Gases

This article reports on field tests devoted to the emissions of particles from gas turbines (GT) and more particularly to the formation of soot and its suppression by fuel additives. These field tests involved four heavy-duty gas turbines used as power generators and equipped with air atomization systems. These machines were running on natural gas, No. 2 distillate oil, heavy crude oil and heavy fuel oil, respectively. The GT running on natural gas produced no soot or ash and its upstream air filtration system in fact allowed lower concentrations of exhaust particles than those found in ambient air. Soot emitted when burning the three liquid fuels (No. 2 distillate; heavy crude oil; and heavy oil) was effectively reduced using fuel additives based on iron(III), cerium(III) and cerium(IV). Cerium was found to be very effective as a soot suppressant and gave rise to two surprising effects: cerium(III) performed better than cerium(IV) and a “memory effect” was observed in the presence of heat recovery boilers due to the deposition of active cerium species. All of the reported results, both regarding natural gas emissions and soot reduction, are original. A review of the soot formation mechanisms and a detailed interpretation of the test results are provided. Full article

Hydrocarbon fields that contain non-associated gas, such as gas condensate, are highly valuable in terms of production. They yield significant amounts of condensate alongside the gas, but their unique behavior presents challenges. These reservoirs experience constant changes in composition and phases during production, which can lead to condensate blockage near wells. This blockage forms condensate bridges that hinder flow and potentially decrease gas production. To address these challenges, engineers rely on numerical simulation as a crucial tool to determine the most effective project management strategy for producing these reservoirs. In particular, relative permeability curves are used in these simulations to represent the physical phenomenon of interest. However, the representativeness of these curves in industry laboratory tests has limitations. To obtain more accurate inputs, simulations at the pore network level are performed. These simulations incorporate models that consider alterations in interfacial tension and flow velocity throughout the reservoir. The validation process involves reproducing a pore network flow simulation as close as possible to a commercial finite difference simulation. A scale-up methodology is then proposed, utilizing an optimization process to ensure fidelity to the original relative permeability curve at a microporous scale. This curve is obtained by simulating the condensation process in the reservoir phenomenologically, using a model that captures the dependence on velocity. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology, three relative permeability curves are compared based on field-scale productivities and the evolution of condensate saturation near the wells. The results demonstrate that the methodology accurately captures the influence of condensation on well productivity compared to the relative permeability curve generated from laboratory tests, which assumes greater condensate mobility. This highlights the importance of incorporating more realistic inputs into numerical simulations to improve decision-making in project management strategies for reservoir development. Full article

Many governments around the world have taken action to utilise carbon capture (CC) technologies to reduce CO₂ emissions. This technology is particularly important to reduce unavoidable emissions from industries like cement plants, oil refineries, etc. The available literature in the public domain explores this theme from two distinct perspectives. The first category of papers focuses only on modelling the CC plants by investigating the details of the processes to separate CO₂ from other gas components without considering the industrial applications and synergies between sectors. On the other hand, the second category investigates the required infrastructure that must be put in place to allow a suitable integration without considering the specific particularities of each carbon capture technology. This review gives a comprehensive guideline for the implementation of CC technologies for any given application while also considering the coupling between different energy sectors such as heating, power generation, etc. It also identifies the research gaps within this field, based on the existing literature. Moreover, it delves into various aspects and characteristics of these technologies, while comparing their energy penalties with the minimum work required for CO₂ separation. Additionally, this review investigates the main industrial sectors with CC potential, the necessary transportation infrastructure from the point sources to the end users, and the needs and characteristics of storage facilities, as well as the utilisation of CO₂ as a feedstock. Finally, an overview of the computation tools for CC processes and guidelines for their utilisation is given. The guidelines presented in this paper are the first attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of the technologies, and their requirements, needed to achieve the cross-sector coupling of CC plants for a wide range of applications. It is strongly believed that these guidelines will benefit all stakeholders in the value chain while enabling an accelerated deployment of these technologies. Full article

This work presents a diagnosis of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) platforms for oil and gas production offshore, using calculation methodologies from the American Petroleum Institute (API) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). To carry out this analysis, design data of an FPSO platform is used for the GHG emissions estimation, considering operations under steady conditions and oil and gas processing system simulations in the Aspen HYSYS^® software. The main direct emission sources of GHG are identified, including the main combustion processes (gas turbines for electric generation and gas turbine-driven CO₂ compressors), flaring and venting, as well as fugitive emissions. The study assesses a high CO₂ content in molar composition of the associated gas, an important factor that is considered in estimating fugitive emissions during the processes of primary separation and main gas compression. The resulting information indicates that, on average, 95% of total emissions are produced by combustion sources. In the latest production stages of the oil and gas field, it consumes 2 times more energy and emits 2.3 times CO₂ in terms of produced hydrocarbons. This diagnosis provides a baseline and starting point for the implementation of energy efficiency measures and/or carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies on the FPSO in order to reduce CO₂ and CH₄ emissions, as well as identify the major sources of emissions in the production process. Full article

At the Group of Seven (G7) summit held on 13–15 June in 2024, the Group’s leaders committed to establishing a collective cyber security framework and reinforcing the work of the cyber security working group to manage the risks targeting energy systems. Likewise, oil and electricity, and natural gas rely on complex and interdependent technologies and communication networks from production to consumption. The preparedness to handle cyber security threats in the energy infrastructures among decision makers, planners, and the industry in a concerted manner signifies that cyber security is becoming more appreciated. Therefore, considering the ambition and achievement of the G7 countries towards energy and cyber sovereignty, this paper’s focus and research question aims to explore the potential existence of the cyber governance alliance in the gas subsector within the G7. The objective of this paper is twofold. First, it explores the potential of the G7, the world’s seven largest advanced economies, to lead on a nascent cyber governance for risk management in the gas sector. The qualitative analysis conducted through the institutional analysis and design method examines up-to-date data involving mainly state actors. Second, by drawing on LNG, one of the world’s fastest growing energy types in the coming decades, the paper points out the need for further research on the transnational governance operating through public–private engagement to address the cyber risks to gas systems. While the paper makes an empirical contribution to the field of security governance and a practical contribution to security consulting, its limitations rely on the necessity to also conduct a quantitative enquiry, which would necessitate, among others, a review of the literature in the G7 countries, and a group of researchers from academia and practitioners to obtain a sense of the cyberspace in the energy reality. Full article

Since retrofitting existing natural gas-fired (NGF) power plants is an essential strategy for enhancing their efficiency and controlling greenhouse gas emissions, this paper compares the carbon footprint of natural gas-fired power generation from an NGF power plant in Brazil (BR-NGF) with and without retrofitting. The former scenario entails retrofitting the BR-NGF power plant with combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) technology. In contrast, the latter involves continuing the BR-NGF power plant operation with open-cycle gas turbine (OCGT) technology. Our analysis considers the BR-NGF power plant’s life cycle (construction, operation, and decommissioning) and the natural gas’ life cycle (natural gas extraction and processing, liquefaction, liquefied natural gas transportation, regasification, and combustion). Moreover, it is based on data from primary and secondary sources, mainly the Ecoinvent database and the ReCiPe 2016 method. For OCGT, the results showed that the BR-NGF power plant and the natural gas life cycles are responsible for 620.87 gCO₂eq./kWh and 178.58 gCO₂eq./kWh, respectively. For CCGT, these values are 450.04 gCO₂eq./kWh and 129.30 gCO₂eq./kWh. Our findings highlight the relevance of the natural gas’ life cycle, signaling additional opportunities for reducing the overall carbon footprint of natural gas-fired power generation. Full article

This paper investigates the operating benefits and limitations of utilizing carbon dioxide in hydro-pneumatic energy storage systems, a form of compressed gas energy storage technology, when the systems are deployed offshore. Allowing the carbon dioxide to transition into a two-phase fluid will improve the storage density for long-duration energy storage. A preliminary comparative study between an air-based and a carbon dioxide-based subsea hydro-pneumatic energy storage system is first presented. The analysis is based on thermodynamic calculations assuming ideal isothermal conditions to quantify the potential augmentation in energy storage capacity for a given volume of pressure containment when operating with carbon dioxide in lieu of air. This is followed by a transient thermal analysis of the carbon dioxide-based hydro-pneumatic energy storage system, taking into account the real scenario of a finite thermal resistance for heat exchange between the gas and the surrounding seawater. Results from numerical modelling revealed that the energy storage capacity of a carbon dioxide-based subsea hydro-pneumatic energy storage system operating under ideal isothermal conditions can be theoretically increased by a factor of 2.17 compared to an identical air-based solution. The numerical modelling revealed that, under real conditions under which transient effects resulting from a finite thermal resistance are accounted for, the achievable factor is lower, depending on the charging and discharging time, the initial temperature, and whether a polyethene liner for corrosion prevention is considered or not. Full article

This paper presents an analysis of NO₂ emissions in Mashhad City utilizing statistical evaluations and the Cisco Network Model. The present study begins by evaluating NO₂ emissions through statistical analysis, followed by the application of histograms and radar statistical appraisals. Subsequently, a model execution logic is developed using the Cisco Network Model to further understand the distribution and sources of NO₂ emissions in the city. Additionally, the research incorporates managerial insights by employing Petri Net modeling, which enables a deeper understanding of the dynamic interactions within the air quality management system. This approach aids in identifying critical control points and optimizing response strategies, thus enhancing the overall effectiveness of urban air pollution mitigation efforts. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the levels of NO₂ pollution in Mashhad City and offer a structured approach to modeling NO₂ emissions for effective air quality management strategies which can be extended to the other megacities as well. Full article

In this work, we analyze non-Darcy two-component single-phase isothermal flow in naturally fractured tight gas reservoirs. The model is applied in a scenario of enhanced gas recovery (EGR) with the possibility of carbon dioxide storage. The properties of the gases are obtained via the Peng–Robinson equation of state. The finite volume method is used to solve the governing partial differential equations. This process leads to two subsystems of algebraic equations, which, after linearization and use of an operator splitting method, are solved by the conjugate gradient (CG) and biconjugate gradient stabilized (BiCGSTAB) methods for determining the pressure and fraction molar, respectively. We include inertial effects using the Barree and Conway model and gas slippage via a more recent model than Klinkenberg’s, and we use a simplified model for the effects of effective stress. We also utilize a mesh refinement technique to represent the discrete fractures. Finally, several simulations show the influence of inertial, slippage and stress effects on production in fractured tight gas reservoirs. Full article

Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas with a 25 times higher 100-year warming potential than carbon dioxide and is a target for mitigation to achieve climate goals. To control and curb methane emissions, estimates are required from the sources and sectors which are typically generated using bottom-up methods. However, recent studies have shown that national and international bottom-up approaches can significantly underestimate emissions. In this study, we present three bottom-up approaches used to estimate methane emissions from all emission sectors in the Denver-Julesburg basin, CO, USA. Our data show emissions generated from all three methods are lower than historic measurements. A Tier 1/2 approach using IPCC emission factors estimated 2022 methane emissions of 358 Gg (0.8% of produced methane lost by the energy sector), while a Tier 3 EPA-based approach estimated emissions of 269 Gg (0.2%). Using emission factors informed by contemporary and region-specific measurement studies, emissions of 212 Gg (0.2%) were calculated. The largest difference in emissions estimates were a result of using the Mechanistic Air Emissions Simulator (MAES) for the production and transport of oil and gas in the DJ basin. The MAES accounts for changes to regulatory practice in the DJ basin, which include comprehensive requirements for compressors, pneumatics, equipment leaks, and fugitive emissions, which were implemented to reduce emissions starting in 2014. The measurement revealed that normalized gas loss is predicted to have been reduced by a factor of 20 when compared to 10-year-old normalization loss measurements and a factor of 10 less than a nearby oil and production area (Delaware basin, TX); however, we suggest that more measurements should be made to ensure that the long-tail emission distribution has been captured by the modeling. This study suggests that regulations implemented by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment could have reduced emissions by a factor of 20, but contemporary regional measurements should be made to ensure these bottom-up calculations are realistic. Full article

As carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies mature, the concept of a low-carbon or net-zero-carbon economy becomes more and more feasible. While many chemical and energy products do not contain carbon in their compounds, the upstream production process does. An added CCS module allows the removal of carbon emissions from the production process, which expands the value chain. This paper focuses on one of such commodities—low-carbon-intensity ammonia (LCIA). Even though ammonia is carbon-free in its final product, it is commonly made from natural gas, and the production process could generate significant carbon emissions. The idea of LCIA is to reduce the carbon footprint of the ammonia production process (e.g., blue ammonia) or eliminate carbon from the production process (e.g., green ammonia via electrolysis) so that the entire supply chain is decarbonized. The goal of this paper is two-fold. We first explore the US domestic market and the international market for LCIA. We then discuss relevant federal and local policies that could help grow markets for LCIA. The agricultural sector will be the center of the discussion, which consumes an estimated 70–90% of the global ammonia supply as fertilizers. The paper also examines other potential uses of LCIA, such as alternative fuels for decarbonizing agricultural machinery and transportation sectors. Finally, we argue that developing a comprehensive LCIA value chain, supported by dedicated policy measures and broad stakeholder engagement, is critical for materializing the potential of LCIA in contributing to a climate-resilient and sustainable economy. Full article

To reduce and convert biodegradable waste into energy-rich biogas, anaerobic digestion technology is usually employed. Hence, this takes place inside the biogas digester. Studies have revealed that these digesters are designed and constructed using bricks, cement, and metal; often require a large footprint; and are bulky and expensive. The innovation of portable biogas digesters has come into the market to address these challenges. This present review provides an overview of the in-depth and comprehensive information on portable biogas digesters in the literature. Areas covered in the review include the modification of the biogas digester design, the need for a portable biogas digester, recent studies on the factors affecting the performance of portable biogas digesters, and specific assumptions taken into consideration for designing any portable biogas digester. Convincingly, portable biogas digesters appeal to small rural families because of their ease of operation, maintenance, and ability to save space. The material for the construction and comparison of the portable biogas digester with other designs and the economic feasibility of the system were also reviewed. Implications: The full-scale design, fabrication, and utilization of a portable biogas digester are viable but not widely employed compared to other designs. However, there is a lack of readily available information on the portable design of biogas digesters. This review presents various aspects relating to portable biogas digesters and the quality of biogas produced. Therefore, the review suits audiences in energy process design and engineers, energy researchers, academics, and economists. Full article

Phased injection of natural gas into internal combustion marine engines is a promising solution for optimizing performance and reducing harmful emissions, particularly unburned methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This innovative practice distinguishes itself from continuous injection because it allows for more precise control of the combustion process with only a slight increase in system complexity. By synchronizing the injection of natural gas with the intake and exhaust valve opening and closing times while also considering the gas path in the manifolds, methane release into the atmosphere is significantly reduced, making a substantial contribution to efforts to address climate change. Moreover, phased injection improves the efficiency of marine engines, resulting in reduced overall fuel consumption, lower fuel costs, and increased ship autonomy. This technology was tested on a single-cylinder, large-bore, four-stroke research engine designed for marine applications, operating in dual-fuel mode with diesel and natural gas. Performance was compared with that of the conventional continuous feeding method. Evaluation of the effect on equivalent CO₂ emissions indicates a potential reduction of up to approximately 20%. This reduction effectively brings greenhouse gas emissions below those of the diesel baseline case, especially when injection control is combined with supercharging control to optimize the air–fuel ratio. In this context, the boost pressure in DF was reduced from 3 to 1.5 bar compared with the FD case. Full article

The systematic analysis of measurement data allows a large amount of information to be obtained from existing measurements in a short period of time. Especially in vehicle development, many measurements are performed, and large amounts of data are collected in the process of emission calibration. With the introduction of Real Driving Emissions Tests, the need for targeted analysis for efficient and robust calibration of a vehicle has further increased. With countless possible test scenarios, test-by-test analysis is no longer possible with the current state-of-the-art in calibration, as it takes too much time and can disregard relevant data when analyzed manually. In this article, therefore, a methodology is presented that automatically analyzes exhaust measurement data in the context of emission calibration and identifies emission-related critical sequences. For this purpose, moving analyzing windows are used, which evaluate the exhaust emissions in each sample of the measurement. The detected events are stored in tabular form and are particularly suitable for condensing the collected measurement data to a required amount for optimization purposes. It is shown how different window settings influence the amount and duration of detected events. With the example used, a total amount of 454 events can be identified from 60 measurements, reducing 184,623 s of measurements to a relevant amount of 12,823 s. Full article

Climate projects can become one of the key tools for decarbonization in Russia. They have powerful potential in terms of solving the problems of reducing emissions and increasing the absorption of greenhouse gases, as well as monetization potential for businesses. Despite the geopolitical crisis and sanctions imposed on Russia, certain opportunities for implementing climate projects have remained accessible. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current status, including the regulations and approved methodologies, prospects, and challenges for climate projects in the carbon market in Russia. It also offers an overview of international carbon market mechanisms and analyses the advantages and disadvantages of the nature-based and technological solutions of climate projects for carbon sequestration. This, in turn, can facilitate the realization of future strategies for realizing the bigger potential of Russian climate projects in the domestic and international carbon markets. This research also provides up-to-date data on the current situation of the carbon market in Russia. Full article

In a previous study, we demonstrated a change in membrane morphology and gas separation performance by varying the recipe of a casting solution based on polysulfone in a certain solvent system. Although all results were reproducible, all used solvents were harmful and not sustainable. In this study, the solvents tetrahydrofuran (THF) and N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) are replaced by the more sustainable solvents 2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran (2M-THF), N-butyl pyrrolidinone (NBP) and cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME). The gas permeation performance and, for the first time, morphology of the membranes before and after solvent replacement were determined and compared by single gas permeation measurements and SEM microscopy. It is shown that THF can be replaced by 2M-THF and NBP without decreasing the gas permeation performance. With CPME replacing THF, no membranes were formed. Systems with 2M-THF as a THF alternative showed the best gas permeation results. Permeances for the tested gases oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) were 5.91 × 10⁻², 8.84 × 10⁻³, 4.00 × 10⁻¹ and 1.00 × 10⁻² GPU, respectively. Permselectivities of those membranes for the gas pairs O₂/N₂, CO₂/N₂ and CO₂/CH₄ were 6.7, 38.3 and 34.0, respectively. When also replacing DMAc in the solvent system, no or only porous membranes were obtained, even if the precipitation procedure was adjusted. These findings indicate that a complete replacement of the solvent system without affecting the membrane morphology or gas permeation performance is not possible. By varying the temperature of the precipitation bath, the formation of mechanically stable PSU membranes is possible only if THF is replaced by 2M-THF. Full article

Carbon-capture technologies are extremely abundant, yet they have not been applied extensively worldwide due to their high cost and technological complexities. This research studies the ability of polymerized fly ash to capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) under low-pressure and low-temperature conditions via physical adsorption. The research also studies the ability to desorb CO₂ due to the high demand for CO₂ in different industries. The adsorption–desorption hysteresis was measured using infrared-sensor detection apparatus. The impact of the CO₂ injection rate for adsorption, helium injection rate for desorption, temperature, and fly ash contact surface area on the adsorption–desorption hysteresis was investigated. The results showed that change in the CO₂ injection rate had little impact on the variation in the adsorption capacity; for all CO₂ rate experiments, the adsorption reached more than 90% of the total available adsorption sites. Increasing the temperature caused the polymerized fly ash to expand, thus increasing the available adsorption sites, thus increasing the overall adsorption volume. At low helium rates, desorption was extremely lengthy which resulted in a delayed hysteresis response. This is not favorable since it has a negative impact on the adsorption–desorption cyclic rate. Based on the results, the polymerized fly ash proved to have a high CO₂ capture capability and thus can be applied for carbon-capture applications. Full article

The gasification of residues into syngas offers a versatile gaseous fuel that can be used to produce heat and power in various applications. However, the application of syngas in engines presents several challenges due to the changes in its composition. Such variations can significantly alter the optimal operational conditions of the engines that are fueled with syngas, resulting in combustion instability, high engine variability, and misfires. In this context, this work presents an experimental investigation conducted on a port-fuel injection spark-ignition optical research engine using three different syngas mixtures, with a particular focus on the effects of CO/H₂ and diluent ratios. A comparative analysis is made against methane, considered as the baseline fuel. The in-cylinder pressure and related parameters are examined as indicators of combustion behavior. Additionally, 2D cycle-resolved digital visualization is employed to trace flame front propagation. Custom image processing techniques are applied to estimate flame speed, displacement, and morphological parameters. The engine runs at a constant speed (900 rpm) and with full throttle like stationary engine applications. The excess air–fuel ratios vary from 1.0 to 1.4 by adjusting the injection time and the spark timing according to the maximum brake torque of the baseline fuel. A thermodynamic analysis revealed notable trends in in-cylinder pressure traces, indicative of differences in combustion evolution and peak pressures among the syngas mixtures and methane. Moreover, the study quantified parameters such as the mass fraction burned, combustion stability (COVIMEP), and fuel conversion efficiency. The analysis provided insights into flame morphology, propagation speed, and distortion under varying conditions, shedding light on the influence of fuel composition and air dilution. Overall, the results contribute to advancing the understanding of syngas combustion behavior in SI engines and hold implications for optimizing engine performance and developing numerical models. Full article

The growing importance of hydrogen as an energy carrier in a future decarbonised energy system has led to a surge in its production plans. However, the development of infrastructure for hydrogen delivery, particularly in the hard-to-abate sectors, remains a significant challenge. While constructing new pipelines entails substantial investment, repurposing existing pipelines offers a cost-effective approach to jump-starting hydrogen networks. Many European countries and, more recently, other regions are exploring the possibility of utilising their current pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transport. Despite the recent efforts to enhance the understanding of pipeline compatibility and integrity for hydrogen transportation, including issues such as embrittlement, blend ratios, safety concerns, compressor optimisation, and corrosion in distribution networks, there has been limited or no focus on pipeline expansion options to address the low-energy density of hydrogen blends and associated costs. This study, therefore, aims to explore expansion options for existing natural gas high-pressure pipelines through additional compression or looping. It seeks to analyse the corresponding cost implications to achieve an affordable and sustainable hydrogen economy by investigating the utilisation of existing natural gas pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transportation as a cost-saving measure. It explores two expansion strategies, namely pipeline looping (also known as pipeline reinforcement) and compression, for repurposing a segment of a 342 km × 36 inch existing pipeline, from the Escravos–Lagos gas pipeline system (ELPS) in Nigeria, for hydrogen transport. Employing the Promax^® process simulator tool, the study assesses compliance with the API RP 14E and ASME B31.12 standards for hydrogen and hydrogen–methane blends. Both expansion strategies demonstrate acceptable velocity and pressure drop characteristics for hydrogen blends of up to 40%. Additionally, the increase in hydrogen content leads to heightened compression power requirements until approximately 80% hydrogen in the blends for compression and a corresponding extension in looping length until around 80% hydrogen in the blend for looping. Moreover, the compression option is more economically viable for all investigated proportions of hydrogen blends for the PS1–PS5 segment of the Escravos–Lagos gas pipeline case study. The percentage price differentials between the two expansion strategies reach as high as 495% for a 20% hydrogen proportion in the blend. This study offers valuable insights into the technical and economic implications of repurposing existing natural gas infrastructure for hydrogen transportation. Full article