Journal Description
Energy Storage and Applications
Energy Storage and Applications
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on energy storage technologies and their applications, published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- Rapid Publication: first decisions in 18 days; acceptance to publication in 4 days (median values for MDPI journals in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
- Energy Storage and Applications is a companion journal of Energies.
Latest Articles
Advancing Energy Storage Technologies and Governance in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Review of International Frameworks, Research Insights, and Regional Case Studies
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(3), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2030008 - 23 Jun 2025
Abstract
This review explores the development of energy storage technologies and governance frameworks in the Asia-Pacific region, where rapid economic growth and urbanisation drive the demand for sustainable energy solutions. Energy storage systems (ESS) are integral to balancing renewable energy fluctuations, improving grid resilience,
[...] Read more.
This review explores the development of energy storage technologies and governance frameworks in the Asia-Pacific region, where rapid economic growth and urbanisation drive the demand for sustainable energy solutions. Energy storage systems (ESS) are integral to balancing renewable energy fluctuations, improving grid resilience, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines the role of international organisations, including the United Nations, International Energy Agency (IEA), and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), in promoting energy storage advancements through strategic initiatives, policy frameworks, and funding mechanisms. Regionally, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have launched programs fostering collaboration, technical support, and knowledge sharing. Detailed case studies of Japan, Thailand, and China highlight the diverse policy approaches, technological innovations, and international collaborations shaping energy storage advancements. While Japan emphasises cutting-edge innovation, Thailand focuses on regional integration, and China leads in large-scale deployment and manufacturing. This analysis identifies key lessons from these frameworks and case studies, providing insights into governance strategies, policy implications, and the challenges of scaling energy storage technologies. It offers a roadmap for advancing regional and global efforts toward achieving low-carbon, resilient energy systems aligned with sustainability and climate goals.
Full article
Open AccessReview
Sustainable Management of Energy Storage in Electric Vehicles Involved in a Smart Urban Environment
by
Adel Razek
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2020007 - 17 Jun 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Electric vehicles are increasingly being used for green transportation in smart urban mobility, thus protecting environmental biodiversity and the ecosystem. Energy storage by electric vehicle batteries is a critical point of this ecologically responsible transportation. This storage is strongly linked to the different
[...] Read more.
Electric vehicles are increasingly being used for green transportation in smart urban mobility, thus protecting environmental biodiversity and the ecosystem. Energy storage by electric vehicle batteries is a critical point of this ecologically responsible transportation. This storage is strongly linked to the different external managements related to its capacity state. The latter concerns the interconnection of storage to energy resources, charging strategies, and their complexity. In an ideal urban context, charging strategies would use wireless devices. However, these may involve complex frames and unwanted electromagnetic field interferences. The sustainable management of wireless devices and battery state conditions allows for optimized operation and minimized adverse effects. Such management includes the sustainable design of devices and monitoring of complex connected procedures. The present study aims to analyze this management and to highlight the mathematical routines enabling the design and control tasks involved. The investigations involved are closely related to responsible attitude, “One Health”, and twin supervision approaches. The different sections of the article examine the following: electric vehicle in smart mobility, sustainable design and control, electromagnetic exposures, governance of physical and mathematical representation, charging routines, protection against adverse effects, and supervision of complex connected vehicles. The research presented in this article is supported by examples from the literature.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessReview
Composite Electrolytes for Supercapacitors
by
Lijun Fu, Qunting Qu, Lili Liu and Rudolf Holze
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(2), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2020006 - 27 Apr 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Composite electrolytes for applications in electrochemical energy technology, i.e. in batteries and supercapacitors, are gaining increasing attention. In the absence of a commonly accepted definition a ternary combination of materials, e.g. a polymer with an electrolyte salt or electrolyte salt solution and a
[...] Read more.
Composite electrolytes for applications in electrochemical energy technology, i.e. in batteries and supercapacitors, are gaining increasing attention. In the absence of a commonly accepted definition a ternary combination of materials, e.g. a polymer with an electrolyte salt or electrolyte salt solution and a third conductivity-enhancing constituent, is assumed as a definition of a composite electrolyte in the following review. Relevant fundamentals and reported research results up to explanations of the observed effects and improvements are reviewed. Future perspectives and directions of further research are indicated.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessProject Report
Integrated Design and Construction of a 50 kW Flexible Hybrid Renewable Power Hydrogen System Testbed
by
Jonathan G. Love, Michelle Gane, Anthony P. O’Mullane and Ian D. R. Mackinnon
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(2), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2020005 - 21 Mar 2025
Cited by 1
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
We report on the first stage of an energy systems integration project to develop hybrid renewable energy generation and storage of hydrogen for subsequent use via research-based low regret system testbeds. This study details the design and construction of a flexible plug-and-play hybrid
[...] Read more.
We report on the first stage of an energy systems integration project to develop hybrid renewable energy generation and storage of hydrogen for subsequent use via research-based low regret system testbeds. This study details the design and construction of a flexible plug-and-play hybrid renewable power and hydrogen system testbed with up to 50 kW capacity aimed at addressing and benchmarking the operational parameters of the system as well as key components when commissioned. The system testbed configuration includes three different solar technologies, three different battery technologies, two different electrolyser technologies, hydrogen storage, and a fuel cell for regenerative renewable power. Design constraints include the current limit of an AC microgrid, regulations for grid-connected inverters, power connection inefficiencies, and regulated hazardous area approval. We identify and show the resolution of systems integration challenges encountered during construction that may benefit planning for the emerging pilot, or testbed, configurations at other sites. These testbed systems offer the opportunity for informed decisions on economic viability for commercial-scale industry applications.
Full article

Graphical abstract
Open AccessArticle
Facilitating India’s Deep Decarbonisation Through Sector Coupling of Electricity with Green Hydrogen and Ammonia
by
Zac Cesaro, Rasmus Bramstoft, René Bañares-Alcántara and Matthew C. Ives
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(2), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2020004 - 21 Mar 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Green hydrogen and ammonia are forecast to play key roles in the deep decarbonization of the global economy. Here we explore the potential of using green hydrogen and ammonia to couple the energy, agriculture, and industrial sectors with India’s national-scale electricity grid. India
[...] Read more.
Green hydrogen and ammonia are forecast to play key roles in the deep decarbonization of the global economy. Here we explore the potential of using green hydrogen and ammonia to couple the energy, agriculture, and industrial sectors with India’s national-scale electricity grid. India is an ideal test case as it currently has one of the most ambitious hydrogen programs in the world, with projected electricity demands for hydrogen and ammonia production accounting for over 1500 TWh/yr or nearly 25% of India’s total electricity demand by 2050. We model the ambitious deep decarbonization of India’s electricity grid and half of its steel and fertilizer industries by 2050. We uncover modest risks for India from such a strategy, with many benefits and opportunities. Our analysis suggests that a renewables-based energy system coupled with ammonia off-take sectors has the potential to dramatically reduce India’s greenhouse emissions, reduce requirements for expensive long-duration energy storage or firm generating capacity, reduce the curtailment of renewable energy, provide valuable short-duration and long-duration load-shifting and system resilience to inter-annual weather variations, and replace tens of billions of USD in ammonia and fuel imports each year. All this while potentially powering new multi-billion USD green steel and maritime fuel export industries. The key risk for India in relation to such a strategy lies in the potential for higher costs and reduced benefits if the rest of the world does not match their ambitious investment in renewables, electrolyzers, and clean storage technologies. We show that such a pessimistic outcome could result in the costs of green hydrogen and ammonia staying high for India through 2050, although still within the range of their gray counterparts. If on the other hand, renewable and storage costs continue to decline further with continued global deployment, all the above benefits could be achieved with a reduced levelized cost of hydrogen and ammonia (10–25%), potentially with a modest reduction in total energy system costs (5%). Such an outcome would have profound global implications given India’s central role in the future global energy economy, establishing India’s global leadership in green shipping fuel, agriculture, and steel, while creating an affordable, sustainable, and secure domestic energy supply.
Full article

Graphical abstract
Open AccessArticle
Supercapacitor-Assisted Low-Frequency Converters for DC Microgrids, DC Homes, and DC Appliances for Increased End-to-End Efficiency: Implementation Example of a DC-Converted Refrigerator
by
Nirashi Polwaththa Gallage, Nihal Kularatna, Dulsha Kularatna-Abeywardana and Alistair Steyn-Ross
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2010003 - 20 Feb 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
More recently, researchers and the industrial community have started researching DC appliances and DC microgrids as a means of increasing the end-to-end efficiency of systems. Given the fluctuating nature of renewable resources, energy storage becomes mandatory in powering households with minimal AC grid
[...] Read more.
More recently, researchers and the industrial community have started researching DC appliances and DC microgrids as a means of increasing the end-to-end efficiency of systems. Given the fluctuating nature of renewable resources, energy storage becomes mandatory in powering households with minimal AC grid supply, and rechargeable battery packs with maximum power point tracking controllers with inverters are used. However, this approach is not the most efficient due to losses in the power converters used in the energy supply path, while short life and environmental concerns of battery storage also come into play. With the rapid development of commercial super-capacitors, with longer life, higher power density and wider operational temperature range, this device family can be at the center of a new development era, for power converters for DC homes and DC appliances. The new family of converters and protection systems known as supercapacitor-assisted techniques is a unique new approach to minimize or eliminate batteries while improving the ETEE. These new SCA techniques are based on a new theoretical concept now published as supercapacitor-assisted loss management theory. In this paper, we will demonstrate how we extend SCALoM theory to develop SCA converters for whiteware, with the example of a DC-converted commercial double-door refrigerator with implementation details.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessCommunication
Utilisation of Liquefied Biomass in Water Co-Electrolysis for the Production of Synthesis Gas
by
Diogo Martins, Tiago Cabrita, João Rodrigues, Jaime Puna and João Gomes
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2010002 - 12 Feb 2025
Cited by 1
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
This paper presents a study on the addition of liquefied biomass of different lignocellulosic forest residues as a means to enhance the co-electrolysis process leading to the production of synthesis gas, composed of H2, CO, CO2, and O2,
[...] Read more.
This paper presents a study on the addition of liquefied biomass of different lignocellulosic forest residues as a means to enhance the co-electrolysis process leading to the production of synthesis gas, composed of H2, CO, CO2, and O2, also known as syngas, with the aim of a subsequent conversion into methane and methanol. Tests were made on a 1 kW prototype unit and showed that the use of liquefied biomass clearly enhances the reaction leading to syngas production. The optimisation study performed showed that the best results are obtained with an addition of 2.5% mass of liquefied biomass obtained from Acacia melanoxylon and operating conditions of a pressure of 4 bar gauge and a temperature of 110 °C.
Full article

Graphical abstract
Open AccessReview
Powering Future Advancements and Applications of Battery Energy Storage Systems Across Different Scales
by
Zhaoyang Dong, Yuechuan Tao, Shuying Lai, Tianjin Wang and Zhijun Zhang
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2010001 - 24 Jan 2025
Cited by 5
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) are critical in modernizing energy systems, addressing key challenges associated with the variability in renewable energy sources, and enhancing grid stability and resilience. This review explores the diverse applications of BESSs across different scales, from micro-scale appliance-level uses
[...] Read more.
Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) are critical in modernizing energy systems, addressing key challenges associated with the variability in renewable energy sources, and enhancing grid stability and resilience. This review explores the diverse applications of BESSs across different scales, from micro-scale appliance-level uses to large-scale utility and grid services, highlighting their adaptability and transformative potential. This study also includes advanced applications such as mobile energy storage, second-life battery utilization, and innovative models like Energy Storage as a Service (ESaaS) and energy storage sharing. Additionally, it discusses the integration of machine learning (ML) and large language models (LLMs), including advanced reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms, to optimize BESS operations and ensure safety through dynamic and data-driven decision-making. By examining current technologies, modeling methods, and future trends, this review provides a comprehensive overview of BESSs as a cornerstone technology for sustainable and efficient energy management, leading to a resilient energy future.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Uses of the Popov Stability Criterion for Analyzing Global Asymptotic Stability in Power System Dynamic Models
by
Elinor Ginzburg-Ganz, Juri Belikov, Liran Katzir and Yoash Levron
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 54-72; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010005 - 23 Dec 2024
Cited by 1
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Stability studies remain a crucial aspect of power systems dynamic analysis, and are typically explored in three main categories: numerical methods, linearization techniques, or direct methods, which utilize Lyapunov energy functions. This paper belongs to the third category, and highlights the usefulness of
[...] Read more.
Stability studies remain a crucial aspect of power systems dynamic analysis, and are typically explored in three main categories: numerical methods, linearization techniques, or direct methods, which utilize Lyapunov energy functions. This paper belongs to the third category, and highlights the usefulness of the Popov stability criterion in the analysis of nonlinear power system models. The main advantage of this criterion is that it provides conditions for global asymptotic stability of an equilibrium point, for a nonlinear dynamic system. We show a general method to apply this stability criterion, and examine its uses in several specific applications and case-studies. The results are demonstrated by analyzing the stability of a system that includes a grid-connected storage device and a renewable energy source.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessCommunication
Comprehensive Analysis of Parametric Effects on the Specific Heat Capacity of Pristine and Aged Lithium-Ion Cells
by
Luca Tendera, Gerrit Karl Mertin, Carlos Gonzalez, Dominik Wycisk, Alexander Fill and Kai Peter Birke
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 35-53; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010004 - 4 Dec 2024
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
The precise determination of the specific heat capacity of lithium-ion cells is essential for thermal management design. Though, varying influences and insufficient parametric analyses are found in the literature. Therefore, a simple and inexpensive measurement setup is utilized to measure the specific heat
[...] Read more.
The precise determination of the specific heat capacity of lithium-ion cells is essential for thermal management design. Though, varying influences and insufficient parametric analyses are found in the literature. Therefore, a simple and inexpensive measurement setup is utilized to measure the specific heat capacity of cells independent of their format and dimensions. A comprehensive parametric analysis is performed assessing the effect of cell casing, cell chemistry, temperature, state-of-charge, and state-of-health. For the first time ever, a predictive analysis on material level is conducted allowing for understanding the individual factors in detail. Thus, an analytical approach for calculating the specific heat capacity can be validated by comparing predictive values to experimental data for the first time. It is found that the cell format has a significant influence on the specific heat capacity due to varying mass fractions and housing materials. Furthermore, the cell chemistry and corresponding layer thicknesses are of high importance, too. By selecting specific heat capacities for individual materials from the general literature, the analytical prediction matches the experimental data and is thus validated for the first time ever. Moreover, temperature has a positive linear effect on the specific heat capacity which can increase by up to 15% over the operating range. Furthermore, the positive temperature dependency improves the charging performance. Finally, neither SOC nor SOH significantly affect the specific heat capacity of lithium-ion cells.
Full article

Graphical abstract
Open AccessArticle
Development of a Mechanical Vehicle Battery Module Simulation Model Combined with Short Circuit Detection
by
Klemens Jantscher, Heimo Kreimaier, Alem Miralem and Christoph Breitfuss
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 19-34; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010003 - 3 Dec 2024
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction within the automotive industry, driven by the societal push towards climate neutrality. These vehicles predominantly utilize lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for storing electric traction energy, posing new challenges in crash safety. This paper presents
[...] Read more.
In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction within the automotive industry, driven by the societal push towards climate neutrality. These vehicles predominantly utilize lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for storing electric traction energy, posing new challenges in crash safety. This paper presents the development of a mechanically validated LIB module simulation model specifically for crash applications, augmented with virtual short circuit detection. A pouch cell simulation model is created and validated using mechanical test data from two distinct out-of-plane load cases. Additionally, a method for virtual short circuit prediction is devised and successfully demonstrated. The model is then extended to the battery module level. Full-scale mechanical testing of the battery modules is performed, and the simulation data are compared with the empirical data, demonstrating the model’s validity in the out-of-plane direction. Key metrics such as force-displacement characteristics, force, deformation, and displacement during short circuit events are accurately replicated. It is the first mechanically valid model of a LIB pouch cell module incorporating short circuit prediction with hot spot location, that can be used in full vehicle crash simulations for EVs. The upscaling to full vehicle simulation is enabled by a macro-mechanical simulation approach which creates a computationally efficient model.
Full article

Graphical abstract
Open AccessArticle
Adaptive Operation Strategy of a District Cooling System with Chilled Water Storage and Its Validations by OpenModelica Modeling and Simulations
by
Yang Liu, Songcen Wang, Hongyin Chen and Ming Zhong
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 3-18; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010002 - 30 Sep 2024
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
Developing operation strategies for district cooling systems with chilled water storage is challenging due to uncertain fluctuations of cooling demand in actual operations. To address this issue, this paper developed an adaptive operation strategy and performed its validations by modeling and simulating a
[...] Read more.
Developing operation strategies for district cooling systems with chilled water storage is challenging due to uncertain fluctuations of cooling demand in actual operations. To address this issue, this paper developed an adaptive operation strategy and performed its validations by modeling and simulating a commercial cooling system in Shanghai using OpenModelica. Firstly, the originally designed operation strategy of the cooling system was evaluated by simulation but was found unable to meet the statistically averaged ideal cooling requirements due to the early exhaustion of stored chilled water at about 5:30 PM. Then, to build foundations for adaptive operation strategy development, a newly designed operation strategy was established by increasing the operation time of base load chillers in the valley and flat electricity price periods. The new strategy proved numerically sustainable in satisfying the ideal cooling demand. Moreover, to realize the strategy’s adaptability to actual cooling load fluctuations, an adaptive operation strategy was developed by tracking the target stored chilled water mass curve that was calculated by implementing the newly designed strategy. The simulation results verify that the adaptive operation strategy enables good adaptability to representative cooling load fluctuation cases by automatically and periodically adjusting the operation status of base load chillers. The adaptive operation strategy was then further widely numerically tested in hundreds of simulation cases with different cooling load variations. The time-lagging problem resulting in strategy failures was found in numerical tests and was addressed by slightly modifying the adaptive strategy. Results indicate that the adaptive operation strategy enables adaptability to deal with cooling demand fluctuations as well as allowing low cooling supply economic costs and power grid-friendly characteristics. This study provides theoretical support to strategy design and validations for district cooling system operations.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessEditorial
Energy Storage and Applications—A New Open Access Journal
by
Zhaoyang Dong
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 1-2; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010001 - 28 Jun 2024
Cited by 1
Abstract
As sustainability and the adoption of renewable energy become increasingly prominent on the international agenda, energy storage plays an increasingly essential role in facilitating this transition while ensuring a secure and reliable energy supply [...]
Full article
Highly Accessed Articles
Latest Books
E-Mail Alert
News
Topics
