Biomass

The search for sustainable development has led several production processes to adopt biorefineries. We evaluated the cultivation of Spirulina platensis and Scenedesmus obliquus in consortium (50/50%), with the addition of effluent of the anaerobic digestion (AD) of cattle waste, in fed-batch mode, to obtain biomass in 10 L raceways. Subsequently, cultivation was carried out at pilot scale in a 100 L raceway. Zarrouk medium (20%) was used, with the addition of 10% (v/v) of effluent in the fed-batch process. The biomasses were characterized to evaluate their application. In 10 L raceways, higher biomass concentrations were obtained in the cultivation of Spirulina with the addition of effluent, or with the microalgae consortia without the addition of effluent (around 1 g/L). The addition of the effluent reduced the carbohydrate content and increased the protein content during the cultivation. Scale-up (100 L raceways) with Spirulina showed similar results to those obtained in the 10 L raceways, with removals of 48%, 88% and 11% for COD, nitrogen and total phosphorus, respectively. The cultivation of microalgae in consortium and Spirulina can be used in the post-treatment of effluent of AD, allowing the production of biomass for different applications. Full article

In this study, a mathematical model was proposed for a continuous, multistage, industrial-scale alcoholic fermentation process, comprising four vats in series with volumes equal to 600 m³, with separation, acid treatment, and cell recycling from the fourth to the first vat. The system was operated daily under variable volumetric flow rates and substrate concentrations in the feed stream, i.e., F₀ = 93–127 m³/h and S₀ = 210–238 g/L. The mathematical model consisted of mass balance equations for cells, substrate, and product in the vats, the separator, and the acid treatment unit. An unsegregated and unstructured approach was used to describe the microbial population, with the kinetics of cell growth, substrate consumption, and product formation represented by equations generally adopted for alcoholic fermentation. The model parameters were estimated by nonlinear regression, providing typical values for alcoholic fermentation. Model predictions agreed well with both the experimental data used in the parameter estimation step and those used in the model validation step. Full article

Starch is a promising alternative to petroleum-based polymers due to its biodegradability and renewable nature. However, its widespread use in non-food applications raises ethical concerns. Mango kernels, a major byproduct of mango processing, represent an abundant yet underutilized starch source. However, conventional starch extraction requires costly purification steps with significant environmental impact. This study explores the development of extruded biocomposites, using corn starch and mango kernel flour (MKF) as a more sustainable alternative. The influence of lignin, extractives, amylose, and amylopectin content on the material properties was assessed. MKF was obtained by removing both tegument and endocarp from the mango kernels, grinding them in a colloidal mill, and finally drying the ground kernels. The resulting flour was blended with corn starch, processed in an internal mixer, and injection-molded. The composites were characterized through mechanical testing, water absorption analysis, colorimetry, and UV absorption assays. Notably, the composite containing ~20% MKF exhibited mechanical properties comparable to commercial polyethylene (PE-PB 208), with a tensile strength of 9.53 MPa and a Young’s modulus of 241.41 MPa. Additionally, MKF enhanced UVA protection. These findings suggest that mango kernel flour can partially replace starch in the production of injection-molded biopolymers, offering a more sustainable approach to biodegradable plastic development. Full article

Achieving decarbonization targets in the aviation sector requires transformative approaches to sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) production. In this pursuit, feedstock innovation has emerged as a critical challenge. This research uses the U.S. SAF Grand Challenge as a case study, focusing on its feedstock innovation workstream, to investigate how Industry 4.0 technologies can fulfill that workstream’s objectives. An integrative literature review, drawing on academic, industry, and policy sources, is used to evaluate the Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) of Industry 4.0 technology applications across the SAF biomass supply chain. The analysis identifies several key technologies as essential for improving yield prediction, optimizing resource allocation, and linking stochastic models to techno-economic analyses (TEAs): IoT-enabled sensor networks, probabilistic/precision forecasting, and automated quality monitoring. Results reveal an uneven maturity landscape, with some applications demonstrating near-commercial readiness, while others remain in early research or pilot stages, particularly in areas such as logistics, interoperability, and forecasting. The study contributes a structured TRL-based assessment that not only maps maturity but also highlights critical gaps and corresponding policy implications, including data governance, standardization frameworks, and cross-sector collaboration. By aligning digital innovation pathways with SAF deployment priorities, the findings offer both theoretical insights and practical guidance for advancing sustainable aviation fuel adoption and accelerating progress toward net-zero aviation. Full article

We investigated the application of an adsorbent fabricated from satsuma mandarin peel biomass using coating with poly(glycidyl methacrylate) followed by sequential treatment with hydroxylamine and hydrochloric acid for the remediation of hexavalent chromium-polluted water. The adsorbent was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Batch adsorption experiments were conducted wherein initial solution pH, initial chromium concentration, contact time, and temperature were varied. The adsorption equilibrium experimental data were well simulated by the Langmuir and Jovanovic models, pointing toward the formation of a monolayer of adsorbed chromium ions. The total chromium adsorption capacity of the functionalized satsuma mandarin peel adsorbent reached 219.28 mg g⁻¹ at initial pH 1.4 and 60 °C, markedly higher than 110.23 mg g⁻¹ at 30 °C. Where Cr(VI) was the sole chromium oxidation state in the initial solutions synthesized from potassium dichromate, the presence of Cr(III) ions in the final solutions confirmed Cr(VI) reduction. The results of this study show that the functionalized satsuma mandarin peel biomass is a potential candidate for use in the removal of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution through reduction-coupled adsorption. Full article

The rapid growth of the human population and industrialization has intensified anthropogenic activities, leading to the release of various toxic chemicals into the environment, triggering significant risks to human health and ecosystem stability. One sustainable solution to remove toxic chemicals from various environmental matrices, such as water, air, and soil, is bioremediation, an approach utilizing biological agents. Microalgae, as the primary producers of the aquatic environment, offer a versatile bioremediation platform, where their metabolic processes break down and convert pollutants into less harmful substances, thereby mitigating the negative ecological impact. Besides the CO₂ sequestration potential, microalgae are a source of renewable energy and numerous high-value biomolecules. Additionally, microalgae can mitigate various toxic chemicals through biosorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation. These remediation strategies propose a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to address environmental pollution. This review evaluates the microalgal mitigation of major environmental contaminants—heavy metals, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), flue gases, microplastics, and nanoplastics—linking specific microalgae removal mechanisms to pollutant-induced cellular responses. Each section explicitly addresses the effects of these pollutants on microalgae, microalgal bioremediation potential, bioaccumulation process, the risks of trophic transfer, and biomagnification in the food web. Herein, we highlight the current status of the microalgae-based bioremediation prospects, pollutant-induced microalgal toxicity, bioaccumulation, and consequential biomagnification. The novelty of this review lies in integrating biomagnification risks with the bioremediation potential of microalgae, providing a comprehensive perspective not yet addressed in the existing literature. Finally, we identify major research gaps and outline prospective strategies to optimize microalgal bioremediation while minimizing the unintended trophic transfer risks. Full article

Processing economically and socio-culturally significant Amazonian fruits—andiroba (Carapa guianensis Aubl.), açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.), and babassu (Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng.)—generates substantial biomass waste, posing critical environmental and waste management challenges. This study explored the valorization of these abundant residual biomasses as sustainable feedstocks for biosurfactant production by bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa P23G-02, while simultaneously profiling their nutritional value and broader implications for a circular bioeconomy. Through liquid fermentation, biosurfactants were produced at an approximate yield of 6 mg/mL. The isolated biosurfactants exhibited favorable properties, including emulsification indices of around 60% and surface tension reduction to below 30 mN/m, with the andiroba-derived biosurfactant identified as a rhamnolipid type. Nutritional profiling of the residues revealed significant energy values, reaching up to 656 kcal/100 g, with açai and babassu residues being carbohydrate-rich (exceeding 80%), and andiroba residues exhibiting a high lipid profile (up to 57%). These distinct compositions critically influenced biosurfactant yield. These findings underscore the viability of Amazonian fruit biomass as valuable resources for developing eco-friendly bioproducts and innovative waste management solutions. While highlighting a promising pathway for circular bioeconomy development, future research should address biosafety and explore alternative microbial hosts for applications in sensitive sectors such as food and nutrition. Full article

Agricultural residues such as maize byproducts and discarded cocopeat substrates are abundant but underutilised biomass resources. Improving their fuel quality requires densification, such as pelletisation, combined with thermochemical upgrading. In this study, pellets were prepared by blending cocopeat and maize residues at weight ratios of 9:1, 7:3, and 5:5, followed by torrefaction at 220, 250, and 280 °C. Their fuel characteristics were evaluated through mass yield, elemental and proximate analyses, chemical composition, calorific value, combustion indices, and grindability. Results showed that increasing maize residue content reduced ash and fuel ratio but increased volatile matter, while cocopeat-rich pellets provided higher fixed carbon and lignin contents, improving thermal stability. Torrefaction significantly enhanced calorific value (up to 21.83 MJ/kg) and grindability, while increasing aromaticity. However, higher torrefaction severity decreased the combustibility index but improved volatile ignitability, indicating a trade-off between ignition behaviour and stable combustion. An optimal balance was observed at 250 °C, where energy yield and combustion performance were maximised. This study demonstrates the feasibility of valorising discarded cocopeat substrates, blended with maize residues, into renewable solid fuels, and provides practical guidance for optimising blending ratios and torrefaction conditions in waste-to-energy applications. Full article

The transition to a circular economy requires effective food waste (FW) collection and recycling systems. This study aims to evaluate general public attitudes, behaviours, and systemic challenges related to FW sorting in Latvia, in light of the recent mandate for separate biowaste collection. The study covers two important sections—assessment of the amount of FW generated in primary production sectors, and a pilot case study of biodegradable waste sorting in selected households in Latvia. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining a nationwide survey of 458 entities involved in primary food production and 115 households, followed by 99 households with backyards voluntarily participating in a pilot case study to evaluate their BW management practices. The research findings reveal that there is a need to establish a precise/specific framework for the evaluation of FW for each sector; the development of appropriate coefficients would facilitate the process of estimating waste generated by primary production in the future. Research findings revealed that inhabitants are interested in home composting; however, the implementation of home composting requires active support from project implementers, including increasing environmental awareness and providing financial incentives. These results offer practical insights for municipalities and national stakeholders aiming to increase biowaste collection rates and support country-level broader sustainability goals. The research results have practical application with the possibility to replicate the best practices and recommendations to other countries or regions within the EU and beyond. Full article

Biomass energy transforms waste into biofuels and supports water purification. This study examines enhanced hydrogen production via dark fermentation, tracking volatile fatty acids (VFAs), chemical oxygen demand (COD), carbohydrates, and hydraulic retention time (HRT) to optimize biogas yield and quality. Investigations into acidogenesis and acetogenesis explore methods for breaking down long-chain VFAs into short-chain VFAs, which are critical for efficient hydrogen generation. Testing and analysis of VFAs, carbonates, COD, and HRT provide insights into bacterial activity that drives hydrogen production. The main VFAs produced were acetic, propionic, and butyric acids. DF1 and DF2 primarily generated acetic acid, consistent with cheese whey (CW)-based fermentations. DF1.1, using 5× diluted CW and a 30:70 inoculum-to-substrate ratio (I2SR), exhibited elevated butyric acid levels, similar to those observed with food waste. The first dark fermentation process (DF1) initially showed effective carbohydrate metabolism but later experienced spikes in succinic and lactic acids, which reduced hydrogen production. In contrast, the second dark fermentation process (DF2) maintained low lactic acid levels and increased acetate concentrations, indicating improved system performance. DF1.1 also demonstrated stable VFA production and lactic acid reduction. Greater CW dilution, higher initial pH, and increased HRT were key factors in minimizing acidification and enhancing hydrogen-producing pathways. Full article

There is an increasing industrial demand for sustainable resources for lipid-based biofuels and platform chemical production. A promising, CO₂-efficient resource is autotrophically cultivated microalgae, either for direct single-cell oil (SCO) production or as a biomass substrate for fermentative SCO production via organisms like yeasts. Regarding the latter, chemical biomass hydrolysis typically results in high sugar yield and high salt concentrations due to the required neutralization prior to fermentation. In contrast, enzymatic hydrolysis is often lacking in mass efficiency. In this study, the enzymatic hydrolysis of both nutrient-replete and lipid-rich autotrophic Microchloropsis salina biomass was optimized, testing different pre-treatments and enzyme activities. Hereby, the protease treatment to weaken the cell wall integrity and the dosing of the Cellic CTec3 was identified to have the highest effect on hydrolysis efficiency. Sugar yields of 63% (nutrient-replete) and almost 100% (lipid-rich) could be achieved. The process was successfully scaled-up in mini bioreactors at a 250 mL scale. The resulting hydrolysate of the lipid-rich biomass was tested as a substrate of the oleaginous yeast Cutaneotrichosporon oleaginosus in a consumption-based acetic acid fed-batch setup. It outperformed both the model substrate and the glucose control, demonstrating the high potential of the hydrolysate as feedstock for yeast oil production. The presented sequential and circular SCO-producing value chain highlights the potential for mass- and space–time-efficient biofuel production, combining the autotrophic cultivation of oleaginous algae with decoupled yeast oil fermentation for the first time. Full article

Spent coffee grounds (SCGs), a globally abundant by-product of the coffee industry, represent a significant source of lignocellulosic biomass with considerable valorization potential. Rich in organic compounds, lipids, and antioxidants, SCGs are increasingly recognized as a sustainable feedstock for energy, materials, and environmental applications within a circular bioeconomy framework. This review critically examines recent advances in SCG valorization via thermochemical, biochemical, and material-based pathways. The review focuses on the conversion of SCGs into biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, and bio-oil), activated carbon for water and air purification, biodegradable polymers, and soil-enhancing amendments. Comparative analyses of process conditions, product yields, and techno-economic feasibility are provided through summarized tables. Although laboratory-scale studies demonstrate promising outcomes, challenges persist in terms of process scalability, environmental impacts, feedstock variability, and lack of regulatory standardization. Furthermore, comprehensive life cycle assessments and policy integration remain underdeveloped. By merging all findings, this review identifies key knowledge gaps and outlines strategic directions for future research, including the development of integrated valorization platforms, hybrid conversion systems, and industrial-scale implementation. The findings support the role of SCG valorization in advancing sustainable resource management and contribute directly to the achievement of multiple Sustainable Development Goals. Full article

Biomass pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that breaks down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, offering a sustainable route for converting biomass into bio-oil, biochar, and syngas. This review provides a comprehensive overview of pyrolysis, focusing on its fundamental principles, modes, and its applications across different industries. It covers major pyrolysis types and explores the reactors used in these processes and how key parameters, such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time, impact the distribution and quality of pyrolysis products. Special attention is given to bio-oil upgrading methods, including catalytic and non-catalytic processes, and how they affect fuel quality. The study also presents techno-economic assessments of various pathways, identifying cost-effective configurations like pyrolysis combined with hydrotreatment and heat integration. Despite encouraging advancements, scaling up bio-oil technologies continues to face significant challenges, primarily due to cost competitiveness and variability in feedstock supply. This review emphasizes the critical need for continued innovation in reactor design, catalyst efficiency, and integrated process optimization, alongside supportive policy frameworks and strategic investments to accelerate commercial deployment. Finally, this review aims to help researchers, engineers, and policymakers work together to advance pyrolysis technology as a practical solution for producing low-carbon fuels and chemicals. Full article

The coffee cherry processing produces various waste products, such as coffee husks, which are a valuable source of pectin and phenolic acids that can be used as high-value biomolecules in human and animal food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical production chains. This study aims to optimize the eco-friendly extraction of polysaccharides, as pectin, and phenolic compounds from coffee peel using response surface methodology (RSM). This model was used to evaluate the extraction variables (temperature, time, pH, ionic strength, ultrasonic frequency, particle size, and solid/liquid ratio in water) to identify the critical factors. All responses were fitted to the RSM model, which revealed high estimation capabilities. Ionic strength and temperature were found to be critical process variables for pectin extraction, while the main factors responsible for phenolic extraction were ultrasonic frequency, pH, and solid/liquid ratio. Therefore, the operating conditions to optimize the extraction of both pectin and phenolic compounds were 80 °C, ultrasonic frequency 60 kHz, solid/liquid ratio 1:20, using pH 2 or 12 in the case of pectin or polyphenols, respectively. Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry (DART-MS) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy–Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) analyses were performed to evaluate the chemical profile of the extracts and pectin. The recycling of coffee husk waste into bioproducts in view of the circular economy contributes to minimizing the impact on the environment and to generating additional income for coffee growers. Full article

Porous carbon from renewable resources like biomass is a key material utilized in many applications ranging from environmental remediation to energy storage. There are limited reports in the literature on the effects of biomass pretreatment, production process parameters, and downstream processing on the final product properties. This is the first study aimed at closing the latter research gap. Six different types of underutilized biomass were examined: eastern red cedar wood, pecan shells, hazelnut shells, algal biomass, miscanthus, and sludge produced at municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Although pretreatment of biomass with KOH or ZnCl₂ enhanced formation of micro- and mesopores, carbon yield was lower (15.3–32.5%) than that obtained via non-catalytic pyrolysis (28.3–48%). An optimization study performed using response surface methodology and cedar wood has shown the significant effects (p < 0.05) of temperature and catalyst/biomass ratio on total BET pore volume and surface area. Additionally, catalyst/biomass ratio had a significant effect on the crystal structure and pore size distribution in the carbon produced by pyrolysis. Hence, optimization of process temperature, hold time, and activation ratio is capable of yielding porous carbon from cedar wood pyrolysis with desirable properties. Full article

Corn residues are an abundant and low-cost lignocellulosic feedstock that provides a renewable carbon platform for the production of biofuels, bioplastics, and high-value aromatic volatile compounds (AVCs). Isoamyl alcohol, an important AVC, has applications in the food, cosmetics, and biofuel industries. This study evaluated the bioconversion of corn cob acid hydrolysates by Meyerozyma guilliermondii into isoamyl alcohol and ethanol. Corn cob was selected as feedstock due to its high hemicellulose content. A Box–Behnken (BBD) design was used to optimize phosphoric acid hydrolysis. The optimal treatment (2.49% v/v H₃PO₄, 130 °C, 120 min, 1 mm particle size) generated 19.79 g L⁻¹ xylose with 2.74 g L⁻¹ acetic acid. Then, agitation speed and nitrogen concentration were optimized via a central composite design (CCD) in synthetic and hydrolysate-based media fermentations. Isoamyl alcohol specific yield after 48 h of fermentation was higher in hydrolysate medium (12.08 ± 0.67 mg·g⁻¹) than in synthetic medium (8.274 ± 0.83 mg·g⁻¹). Free amino nitrogen (FAN) and intracellular protein analyses revealed higher nitrogen consumption in synthetic media fermentation and greater biomass production in acid hydrolysate media. In addition to isoamyl alcohol (33 mg·L⁻¹), and ethanol (10.18 g·L⁻¹), 1-butanol (61.2 mg·L⁻¹), 1-propanol (13.25 mg·L⁻¹), and acetaldehyde (14.88 mg·L⁻¹) were produced. These results demonstrate the potential of M. guilliermondii to convert corn cob into value-added products. Full article

Olive mill wastewater (OMW) is a phenol-rich effluent with high organic load, posing significant environmental disposal challenges in the Mediterranean countries. This study evaluated the bioremediation and valorization potential of OMW by eleven edible and/or medicinal fungal strains (Agrocybe cylindracea, Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus sapidus, Pleurotus sajor-caju, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma adspersum, Tuber aestivum and Tuber mesentericum). Firstly, screening for mycelial growth on agar media with commercial glucose and OMW (concentrations from 0 to 50%, v/v) revealed a strain-specific tolerance to phenolic toxicity. Although all tested strains could grow on OMW-based media, G. adspersum, T. mesentericum and T. aestivum presented the highest mycelial growth rates (Kr), exceeding 10 mm/day at elevated OMW levels (50%, v/v). Based on screening outcomes, seven strains were selected for further evaluation under static liquid fermentations in media with 15 and 35% (v/v) OMW. Growth kinetics, substrate consumption, phenolic removal, decolorization capacity, intracellular polysaccharide (IPS) and total lipid content were assessed. Tuber spp. and G. adspersum exhibited the highest tolerance to phenolic compounds, producing biomass exceeding 15 g/L at 35%, v/v OMW. Maximum IPS production reached up to 46.23% (w/w), while lipid content exceeded 15% (w/w) of dry biomass in F. velutipes and T. mesentericum, indicating an oleaginous microorganism-like behavior. Phenolic removal surpassed 80% in most cases, demonstrating efficient enzymatic degradation. Decolorization efficiency varied between strains, but remained above 70% for L. edodes, G. adspersum and F. velutipes. These findings highlight the potential of edible and/or medicinal fungi to simultaneously detoxify OMW and produce biomass and high-value metabolites, supporting a sustainable, low-cost agro-industrial waste management aligning with circular bioeconomy principles. Full article

The brewing industry generates vast amounts of by-products of biotic and abiotic nature that require proper handling to reduce their environmental footprint annually. Simultaneously, and in alignment with the current circular economy dynamics, there is a growing trend towards the valorization of such by-products, through upcycling and/or repurposing. Biotic by-products are a low-cost source of valuable compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phenolic compounds, which, with adequate recovery methods, can be used in various industries, e.g., agro-food and pharma, among others, where their bioactive and physical-chemical properties can be harnessed effectively. Abiotic by-products are increasingly valorized through pathways that prioritize material recovery and functional reuse. This work aims to address the most relevant by-products from brewing by providing a broad perspective that abridges their sources alongside the manufacturing chain, the composition of the different by-products, and current and foreseen handling and valorization strategies. Full article

Every year, a substantial amount of food is discarded globally. A significant portion of this waste is composed of fruit by-products or fruits that do not meet consumer standards. Apples rank as the third most extensively produced fruit crop globally, generating substantial waste. This study examined apples that did not meet food industry standards and were destined for disposal. The objective was to recover bioactive compounds from their juice using Cloud Point Extraction (CPE). Like other extraction methods, CPE isolates target compounds from the sample, enhancing recovery yield. A primary advantage of CPE is that it operates without requiring specialized equipment or hazardous reagents. Additional benefits include efficacy, simplicity, safety, and speed. Furthermore, a food-grade surfactant, lecithin, was used to encapsulate bioactive compounds, ensuring non-toxicity for both humans and the environment. After three CPE steps, we recovered 95.95% of the total polyphenols from second-grade apple juice (initial TPC: 540.36 mg GAE/L). The findings highlight CPE’s effectiveness for polyphenol extraction and for producing antioxidant-rich extracts. These extracts may be utilized as nutritional supplements, feed additives, and for nutraceutical or medicinal applications. Full article