Synchrotron X-Ray Scattering

by Guanyi Wang, Byeongdu Lee, Devon Powers, Meghan Burns, Young-Geun Lee, Michael C. Tucker, Jeong Seop Yoon, Pallab Barai, Yuzi Liu, Venkat Srinivasan, Sanja Tepavcevic and Yuepeng Zhang

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050171 - 14 May 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the formation mechanism of non-doped cubic lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (c-LLZO) nanofibers using in situ synchrotron X-ray scattering techniques. Electrospun polymer precursor nanofibers were annealed at temperatures up to 800 °C, enabling real-time tracking of phase transitions via simultaneous small-angle [...] Read more.

This study investigates the formation mechanism of non-doped cubic lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (c-LLZO) nanofibers using in situ synchrotron X-ray scattering techniques. Electrospun polymer precursor nanofibers were annealed at temperatures up to 800 °C, enabling real-time tracking of phase transitions via simultaneous small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and evolved CO₂ gas analysis. The results reveal a three-step transformation pathway: polymer decomposition, formation of La₂Zr₂O₇ (LZO), and direct conversion of LZO to c-LLZO without intermediate tetragonal phases detected within the sensitivity of our in situ WAXS measurement. Cryo-electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) further elucidates the role of lithium diffusion, showing Li enrichment at fiber surfaces and Li deficiency in the interior, which stabilizes the cubic phase. This Li segregation effect in nanostructured LLZO materials extends beyond the previously reported size effect. This work advances the understanding of c-LLZO formation mechanisms and provides practical insights for optimizing synthesis routes to achieve phase-pure c-LLZO for solid-state battery applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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37 pages, 8499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Parameter Optimization and Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Cooling Systems for Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing Aircraft Battery Modules

by Siyuan Yang, Jinlei Sun, Yaodong Wang, Yu Chen, Meng Li, Jiuyu Du and Xiaogang Wu

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050170 - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Efficient and reliable cooling is essential for ensuring the safety and performance of battery packs in electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. To address the limitations of existing cooling methods in cooling capability and structural integration, this study proposes a hybrid cooling [...] Read more.

Efficient and reliable cooling is essential for ensuring the safety and performance of battery packs in electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. To address the limitations of existing cooling methods in cooling capability and structural integration, this study proposes a hybrid cooling system combining air cooling, high-thermal-conductivity plates (HCPs), and phase-change material (PCM). The power demand in different eVTOL flight phases is first analyzed. A single-cell simulation model is then developed and validated through experiments. The effects of three key structural parameters on system performance are investigated, and their relative importance is quantified using sensitivity analysis. A multi-objective evaluation framework is further established to compare the proposed system with no cooling, passive cooling, and liquid cooling strategies. The adaptability of the hybrid cooling system under different operating conditions is also evaluated. Finally, an air-cooling intervention strategy is proposed based on the PCM liquid fraction. The results show that the optimized hybrid cooling system limits the maximum battery temperature and maximum temperature difference to 37.9 °C and 3.1 °C, respectively. Compared with passive cooling, the proposed system improves temperature stability by 44.6%. Compared with the liquid cooling system, space occupancy is reduced by 19.5%, and the grouping efficiency is increased by 22.4%. The adaptability analysis indicates that the optimized system is suitable for ambient temperatures not exceeding 30 °C. In addition, the proposed air-cooling intervention strategy reduces the air-cooling energy consumption by 43.3% compared with continuous air cooling, while maintaining temperature uniformity. These findings provide a numerical reference for the preliminary design of eVTOL battery cooling systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Advanced Battery Technologies for Future Integrated Transportation–Energy Systems)

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14 pages, 2705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomass Corn Cob-Derived Hard Carbons via Joule Heating for Sodium-Ion Storage

by Hao Li, Shuo Shi, Binghui Xu and Xiu-Song Zhao

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050169 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

Hard carbon (HC) materials are widely recognized as one of the most promising anode candidates for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Biomass-derived HC materials particularly possess the advantages of abundant sources, low cost, and high sodium-ion (Na⁺) storage capacity. In this work, the [...] Read more.

Hard carbon (HC) materials are widely recognized as one of the most promising anode candidates for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Biomass-derived HC materials particularly possess the advantages of abundant sources, low cost, and high sodium-ion (Na⁺) storage capacity. In this work, the agricultural byproduct corn cob is employed as a raw material to prepare HC samples via a facile two-step approach of pre-carbonization and Joule heating treatment. Among the prepared HC samples, the CHC-1400 sample exhibits the optimal physiochemical properties. As a result, the corresponding CHC-1400 electrode not only delivers the highest initial reversible capacity of 263 mAh g⁻¹ with a corresponding initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of 72% at 0.2 C, but maintains a high capacity retention of 91% after 300 cycles. The Na⁺ storage mechanism for the HC samples has thus been revealed. This study introduces a novel, time-saving, and cost-effective protocol for synthesizing biomass-derived HC anode materials, which is of great significance to the advancement of SIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy-Storage Systems—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 3730 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Air Cooling on the Performance of Ternary Lithium Batteries Under Airborne Low-Pressure Conditions

by Jiang Huang, Haoran Zhang, Yunjia Deng, Chi Ouyang and Yuanhua He

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050168 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

The low-pressure environment at aircraft cruising altitudes severely degrades lithium battery performance, yet the effectiveness and mechanisms of air-cooling thermal management under such conditions remain poorly understood. This study systematically investigates the coupled thermal, electrical, and material responses of NCM523/graphite ternary batteries under [...] Read more.

The low-pressure environment at aircraft cruising altitudes severely degrades lithium battery performance, yet the effectiveness and mechanisms of air-cooling thermal management under such conditions remain poorly understood. This study systematically investigates the coupled thermal, electrical, and material responses of NCM523/graphite ternary batteries under forced air-cooling at three pressures (96 kPa, 77 kPa, 58 kPa) and varying wind speeds (0–10 m/s) during 4C charge/6C discharge cycling. Air cooling reduces the maximum surface temperature by up to 14.2 °C and maintains the temperature difference below 5 °C, even at 58 kPa. An optimal wind speed of 6 m/s extends cycle life by 71% at 58 kPa (from 45 to 77 cycles), suppresses resistance growth, and preserves discharge capacity. Further increasing the wind speed paradoxically accelerates degradation. Post-mortem analyses reveal that appropriate air cooling mitigates cathode particle fragmentation, restores cation mixing (I₀₀₃/I₁₀₄ from 1.07 to 1.63 for 58 kPa), reduces transition metal dissolution, and suppresses solid electrolyte interface (SEI) thickening. This work establishes an optimum air velocity for low-pressure battery cooling and provides mechanistic insights into preserving electrode structural integrity, offering design guidelines for safe battery thermal management in electric aircraft. Full article

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24 pages, 4226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Day-Ahead Optimal Scheduling for Electric Bus PV-Storage Charging Station Under Uncertainty: An IGDT-Based Approach

by Tao Xin, Senyong Fan, Peixin Chang, Qing Yang, Yan Bao, Weige Zhang and Peng Liu

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050167 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Efficient scheduling of electric bus (EB) photovoltaic-storage charging stations (PSCSs) is essential for ensuring the operational economy of public transit and the security of the power grid. Existing scheduling studies generally simplify charging and storage efficiencies as fixed constants, neglecting their dynamic dependence [...] Read more.

Efficient scheduling of electric bus (EB) photovoltaic-storage charging stations (PSCSs) is essential for ensuring the operational economy of public transit and the security of the power grid. Existing scheduling studies generally simplify charging and storage efficiencies as fixed constants, neglecting their dynamic dependence on power levels. Meanwhile, the stochasticity of photovoltaic (PV) generation further complicates scheduling decisions. To address these issues, this paper proposes a day-ahead robust scheduling method for EB PSCSs that incorporates dynamic charging efficiency. First, the dynamic battery efficiency model is reasonably simplified and reformulated, and the big-M method is employed to transform the nonlinear efficiency model into an equivalent set of linear constraints, thereby effectively integrating dynamic efficiency characteristics into the day-ahead optimization framework. Then, information gap decision theory (IGDT) is adopted to model PV output uncertainty, establishing a risk-averse decision optimization model. On this basis, a two-stage solution algorithm integrated with the bisection method is designed to decompose the IGDT optimization problem into a series of linear programming subproblems, balancing solution accuracy and computational efficiency. Case studies validate the effectiveness of the proposed method. The results demonstrate that the dynamic efficiency model significantly improves scheduling accuracy, and the IGDT framework provides a reliable, robust scheduling strategy for PSCSs under limited information conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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20 pages, 11242 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Characteristics of Internal Short Circuits in Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Complex Condition: Nail Penetration Coupled with Charge/Discharge

by Yong Ding, Wenda Li, Linhui Wang and Zhoujian An

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050166 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

This study systematically investigates the internal short circuit (ISC) characteristics of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for electric vehicles under nail penetration abuse coupled with charge/discharge operations. By establishing a nail penetration coupled with dynamic charge/discharge experimental platform and using commercial NCM pouch cells as [...] Read more.

This study systematically investigates the internal short circuit (ISC) characteristics of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for electric vehicles under nail penetration abuse coupled with charge/discharge operations. By establishing a nail penetration coupled with dynamic charge/discharge experimental platform and using commercial NCM pouch cells as test subjects, it comprehensively analyzes the effects of different charge/discharge operations (charging, discharging, resting) and C-rates (0.2 C–3 C) on battery surface temperature, voltage, current, mass loss, and thermal runaway behavior. The research finds that a mutual inhibitory effect exists between discharge operation and ISC, manifested as reduced discharge current along with decreased surge current, temperature rise rate, and voltage drop, significantly lowering the battery’s thermal runaway risk. In contrast, charging operation exacerbates ISC severity, causing increases in surge current, temperature rise rate, maximum temperature, and mass loss with higher C-rates, substantially enhancing thermal hazards. The study further reveals the underlying mechanisms: during discharge, a “Li⁺ competition” effect suppresses the short-circuit current, whereas during charging, the external power source and the battery jointly form the short-circuit current, intensifying heat generation. This research provides important experimental evidence and theoretical support for the thermal safety design and risk assessment of LIBs under operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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22 pages, 4029 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanistic Study of Hydrothermal Management in Air Cooled PEMFCs by Coordinated Ultrasonic Atomization and Fan Regulation Through Three-Dimensional Multiphysics Coupling

by Jing Qin, Haoran Ma, Haotian Yang and Xing Huang

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050165 - 10 May 2026

Abstract

To address the difficulty of simultaneously achieving effective heat dissipation and adequate humidification in open-cathode air-cooled proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) under medium and high power operation, this study proposes a hydrothermal management strategy based on coordinated ultrasonic atomization humidification and fan [...] Read more.

To address the difficulty of simultaneously achieving effective heat dissipation and adequate humidification in open-cathode air-cooled proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) under medium and high power operation, this study proposes a hydrothermal management strategy based on coordinated ultrasonic atomization humidification and fan speed regulation. A three-dimensional single-cell multiphysics model is developed and validated using a 300 W experimental platform. The effects of atomization frequency and water temperature on stack performance and internal hydrothermal distribution are systematically investigated. Results show that ultrasonic atomization provides inlet precooling, latent heat absorption, and active region humidification, thereby improving hydrothermal uniformity within the stack. Under the optimal condition of 100 kHz and 55 °C, the peak stack power increases by 21.0% to 319.00 W, while voltage consistency and surface temperature uniformity are also improved. Analysis based on the Stokes number and Dalton’s law of partial pressures indicates that the optimum results from a balance between suppressing droplet agglomeration and inertial deposition, and limiting oxygen dilution caused by excessive water vapor. The proposed strategy provides a compact and practical approach for improving the stability, uniformity, and efficiency of air-cooled PEMFCs. Full article

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18 pages, 4174 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Optimization Design of Wavey-Channel Cold Plates for Li-Ion Batteries by Deep Neural Network

by Kun Xi, Zhihui Xie, Xinshan Ni, Min Zhang and Xiaochen Chen

Batteries 2026, 12(5), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12050164 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

The continuously improving power density of Li-ion batteries and the widespread application of fast charging and discharging have rendered thermal management an increasingly critical task. Cold plates are among the most important means for such a task, and their channel structure significantly affects [...] Read more.

The continuously improving power density of Li-ion batteries and the widespread application of fast charging and discharging have rendered thermal management an increasingly critical task. Cold plates are among the most important means for such a task, and their channel structure significantly affects battery performance. Aiming to further improve the thermohydraulic performance of cold plate, this study proposes a cold plate with sinusoidal wave-shaped channel. Using channel quantity, amplitude, wavelength, diameter, and coolant mass flow rate as variables, the orthogonal experimental scheme is employed to design combinations of different variables for numerical simulation. The numerical simulation results are used to train a deep neural network for cold plate performance prediction. The trained neural network can accurately predict the maximum temperature, comprehensive performance indicators, and entropy generation rate with errors below 5.0%, 5.0%, and 10.0%, respectively. Multi-objective optimization design (MOOD) is implemented by combining a deep neural network with the NSGA-II genetic optimization, yielding two sets of Pareto fronts as follows: one for maximizing comprehensive performance indicator and minimizing entropy generation rate, and the other for minimizing maximum temperature and entropy generation rate, and TOPSIS decision points are provided. This study provides a new method and valuable MOOD results for the thermal management of Li-ion batteries and cold plate engineering while offering theoretical guidance for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 3rd Edition)

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