Biomass

Microalgae are known to have higher photosynthetic efficiencies when compared to land-based plants. The use of microalgae biomass as a protein source is attracting attention due to its interesting protein composition and sustainable character when compared to conventional animal and plant protein-based sources. Nonetheless, the existence of a rigid cell wall is typical for most microalgae species, and this presents a serious obstacle to a higher bioaccessibility of their valuable protein fractions. Depending on the cell wall composition, the gastrointestinal digestion process itself can result in different pathways of protein absorption. It is then important to understand how microalgae cell wall structure can be affected during traditional and industrial production of its biomass once these questions are often overlooked. This review intends to fulfill this gap by addressing the major impacts of innovative sustainable processing of microalgae biomass, giving particular attention to drying operations and cellular disruption methods based on electric field application—such as pulsed electric fields (PEF) and moderate electric fields (MEF). Using microalgae biomass as food supplements at its full potential depends on its protein digestibility patterns, and subsequently their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. The importance of using in vitro gastrointestinal systems to understand the impact of innovative downstream processing of microalgae biomass will be addressed. Full article

Coffee wastes have large amounts of by-products rich in phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic and caffeic acid, with potential applications for developing fine chemicals such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE). A screening for microorganisms was undertaken in a coffee plantation environment to isolate native tropical species able to modify secondary metabolites present in this kind of biomass enzymatically. From the screening, 130 fungal strains could grow in lipase inducer media. Fungal strains were identified via ITS-based sequencing. Classification based on BLAST assigned 51 isolates to 12 different genera, including Absidia, Aspergillus, Cunninghamella, Fusarium, Metarhizium, Meyerozyma, Mucor, Neocosmospora, Papiliotrema, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Trichoderma. DNA sequencing identified 14 putative extracellular lipases. According to the extracellular lipase activity, the most promising strain was identified as Fusarium sp. by DNA barcoding. Extracellular lipases from this strain exhibited maximal hydrolytic activity at a temperature of 45 °C, a pH of 7.00, and 200 ppm of NaCl, with an affinity towards substrates having carbon chain lengths of 8 or longer. Under these conditions, lipase instead of esterase activity is the main feature. The Km and Vmax values calculated using p-nitrophenyl palmitate (pNPP) as hydrolysis substrate were 0.003 mM and 299.8 μmol min⁻¹ mg⁻¹, respectively. Fusarium sp. lipases presented high stability during freeze–thawing, allowing the storage of enzyme solutions at −20 °C, but not as a lyophilized powder. According to our kinetic study, these lipases catalyzed CAPE hydrolysis, showing a progressive decrease in the concentration of the CAPE and a correspondent increase in the caffeic acid concentration as a product of this hydrolysis. Being able to carry out this type of reaction under mild conditions shows that Fusarium sp. lipases recognize CAPE as substrate and suggest CAPE synthesis (reverse reaction) and transformation can be engineered, using caffeic acid from coffee biomass, as a potential industrial application for these lipases. Full article

Olive leaves (OLL) are an agri-food waste that may be regarded as a bioresource rich in bioactive polyphenolic metabolites. In this examination, simultaneous organosolv treatment/extraction of OLL polyphenols at elevated temperatures (>110 °C) has been optimized using glycerol, but also two glycerol-based deep eutectic solvents (DES). The assessment of the processes was based on the severity factor and the extraction efficiency factor. In any case, the treatment/extraction with a DES composed of glycerol and citric acid (GL-CA) was found to be the less severe and the most effective in recovering polyphenols from OLL, giving a yield of 69.35 mg gallic acid equivalents per g dry mass. On the other hand, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry investigation revealed that extraction with either DES used provided extracts with differentiated polyphenolic profile than that obtained when water or 60% (v/v) aqueous ethanol was used as solvents. On the ground of these analysis, evidence emerged regarding hydrolysis of flavone glucosides when the treatment was performed with an alkaline DES composed of glycerol and sodium citrate. The extracts produced also exhibited diversified antioxidant activity, a fact putatively attributed to the different polyphenolic profiles. It was concluded that organosolv treatment/extraction of OLL for polyphenol recovery opens new endeavors in the valorization of this particular waste, but metabolite stability is an issue that merits profounder study. Full article

The promoting effect of Pd on a Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalyst for the aqueous glycerol hydrogenolysis process to produce 1,2-propanediol was studied. At a lower hydrogen pressure (2.07 MPa), using the Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalyst with 2 wt% Pd doped, could significantly improve the glycerol conversion (97.2%) and 1,2-propanediol selectivity (93.3%) compared with the unpromoted catalyst (69.4% and 89.7%, respectively). A power-law kinetic model, which took into account all the elementary reactions including glycerol dehydration and its reverse reaction, acetol hydrogenation, side reactions and ethylene glycol formation, was developed to comprehensively investigate the effect of Pd. Though the rate of glycerol dehydration using the Pd-promoted catalyst was found to be slightly lower, mainly due to the reduced number of acidic sites after adding Pd, the glycerol conversion rate was notably higher compared with using the unpromoted catalyst, mainly attributed to the enhanced activity of acetol hydrogenation by Pd. The rapid hydrogenation of acetol can inhibit the reverse reaction of glycerol dehydration, resulting in a higher glycerol conversion rate, so that glycerol dehydration is considered as the rate-determining step. In contrast, when the unpromoted catalyst was used, the rate of reverse glycerol dehydration was drastically increased due to the elevated acetol concentration, especially at a lower hydrogen pressure, resulting in a slower glycerol conversion rate; thus, acetol hydrogenation became the rate determining step. In addition, Pd can improve the reducibility of the catalyst, allowing the CuO to be reduced in situ during the reaction. Therefore, catalyst deactivation due to any potential oxidation of metallic copper during the reaction can be prevented. Full article

Influences of following anaerobic digestion (AD) parameters like microaeration, pH, and VSS (Volatile Suspended Solid) using sour cabbage as substrate was checked in the publication. Results of fermentation of sour cabbage under the condition of small oxygen addition presented in this research can be classified as dark fermentation (DF—a special case of AD) or hydrogenotrophic anaerobic digestion. The investigations were carried out for two concentrations of 5 g VSS/L and 10 g VSS/L of sour cabbage at pH 6.0. The oxygen flow rates (OFR) for 5 g VSS/L were in the range of 0.53 to 3.3 mL/h for obtaining 2% to 8% of oxygen. At low pH and microaeration, ethylene production was observed at a level below 0.05% in biogas. The highest volume of hydrogen for 5 g VSS/L was obtained for flow rate 0.58 O₂ mL/h, giving hydrogen concentration in biogas in the range of 0 to 20%. For VSS 5 g/L and oxygen flow rate 0.58 mL/h; 0.021 L of hydrogen was produced per gram of VSS. At VSS 10 g/L and oxygen flow rate 1.4 mL/h at pH 6.0, 0.03 L of hydrogen was generated per gram. Microaeration from 0.58 mL/h to 0.87 mL/h was propitious for hydrogen production at 5 g VSS/L of sour cabbage and 1.4 mL/h for 10 g VSS/L. Another relevant factor is the volatile suspended solid factor of a substrate. Optimal hydrogen production from sour cabbage was for VSS 89.32%. Full article

This study assesses the bioenergy potential of two types of aquatic biomass found in the Republic of Congo: the green macroalgae Ulva lactuca (UL) and Ledermanniella schlechteri (LS). Their combustion behaviour was assessed using elemental and biochemical analysis, TGA, bomb calorimetry and metal analysis. Their anaerobic digestion behaviour was determined using biochemical methane potential (BMP) tests. The average HHV for LS is 14.1 MJ kg⁻¹, whereas UL is lower (10.5 MJ kg⁻¹). Both biomasses have high ash contents and would be problematic during thermal conversion due to unfavourable ash behaviour. Biochemical analysis indicated high levels of carbohydrate and protein and low levels of lipids and lignin. Although the lipid profile is desirable for biodiesel production, the levels are too low for feasible extraction. High levels of carbohydrates and protein make both biomasses suitable for anaerobic digestion. BMP tests showed that LS and UL have an average of 262 and 161 mL CH₄ gVS⁻¹, respectively. The biodegradability (BI) of LS and UL had an average value of 76.5% and 43.5%, respectively. The analysis indicated that these aquatic biomasses are unsuitable for thermal conversion and lipid extraction; however, conversion through anaerobic digestion is promising. Full article

Desmodesmus is a green microalgal genus that is frequently found in aquatic environments. Its high biomass productivity and potential as a source of lipids have attracted considerable attention. Although Desmodesmus is ubiquitous, it is difficult to identify; even within a small area, the diversity of the species and the fatty acids they produce are unknown. In this study, we performed scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and analyzed the genetic diversity of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region to accurately identify Desmodesmus in a local area of Japan (Saga City, Saga Pref.) and to assess its existence as a biological resource. In addition, we analyzed the fatty acid composition and content of the newly established strains. In total, 10 new strains were established, and 9 previously described species were identified. The presence of a cosmopolitan species indicated the global distribution of Desmodesmus. However, only regional species were found. One strain, dSgDes-b, did not form a clear clade with any described species in the phylogenetic analysis and had a characteristic ITS2 secondary structure. The cell wall of this strain exhibited a distinctive microstructure, and it produced docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); hence, the strain was described as a new species, Desmodesmus dohacommunis Demura sp. nov. Thus, useful information regarding the use of Desmodesmus as a bioresource was provided. Full article

This work focuses on a culture strategy that combines high biomass production and lipid accumulation in the green microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata immobilized in alginate gel in order to obtain high lipid productivity for biodiesel production. The study of the effects of nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency on lipid accumulation and biomass production in immobilized microalgae showed that both conditions (N− and P−) promoted lipid accumulation in the microalgae. The lipid contents achieved under nitrogen (31.7% ± 3.2% (dcw)) and phosphorus (19.4% ± 1.9% (dcw)) deficiency conditions were higher than those obtained in the complete medium (control) (14.9% ± 1.5% (dcw)). The highest lipid productivity was recorded under nitrogen deficiency conditions (PL = 11.1 ± 1.1 mg/L/day). This indicated that nitrogen deficiency was more effective than phosphorus deficiency in terms of triggering lipid accumulation in the microalgae. However, the conditions for inducing lipid accumulation (N− or P−) resulted in slower growth. In order to address this issue and achieve high lipid productivity, a two-step culture strategy was used. Immobilized R. subcapitata was cultivated under optimal concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus to achieve a high biomass concentration. Thereafter, the beads containing the microalgae were transferred to a culture medium under nitrogen deficiency conditions in order to induce lipid accumulation. The concentrations 1.5 g/L of NaNO₃ and 20 mg/L of K₂HPO₄ were determined as being the optimal concentrations for growth, and they produced the highest biomass production rates (µ_{m max} = 0.233 ± 0.023 day⁻¹ and µ_{m max} = 0.225 ± 0.022 day⁻¹ for NaNO₃ and K₂HPO₄, respectively) from all of the concentrations studied. With the two-step culture strategy, immobilized R. subcapitata accumulated 37.9 ± 3.8% of their dry weight in lipid and reached a lipid productivity value of PL = 40.3 ± 4.0 mg/L/day under nitrogen deficiency conditions. This value was approximately 3.6 times higher than that obtained in the direct culture of cells under nitrogen deficiency conditions (PL = 11.1 ± 1.1 mg/L/day). Full article

The conversion of abundant forest- and agricultural-residue-based lignocellulosic materials into high-quality bio-oil by the mild hydrothermal method has great potential in the field of biomass utilization. Some excellent research on biomass hydrothermal process has been completed, including temperature, time, catalyst addition, etc. Meanwhile, some research related to the biomass raw material tissue structure has been illustrated by adopting mode components (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein, lipid, etc.) or their mixtures. The interesting fact is that although some real lignocellulose has approximate composition, their hydrothermal products and distributions show individual differences, which means the interaction within biomass raw material components tremendously affected the reaction pathway. Unfortunately, to our knowledge, there is no review article with a specific focus on the effects of raw materials and their tissue structure on the lignocellulose hydrothermal process. In this review, research progress on the effects of model and mixed cellulose/hemicellulose/lignin effects on hydrothermal products is initially summarized. Additionally, the real lignocellulosic raw materials structure effects during the thermal process are summed up. This article will inspire researchers to focus more attention on wood fiber biomass conversion into liquid fuels or high-value-added chemicals, as well as promote the development of world energy change. Full article

In 2017, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that Americans generated over 268 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW). The majority (52%) of this waste ends up in landfills, which are the third largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions. Improvements in terms of waste management and energy production could be solved by integrating MSW processing with hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) and anaerobic digestion (AD) for converting organic carbon of MSW to fuels. The objectives of this study were to (a) investigate HTC experiments at varying temperatures and residence times (b) evaluate aqueous phase and solids properties, and (c) perform AD bench scale bottle test on the aqueous phase. A mixture of different feedstock representing MSW was used. HTC at 280 °C and 10 min yielded the highest total organic carbon (TOC) of 8.16 g/L with biogas yields of 222 mL biogas/g TOC. Results showed that AD of the aqueous phase from a mixed MSW feedstock is feasible. The integrated approach shows organic carbon recovery of 58% (hydrochar and biogas). This study is the first of its kind to investigate varying temperature and times for a heterogeneous feedstock (mixed MSW), and specifically evaluating HTC MSW aqueous phase anaerobic biodegradability. Full article

The growing demand for energy and materials in modern society pushes scientific research to finding new alternative sources to traditional fossil feedstocks. The exploitation of biomass promises to be among the viable alternatives with a lower environmental impact. Making biomass exploitation technologies applicable at an industrial level represents one of the main goals for our society. In this work, the most recent scientific studies concerning the enhancement of lignocellulosic biomasses through the use of deep eutectic solvent (DES) systems have been examined and reported. DESs have an excellent potential for the fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass: the high H-bond capacity and polarity allow the lignin to be deconvolved, making it easier to break down the lignocellulosic complex, producing a free crystallite of cellulose capable of being exploited and valorised. DESs offer valid alternatives of using the potential of lignin (producing aromatics), hemicellulose (achieving furfural) and cellulose (delivering freely degradable substrates through enzymatic transformation into glucose). In this review, the mechanism of DES in the fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass and the main possible uses for the valorisation of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose were reported, with a critical discussion of the perspectives and limits for industrial application. Full article

In this work, a waste-derived lignin with abundant uncondensed linkages, using accessible solvents (acetone/water mixture) and low-cost catalysts showed successful depolymerization for the production of target molecules 4-ethylphenol, 4-propyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenol and 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol. Lignin samples were obtained from sugar-cane bagasse residue by an organosolv process. Four alumina-based catalysts (Pt/Al₂O₃, Rh/Al₂O_3, Ni/Al₂O₃ and Fe/Al₂O₃) were used to depolymerize the sugar cane lignin (SCL) in an acetone/water mixture 50/50 v/v at 573 K and 20 barg hydrogen. This strategic depolymerisation-hydrogenolysis process resulted in the molecular weight of the SCL being reduced by half while the polydispersity also decreased. Catalysts significantly improved product yield compared to thermolysis. Specific metals directed product distribution and yield, Rh/Al₂O₃ gave the highest overall yield (13%), but Ni/Al₂O₃ showed the highest selectivity to a given product (~32% to 4-ethylphenol). Mechanistic routes were proposed either from lignin fragments or from the main polymer. Catalysts showed evidence of carbon laydown that was specific to the lignin rather than the catalyst. These results showed that control over selectivity could be achievable by appropriate combination of catalyst, lignin and solvent mixture. Full article

Deep eutectic solvents (DES) are new ‘green’ solvents that have a high potential for biomass processing because of their low cost, low toxicity, biodegradability, and easy recycling. When Loblolly pine trees are harvested, their branches with needles are typically left in brush piles and decompose very slowly. Exploring the effect of DES pretreatment on waste pine needles was the goal of the present work. Loblolly pine needles were treated with three types of DES to prepare the biomass for enzymatic hydrolysis to glucose, a subject not readily found in the literature. The resulting products were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, fiber analysis, and high-performance liquid chromatography. Glucose yields after pretreatment and hydrolysis were found to be six times that for untreated biomass with two of the DES. Fiber analysis indicated removal of lignin, hemicellulose, and ash from the needle biomass. Enhanced glucose yield was due to removal of lignin and disruption of biomass structure during pretreatment, so that the pretreated biomass was rich in cellulosic content. Based on the results shown in this study, among the three types of DES, formic acid:choline chloride and acetic acid:choline chloride pretreatment had better potential for biomass pretreatment compared to lactic acid:choline chloride. Full article