Wind

The increasing demand for cost-effective floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs) necessitates streamlined mass production and efficient assembly strategies. This research investigates the assembly and integration of 15 MW FOWT floaters, utilising a semi-submersible floater equipped with a 15 MW wind turbine. The infrastructure and existing port facilities of Taiwan are used as an example. The effectiveness of various assembly and integration strategies has been evaluated. The study outlines equipment and infrastructure requirements for on-quay floater and turbine assembly, comparing on-quay assembly to construction at remote locations and subsequent towing. Detailed analyses of port operations, crane specifications, and assembly procedures are presented, emphasising the critical role of crane selection and configuration. The findings indicate that on-quay assembly at one major port is feasible and cost-effective, provided that port infrastructure and operational logistics are optimised. This research offers insights and recommendations for implementing large-scale FOWT projects, contributing to advancing offshore wind energy deployment. Full article

In an investigation into how wind turbine noise interacts with the surrounding terrain, its propagation over rough ground is simulated using a parabolic equation code using a modified effective impedance model, which characterizes the effects of a three-dimensional, rigid roughness within a relatively long wavelength limit ($\mathrm{k}\mathrm{a}\le 1$). The model is validated by comparison to experiments conducted within an anechoic chamber wherein different source–receiver geometries are considered. The relative sound pressure level spectra from the parabolic equation code using the modified effective impedance model highlight a sensitivity to the roughness parameters. At a low frequency and far distance, the relative sound pressure level decreased as the roughness coverage increased. A difference of 4.9 dB has been reported. The simulations highlight how the roughness shifts the ground effect dips, resulting in the sound level at the distance of 2 km being altered. However, only the monochromatic wave has been discussed. Further work on broadband noise is desirable. Furthermore, due to the long wavelength limit, only a portion of audible wind turbine noise can be investigated. Full article

Climate change is increasing the occurrence of extreme weather events, such as intense windstorms, with a trend expected to worsen due to global warming. The growing intensity and frequency of these events are causing a significant number of failures in power distribution grids. However, understanding the nature of extreme wind events and predicting their impact on distribution grids can help and prevent these issues, potentially mitigating their adverse effects. This study analyzes a structured method to predict distribution grid disruptions caused by extreme wind events. The method utilizes Machine Learning (ML) models, including K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Trees (DTs), Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM), Gaussian Process (GP), Deep Neural Network (DNN), and Ensemble Learning which combines RF, SVM and GP to analyze synthetic failure data and predict power grid outages. The study utilized meteorological information, physical fragility curves, and scenario generation for distribution systems. The approach is validated by using five-fold cross-validation on the dataset, demonstrating its effectiveness in enhancing predictive capabilities against extreme wind events. Experimental results showed that the Ensemble Learning, GP, and SVM models outperformed other predictive models in the binary classification task of identifying failures or non-failures, achieving the highest performance metrics. Full article

Wind speed (and direction) estimated from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models is essential to wind energy applications, especially in the absence of reliable fine scale spatio-temporal wind information. This study evaluates four high-resolution wind speed numerical datasets (UERRA MESCAN-SURFEX, CERRA, COSMO-REA6, and NEWA) against in situ observations from coastal meteorological stations in the eastern Mediterranean basin. The evaluation is based on statistical comparisons of long-term wind speed data from 2009 to 2018 and involves an in-depth statistical comparison as well as a preliminary wind power density assessment at or near the meteorological station locations. The results show that while all datasets provide valuable insights into regional wind variability, there are notable differences in model performance. COSMO-REA6 and UERRA exhibit higher variability in wind speed but tend to underestimate extreme values, particularly in the southern coastal areas, whereas CERRA and NEWA provided closer fits to observed wind speeds, with CERRA showing the highest correlation at most stations. NEWA data, where available, overestimate average wind speeds but capture extreme values well. The comparison reveals that while all datasets provide valuable insights into the spatial and temporal variability of wind resources, their performance varies by location and season, emphasizing the need for the careful selection and potential calibration of these models for accurate wind energy assessments. The study provides essential groundwork for leveraging these datasets in planning and optimizing offshore wind energy projects, contributing to the region’s transition to renewable energy sources. Full article

In large wind farms, the interaction of atmospheric turbulence and wind turbine wakes leads to complex vortex dynamics and energy dissipation, resulting in reduced wind velocity and subsequent loss of wind power. This study investigates the influence of vortex stretching on wind power fluctuations within wind turbine wakes using scale-adaptive large eddy simulation. The proper orthogonal decomposition method was employed to extract the most energetic contributions to the wind power spectra. Vertical profiles of mean wind speed, Reynolds stresses, and dispersive stresses were analyzed to assess energy dissipation rates. Our simulation results showed excellent agreement when compared with wind tunnel data and more advanced numerical models, such as the actuator line model and the actuator line model with hub and tower effects. This highlights the important role of coherent and energetic flow components in the spectral behavior of wind farms. The findings indicate a persistent energy cascading length scale in the wake of wind turbines, emphasizing the vertical transport of energy to turbine blades. These results complement existing literature and provide new insights into the dynamics of wind turbine wakes and their impact on wind farm performance. Full article

This paper presents the design and analysis of an efficient energy management system for a wind lens integrated with a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) and a zeta converter. The wind lens, a ring-shaped structure encircling the rotor, enhances the turbine’s capability to capture wind energy by increasing the wind influx through the turbine. In the contemporary wind energy sector, PMSGs are extensively employed due to their superior performance characteristics. This study integrates a 1 kW PMSG system with a wind lens to optimize power extraction from the wind energy conversion system (WECS) under varying wind speeds. A comparative analysis of different control strategies for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is conducted, including the incremental conductance (INC) method and the perturb and observe (P&O) method. The performance of the MPPT controller integrated with the wind lens-based PMSG system is assessed based on output DC voltage and power delivered to the load. To evaluate the overall effectiveness of these control strategies, both steady-state voltage and dynamic response under diverse wind conditions are examined. The system is modeled and simulated using the MATLAB R2023a/Simulink 9.1 software, and the simulation results are validated to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed energy management system. Full article

Fatigue poses significant challenges for the structural integrity of monopiles, the most common type of foundation for offshore wind turbines. These structures are usually manufactured by rolling and welding together large steel plates. Offshore wind turbines are typically designed to operate for 20 years or longer, thus the number of cycles to failure ($N_f$) that these structures are required to withstand lies in the so called ultrahigh-cycle fatigue (UHCF) regime ($N_f>{10}^8$). Moreover, because, in the past few years, there has been a continuous increase in the size of monopiles, the fatigue life reduction caused by the utilization of thicker steel plates plays an important role (i.e., thickness or size effect). Different regions worldwide apply distinct codes to ensure that offshore structures can withstand fatigue damages, but most of them are tailored for the high-cycle fatigue (HCF) regime. This paper seeks to compare a selection of these codes, highlighting both differences and similarities, while also questioning their suitability in the UHCF regime and for much thicker structures (compared to the reference thickness values reported in the standards). By doing so, it aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to optimize the efficiency of the fatigue life assessment of offshore wind infrastructures. The focus of this study is on double-V transverse butt welds and their S-N curves in air and seawater (with and without cathodic protection), while the analyzed standards are those provided by the Det Norske Veritas (DNV-RP-C203-2021), the British Standards Institution (BS 7608, including the amendments of 2015), and the European Union (EN 1993-1-9, updated in 2005). The results have been discussed in terms of the level of conservatism that each of these standards offers and in identifying the areas for further research to enable extended lives in the current and future offshore wind monopile foundations. Full article

The present research explores the optimization of maintenance strategies for floating offshore wind (FOW) farms using nested genetic algorithms. The primary goal is to provide insights on the decision-making processes required for both immediate and strategic maintenance planning, crucial for the viability and efficiency of FOW operations. A nested genetic algorithm was coupled with discrete-event simulations in order to simulate and optimize maintenance scenarios influenced by various operational and environmental parameters. The study revealed that short-term maintenance timing is significantly influenced by wind conditions, with higher electricity prices justifying on-site spare parts storage to mitigate operational disruptions, suggesting economic incentives for maintaining on-site inventory of spare parts. Long-term strategic findings emphasized the impact of planned intervals between inspections on financial outcomes, identifying optimal strategies that balance operational costs with energy production efficiency. Ultimately, this study highlights the importance of integrating sophisticated predictive models for failure detection with real-time operational data to enhance maintenance decision-making in the evolving landscape of offshore wind energy, where future farms are likely to operate farther from onshore facilities and under potentially highly varying market conditions in terms of electricity prices. Full article

Failures in hydraulic systems in offshore wind turbines represent an enormous challenge for manufacturers and operators, as the pitch system statistically is one of the subsystems contributing the most to the downtime of the turbines, which is the case for both electrical and hydraulic pitch systems. However, the complex failure mechanisms of the various different hydraulic components mean that, typically, the critical components of hydraulic systems must be tested to better understand the failure mechanisms. Nonetheless, conventional testing procedures are lengthy and costly. Accelerated testing plays a critical role as it can mimic hydraulic system failure mechanisms in a shorter period. However, the lack of standardized test methods and detailed knowledge about the failure-accelerating effects complicates the process. Therefore, this paper offers a comprehensive examination of approaches applicable to conducting accelerated tests on hydraulic systems. It identifies and discusses five primary component types or sub-components related to the acceleration of testing in hydraulic systems: pumps, cylinders, seals, valves, and hoses. Each section references studies that delve into accelerated testing methodologies for these individual components. Furthermore, within each component, a concise overview of the current techniques is provided, followed by a discussion and summary based on the state of the art. Full article

We designed 60% thick airfoil to improve the aerodynamic performance in the root region of wind turbine rotor blades, taking into account current constraints. After an extensive literature review and patent research, a design methodology (including the considerations of simple manufacturing) was set up, and extensive 2D- and 3D-CFD investigations with four codes (Xfoil, MSES, ANSYS fluent, and DLR-tau) were performed, including implementation inside a generic 10 MW test-blade (CIG10MW). Comparison with results from Blade Element Momentum (BEM) methods and the estimation of 3D effects due to the rotating blade were undertaken. One specific shape (with a pronounced flat-back) was selected and tested in the Deutsche WindGuard aeroacoustic Wind Tunnel (DWAA), in Bremerhaven, Germany. A total of 34 polars were measured, included two trailing edge shapes and aerodynamic devices such as vortex generators, gurney flaps, zig-zag tape, and a splitter plate. Considerable changes in lift and drag characteristics were observed due to the use of aerodynamic add-ons. With the studies presented here, we believe we have closed an important technological gap. Full article

Generative design techniques together with the rapid development of additive manufacturing represent a revolution in the field of structural optimisation processes. In this study, a static structural and modal analysis was integrated to drive a multi-objective generative design optimisation process for a 3 MW direct-drive offshore wind turbine electrical generator rotor structure. This novel optimisation approach implements an automated fittest-for-purpose process including a static structural analysis and a modal analysis as the input for the optimisation strategy algorithm, allowing the exploration of a wide range of non-conventional topologies. If compared with the simple generator rotor disc structure, the results obtained using this innovative method achieved over 7% of weight reduction and a 39% increment in the generator operational range with the consequent growth in the wind turbine energy capture capability. Moreover, this approach generates a vast amount of structural analysis information, crucial at an early stage of the development of large-scale projects for a cost-effective scheme. Full article

Ice accumulation on lift-generating surfaces, such as rotor blades or wings, degrades aerodynamic performance and increases various risks. Active measures to counteract surface icing are energy-consuming and should be replaced by passive anti-icing surfaces. Two major categories of surface treatments—coating and structuring—already show promising results in the laboratory, but none fulfill the current industry requirements for performance and durability. In this paper, we show how femtosecond laser structuring of stainless steel (1.4301) combined with a hydrocarbon surface treatment or a vacuum treatment leads to superhydrophobic properties. The anti-ice performance was investigated in an icing wind tunnel under glaze ice conditions. Therefore, flexible steel foils were laser-structured, wettability treated and attached to NACA 0012 air foil sections. In the icing wind tunnel, hydrocarbon treated surfaces showed a 50 s ice build-up delay on the leading edge as well as a smoother ice surface compared to the reference. To demonstrate the erosion resistance of these surfaces, long-term field tests on a small-scale wind turbine were performed under alpine operating conditions. The results showed only minor erosion wear of micro- and nano-structures after a period of six winter months. Full article

With the current trends of wind energy already playing a major part in the Scottish energy supply, the capacity of wind farms is predicted to grow exponentially and reach further depths offshore. However, a key challenge that presents itself is the integration of large producing assets into the current UK grid. One potential solution to this is green hydrogen production, which is being heavily researched in industry, with many concepts being investigated for large-scale purposes. However, the operations and maintenance (O&M) costs and availability of green hydrogen systems need to be quantified to ensure economical and technical viability, which is sparse in the available literature. The study presented in this paper investigated the availability and O&M costs of coupled wind–hydrogen systems by attempting to quantify the failure rates, repair times, repair costs and number of technicians required for key green hydrogen components. This study also utilised an O&M model created by the University of Strathclyde, which uses Monte Carlo Markov chain simulations to produce the O&M outputs. A number of assumptions were made throughout the study in relation to the O&M model inputs, and the baseline availability for the coupled wind–hydrogen system was 85.24%. Whilst the wind turbine still contributed a major part to the downtime seen in the simulations, the combined hydrogen system also contributed a significant amount, a total of 37%, which could have been due to the technology readiness levels of some the components included in the hydrogen system. Full article

The energy transition to wind and solar opens up opportunities for green hydrogen as wind and solar generation tend to bring electricity prices down to very low levels. We evaluate whether green hydrogen can integrate well with wind and solar PVs to improve the South Australian electricity grid. Green hydrogen can use membrane electrolysis plants during periods of surplus renewable energy. This hydrogen can then be electrified or used in industry. The green hydrogen system was analysed to understand the financial viability and technical impact of integrating green hydrogen. We also used system engineering techniques to understand the system holistically, including the technical, social, environmental, and economic impacts. The results show opportunities for the system to provide seasonal storage, grid firming, and reliability services. Financially, it would need changes to electricity rules to be viable, so at present, it would not be viable without subsidy. Full article

Wind systems are sustainable and economical options for producing electrical energy. These systems efficiently manage the power flow by maximizing wind power and consuming reactive power from the grid. In addition, wind systems must maintain operation despite utility grid electrical failure; hence, their control system must not collapse. This study proposes a fault-tolerant converter controller to ensure the efficient operation of wind system converters. The central concept behind this is that when there is an imbalance in the utility grid voltage due to a fault nearby or far away, positive and negative sequence voltages are created in the time domain. Then, two parallel controllers operate to allow the wind system to continue operating despite the failure. One controller utilizes positive sequence voltages as inputs to regulate the generator’s electromagnetic torque. This helps in maximizing the amount of wind energy. The second controller uses negative sequence voltages as inputs, which helps to cancel out the produced torque in the opposite direction, thereby preventing generator overload. Finally, the controllers proposed in this article are validated through simulations, and the results are presented. Full article

The necessity for transitioning to renewable energy sources and the intermittent nature of the natural variables lead to the integration of storage units into these projects. In this research paper, wind turbines and solar modules are combined with pumped hydro storage, batteries, and green hydrogen. Energy management strategies are described for five different scenarios of hybrid renewable energy systems, based on single or hybrid storage technologies. The motivation is driven by grid stability issues and the limited access to fresh water in the Greek islands. A RES-based desalination unit is introduced into the hybrid system for access to low-cost fresh water. The comparison of single and hybrid storage methods, the exploitation of seawater for the simultaneous fulfillment of water for domestic and agricultural purposes, and the evaluation of different energy, economic, and environmental indices are the innovative aspects of this research work. The results show that pumped hydro storage systems can cover the energy and water demand at the minimum possible price, 0.215 EUR/kWh and 1.257 EUR/m³, while hybrid storage technologies provide better results in the loss of load probability, payback period and CO₂ emissions. For the pumped hydro–hydrogen hybrid storage system, these values are 21.40%, 10.87 years, and 2297 tn/year, respectively. Full article

Considering that wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed variable, which is highly random, complex power grid management tasks have arisen as a result. Wind speed prediction in the short term is crucial for load dispatch planning and load increment/decrement decisions. The chaotic intermittency of speed is often characterised by inherent linear and nonlinear patterns, as well as nonstationary behaviour; thus, it is generally difficult to predict it accurately and efficiently using a single linear or nonlinear model. In this study, wavelet transform (WT), autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), extreme gradient boosting trees (XGBoost), and support vector regression (SVR) are combined to predict high-resolution short-term wind speeds obtained from three Southern African Universities Radiometric Network (SAURAN) stations: Richtersveld (RVD); Central University of Technology (CUT); and University of Pretoria (UPR). This hybrid model is termed WT-ARIMA-XGBoost-SVR. In the proposed hybrid, the ARIMA component is employed to capture linearity, while XGBoost captures nonlinearity using the wavelet decomposed subseries from the residuals as input features. Finally, the SVR model reconciles linear and nonlinear predictions. We evaluated the WT-ARIMA-XGBoost-SVR’s efficacy against ARIMA and two other hybrid models that substitute XGBoost with a light gradient boosting machine (LGB) component to form a WT-ARIMA-LGB-SVR hybrid model and a stochastic gradient boosting machine (SGB) to form a WT-ARIMA-SGB-SVR hybrid model. Based on mean absolute error (MAE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean square error (RMSE), coefficient of determination (R²), and prediction interval normalised average width (PINAW), the proposed hybrid model provided more accurate and reliable predictions with less uncertainty for all three datasets. This study is critical for improving wind speed prediction reliability to ensure the development of effective wind power management strategies. Full article

This article investigates the construction of a wind power generator requiring the lowest possible cost. The proposed model is an Axial Flux Permanent Magnet (AFPM) Synchronous Machine, which contains two iron rotors and a coreless stator between them, constructed from resin. The scientific contribution relates to the coupling of economic and technical parameters, which will clarify the feasibility, i.e., a wind turbine construction capable of producing approximately 3.5 KW, using a simple mill and a generator of nominal rotor speed 100 rpm. Such studies are few in international literature and mainly concern low levels of rotor speed in relation to the produced output power. For the generator dimensioning, analytical equations are used, while the type and the dimensions of the magnets are determined, before the start of dimensioning. The authors carried out research in the international market, ending up with specific cost-effective magnets, while trying to adjust the remaining dimensions and materials of the machine based on these cost-effective magnets and the aforementioned nominal values of the generator. The machine, whose dimensions are derived by analytical equations, was simulated and analyzed using the Two-Dimensional Finite Element Method (2D-FEM) and the Three-Dimensional Finite Element Method (3D-FEM), for comparison purposes. Moreover, an economic analysis of the generator and its individual parts was conducted. Finally, a novel idea for reducing the total generator cost is proposed, by replacing the rotor disks with rings. The investigation revealed that analytical equations can predict with satisfactory accuracy the generator’s parameters. In addition, as permanent magnets are the most expensive materials in the construction, their predetermination using low-cost magnets can reduce the construction cost. Finally, the proposed concept of a ring-shaped rotor instead of a disk rotor, provides a cost reduction of up to 20%. Full article

The emerging industry of offshore wind turbines mounted on floating bases has garnered significant attention from both academia and industry. The desire to understand the complex physics of these floating structures has led to the development of numerical and physical modelling techniques. While physical testing has traditionally been employed, there is a growing focus on cost-effective and accurate high-fidelity numerical modelling as a potential alternative or supplement. However, commonly used numerical engineering tools in the offshore industry are considered mid- to low-fidelity and may lack the desired precision for floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs). Given the complexity of these simulation codes, it is crucial to validate their accuracy. To address this, the International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Technology Collaboration Programme initiated various research endeavors, including the Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration (OC3), Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration Continuation (OC4), Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration Continuation with Correlation (OC5), and the recent Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration Continued with Correlation and Uncertainty (OC6) projects. This study offers a comprehensive survey of the simulation tools available for FOWTs which were part of OC projects, focusing particularly on horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and highlighting their capabilities and fundamental theories. Full article