Polysaccharides, Volume 6, Issue 2 (June 2025) – 19 articles

Adsorption has been found to be highly effective for removing heavy metals from polluted industrial wastewater. Adsorbents of biological origin, such as negatively charged polysaccharides, e.g., alginate and carrageenan, have attracted a lot of attention recently. In this study, these three polysaccharides were used to adsorb different heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. The results showed that the sorption yields of various lanthanides with the kappa and iota carrageenan were similar, though the sorption yields of the iota beads were higher. Also, the iota and the kappa beads had higher sorption yields for Ru³⁺ and Rh³⁺ than they did for the lanthanides. In general, the presence of light metal ions in the solution affected the sorption yields of the heavy metal ions, depending on the type and concentration of the light metal ions. All three polysaccharides were also capable of adsorbing mixtures of lanthanides and heavy metal ions. In binary solutions that contained both lanthanide ions (Ce³⁺ or Eu³⁺) and transition heavy metal ions (Ru³⁺ or Rh³⁺), differences in sorption yields were observed, with all polysaccharides exhibiting higher selectivity for Ru³⁺ and Rh³⁺. Finally, FTIR, SEM/EDS, and TGA analyses confirmed that all metal ions were adsorbed onto both types of carrageenan. Full article

Lollipop sticks were developed with fully biobased materials made of different plantain by-products, using extrusion processing followed by hot compression molding. The thermoplastic matrix was constituted of flour and starch from plantain bunch pulp and plantain peel cake. At the same time, two types of reinforcement were used, one of them being yarn from the lignocellulosic fibers of the pseudostem sheaths to constitute the BC1 lollipop stick and the other directly from the plantain pseudostem treated sheath to establish the BC2 lollipop stick. The biobased lollipop sticks were characterized in the migration test, finding a higher structural stability in lipophilic foods, with chocolate chosen as a confection to undergo physicochemical, structural, mechanical, and dynamic–mechanical characterization when interacting with the two biobased lollipop sticks until post-consumption was reached. The BC2 lollipop stick was characterized by maintaining higher stability in maximum tensile strength (12.62 to 11.76 MPa), higher flexural strength (19.07 to 10.11 MPa), storage modulus (4.97 to 1.65 GPa at 30 °C), and Tan delta (66.90 to 52.64 °C). Full article

Starch was plasticized with epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) modified by reaction with cinnamic acid (CA), and films were prepared using solvent casting from water/ethanol solutions. They exhibited good hydrophobicity, reduced water sensitivity, and showed the same transparency as glycerol-plasticized counterparts, but with less flexibility. Interestingly, modified ESO enhanced gelatinization and hindered retrogradation of the biopolymer. ESO was reacted with CA without the use of catalysts to obtain a β-hydroxyester; in order to optimize the synthesis process, different reaction conditions were explored, varying the stoichiometry and the heating cycles. Products were fully characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and the different reactions following the opening of the oxirane ring were discussed. The properties of the novel starch-based films prepared with modified ESO highlight their use in food packaging, disposable devices, and agricultural mulching films. Full article

This work investigates the effects of gamma irradiation (0.1–10 kGy) on four Italian wheat matrices, such as durum, conventional soft, integrated soft, and biological soft wheat, by coupling Raman, FTIR-ATR and EPR spectroscopies to provide complementary insights into the structural, conformational, and radical-based transformations occurring in starch, the primary polysaccharide in wheat. As a general trend, gamma irradiation up to 10 kGy does not induce drastic degradation or depolymerization of wheat components. However, deeper investigations reveal that wheat composition is crucial in modulating the effects of gamma irradiation on structural and conformational rearrangements of starch units. Raman and FTIR-ATR spectroscopy analyses showed an increase in random coil fractions, with the most significant changes observed in durum wheat, plausibly attributed to its higher protein content. EPR analyses confirmed a dose-dependent increase in free radicals, with different recombination kinetics between wheat types influenced by their intrinsic composition and molecular organization. The proposed spectroscopic approaches allow for rapid and non-destructive analyses of molecular structure, chemical composition, and free radical content in irradiated wheat matrices with minimal sample preparation. These approaches can be extended in the development of screening methods for a wide range of polysaccharides in a variety of crops. Full article

ABC transporters are a large family of proteins that mediate the export or import of a variety of molecules, including capsular polysaccharides. The capsules are an important virulence factor that protect bacteria from host immune system attacks, antibiotics, and physicochemical changes in their environment. In some Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, ABC transporter-dependent systems facilitate the export of capsular polysaccharides. These transport systems are composed of three parts: the ABC transporter and the polysaccharide co-polymerase protein in the inner membrane and the outer membrane polysaccharide export protein in the outer membrane. The glycolipid anchor of the capsular polysaccharide binds to a pocket between the two subunits of the ABC transporter transmembrane domain. The three parts of the ABC transporter-dependent system form a tunnel, through which the capsular polysaccharide is exported using energy from ATP hydrolysis. Knowledge of the ABC transporter-dependent system and its function is incomplete, requiring further research to better understand the processes of capsular polysaccharide export. This may also allow, in the future, to develop new molecules that inhibit capsular polysaccharide export, which would help the host immune system fight Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria coated with capsular polysaccharides. This review presents the latest findings on ABC transporter-dependent systems that export capsular polysaccharides in Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. Full article

Polysaccharide-based materials are a highly promising bioresource in the realm of biomaterial technologies due to their unique properties and versatility. Cellulose gels leverage the renewability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of cellulose, a glucose polymer, making them ideal for various applications. This review examines various types of cellulose gels, a well-known polysaccharide used in agriculture, including natural (such as non-wood and bacterial cellulose gels), regenerated cellulose gels, and gels derived from cellulose derivatives. The properties of these cellulose gels, advanced technologies used in their potential fabrication, and their utilization techniques are comprehensively summarized based on a comprehensive systematic literature review to provide an in-depth understanding of the research theme, identify research gaps, and highlight future research directions. The review also explores the various applications of cellulose gels in agriculture, from fundamental research to practical implementations. Cellulose gels are versatile materials that can be used for soil conditioning, controlled release of fertilizers, water retention, and other important purposes. This exploration aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of cellulose gels in agriculture, bridging the gap between fundamental advances and their real-world applications. Full article

Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller), a historically revered medicinal plant, has garnered great scientific attention due to its polysaccharide-rich bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic potential. This review examines the role of Aloe Vera polysaccharides as therapeutic agents in biomedical applications, highlighting their benefits as well as the risks. Traditionally recognized for its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects, which are very important in wound healing, the Aloe Vera relies on its polysaccharides, which confer immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and tissue-regenerative properties. These compounds have shown promise in various applications, including skin repair, tissue engineering scaffolds, and antiviral therapies, with their delivery being facilitated via gels, thin films, or oral formulations. This review explores also their mechanisms of action and applications in modern medicine, including in the development of topical gels, dietary supplements, and innovative delivery systems such as thin films and scaffolds. Despite the promising benefits, the review addresses the possible side effects too, including allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disorders, and drug interactions, emphasizing the importance of understanding these risks for their safe clinical use. Assessing both the advantages and challenges of Aloe Vera polysaccharide medical use, this review contributes to the ongoing dialog regarding the integration of natural products into therapeutic practices, ultimately supporting informed decisions regarding their clinical application. Full article

We developed highly stable shellac-based emulsions that incorporated alginate (Al) and κ-carrageenan (Kcar), two anionic polysaccharides capable of undergoing in situ crosslinking for various applications. The stability, droplet size distribution, and microstructure of these emulsions were assessed. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed nanoparticle accumulation at the oil–water interface, which enhanced stability. By leveraging the crosslinking potential of the polysaccharides, we created Pickering emulsion hydrogels (PEH) loaded with curcumin, a model food supplement with poor water solubility, and evaluated their release profiles in an in vitro gastrointestinal model. The results demonstrated two distinct release behaviors: full release in the small intestine and targeted release in the large intestine. Further study revealed fundamental differences in how Al and Kcar influence creaming, which led to a deeper investigation into the mechanisms behind these differences. Rheology measurements showed that a more complex mechanism governs the system’s viscosity. Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and further viscosity measurements revealed that hydrogen bonding in the Kcar emulsions formed unique structures, which provided superior resistance to creaming. This study highlights the potential of tailoring emulsion hydrogels for specific applications in food and drug delivery systems and offers new insights into the structural dynamics of biopolymer-stabilized emulsions. Full article

Plantain (Musa AAB Simmonds) of the Dominico hartón variety from two Colombian territories (Cauca and Risaralda) with differences in altitude was used to extract the flour and starch from the pulp and peel. The plantain of Cauca origin presented the highest yield in flour extraction. Starch extraction was based on the use of an aqueous solution of sodium metabisulfite, achieving the highest yield in starch extraction (above 80% d.b.) when using a concentration of 1.2% of sodium metabisulfite, highlighting the best performance in the plantain of Risaralda origin. In the characterization of the starches, the granules from the pulp showed a larger size, higher amylose content, lower ash content, lower water absorption and solubility capacity, higher melting enthalpy, and higher crystallinity than those obtained with the starches from the banana peel. The starch from Cauca pulp presented properties characteristic of a structure with higher hardness. Full article

In the present study, exopolysaccharides (EPS-1, EPS-2, and EPS-3) were extracted from Lactobacillus graminis, and their chemical compositions, bioactivities, and cytotoxicity were comprehensively studied. A higher yield was observed for EPS-1 and EPS-2 with 14.38% and 9.24%, respectively. The chemical composition in the samples was studied using FT-IR analysis. The EPS-1 (1 mg/mL) showed higher antioxidant activities with 34.5 ± 6.6% and 93.6 ± 2.3% of DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging, respectively. In the cellular antioxidant assay, the EPS-1 protected oxidative stress-mediated cellular damage in AAPH-treated NIH3T3 cells. In addition, EPS-1 (0.25 mg/mL) treatment augmented the viability of AAPH-stressed RAW264.7 cells (~80%) than AAPH-treated cells (~50%) by reducing the ROS level and associated oxidative damage. Toxicity studies indicated that EPS-1 (1 mg/mL) did not induce notable cytotoxic effects in NIH3T3 cells, RAW264.7 cells, and erythrocytes. Altogether, the findings of this research suggest that L. graminis could be a source of biocompatible polysaccharides with antioxidant properties. Full article

The present study reported, for the first time, the fabrication and characterization of electrospun nanofibers based on arabinoxylans (AXs) alone. The Fourier transform infrared spectrum of ferulated water-extractable AXs recovered from wheat endosperm confirmed the molecule identity. The carbon and oxygen signals in X-ray photoelectron spectrometry (XPS) were recorded for this molecule. The AXs had weight-average molar mass, intrinsic viscosity, radius of gyration, and hydrodynamic radius values of 769 kDa, 4.51 dL/g, 55 nm, and 31 nm, respectively. The calculated AX characteristic ratio and persistence length were 10.7 and 3.2 nm, respectively, while the Mark–Houwink–Sakurada α and K constants were 0.31 and 9.4, respectively. These macromolecular characteristics indicate a molecular random coil structure in the polysaccharide. Using aqueous acetic acid 50% (v/v) as a solvent favored the Taylor cone establishment and the fabrication of electrospun nanofibers. The morphology of nanofibers was revealed by scanning electron microscopy images. Atomic force microscopy analysis of AX nanofibers exposed the material deposition in layers; these nanofibers had an average diameter of 177 nm. These nanofibers could be used as advanced biomaterials for biomedical applications such as wound dressing. Full article

Innovations for separation via membranes are extremely energy-efficient, and through the previous decade, attention to this technology has spiked tremendously. Biopolymers are becoming widely recognized as membrane materials since they are sustainable. Furthermore, the second most common biopolymer, chitin, is the source of chitosan, which has several benefits that make it ideal for the construction of membranes. This review article presents an evaluation of current developments in the utilization of chitosan membranes. The applications of interest in this review are nanofiltration, pervaporation and ion exchange. The chitosan based nanofiltration membranes are comprehensively reviewed with respect to various factors (e.g., solvent, pH resistant, etc.). The development of water permselective, organic permselective, and organic-organic separation films, as well as its permeability and segregation properties, are addressed in pervaporation (PV) section. Full article

The crystallinity of cellulose substrates is a key factor in their processability, as well as an indication of their susceptibility to undergo sensitive reactions (such as enzymatic saccharification) with high yields. FT-IR and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy are useful, reliable, and easy-to-reach solid-state characterization methods for assessing the crystallinity of different cellulose substrates including wood and wood-based materials. Due to their specific methodology, they can be used to analyze not only starting materials and their final products but also intermediates. Data obtained by these methods substantiated the structural changes in cellulose substrates, as well as the alterations that occurred in their supramolecular architectures. The conversion of crystalline cellulose I into amorphous cellulose II during enzymatic saccharification, with or without pre-treatment (solubilization in ILs), was evidenced beyond any reasonable doubt by FT-IR and XRD experimental results. Enzyme hydrolysis rates of the ILs-treated cellulose substrates can be significantly increased, as evidenced by reducing sugar yields. Crystallinity index values for cellulose of different origins (initial, pre-treated with ILs, and hydrolyzed with enzyme, as well as cellulose submitted to one-pot procedure with ILs and enzyme) can be determined using FTIR and X-ray diffraction data and discussed for comparison purposes. The same solid-state characterization methods can be also successfully employed for investigation of surface changes, expressed as cellulose crystallinity, in wood samples before and after impregnation with natural-based products, as well as under biodegradation conditions in soil burial tests. Full article

The aim of this research was to obtain new, ecological products with emulsifying properties based on potato maltodextrins and fatty acids and to prepare stable emulsions with the obtained esters as emulsifiers. The esterification of potato maltodextrin with different degrees of saccharification using oleic acid (model reaction) and free fatty acids from oil hydrolysis in the presence of lipases from Thermomyces lanuginosus and Aspergillus oryzae as biocatalysts was carried out. The reaction yielded products with degrees of substitution (DS) ranging from 0.017 to 1.35. Physicochemical analysis of the obtained products (FT–IR, NMR, morphological studies, and solubility measurements) was carried out. The occurrence of the reaction was confirmed, and the influences of the degree of saccharification of maltodextrin, the type of lipase used, and the reaction conditions on the degree of substitution obtained and the related product properties were evaluated. Oil-in-water emulsions were prepared on the basis of the obtained esters, which were then visually assessed. The lowest creaming index (0.0%) was obtained for the emulsion prepared from low-saccharified maltodextrin ester with DS = 0.038. Full article

This work aimed at replacing per- or poly-fluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-based food-serving containers with wood-based, oil- and grease-resistant food-serving containers. A novel container was developed by laminating wet cellulose nanofibril (CNF) films to both sides of yellow birch wood veneer using a food-grade polyamide–epichlorohydrin additive (PAE) as an adhesive. CNFs significantly improved the wood veneer container’s mechanical strength and barrier properties. The container’s mechanical testing results showed significant increases in flexural strength and modulus of elasticity (MOE) values in both parallel and perpendicular directions to the grain. All formulations of the container showed excellent oil and grease resistance properties by passing “kit” number 12 based on the TAPPI T 559 cm-12 standard. The water absorption tendency of the formulation treated at higher temperature, pressure, and longer press time showed similar performance to commercial paper plates containing PFASs. The developed composite demonstrates superior flexural strength and barrier properties, presenting a sustainable alternative to PFASs in food-serving containers. Both wood and CNFs stand out for their remarkable eco-friendliness, as they are biodegradable and naturally compostable. This unique characteristic not only helps minimize waste but also promotes a healthier environment. If scaled up, these novel containers may present a solution to the oil/grease resistance of bio-based food containers. Full article

New sustainable materials have been developed to replace conventional plastics obtained from non-renewable sources. In this study, cellulose fibres from Posidonia oceanica (PO) were obtained by applying subcritical water extraction and bleaching with hydrogen peroxide or sodium chlorite. The PO fibres were used to obtain cellulose films, chitosan–cellulose composites, and PLA–cellulose laminates. These films were characterised as to their optical properties, mechanical performance, oxygen and water vapour permeability, thermal stability, and microstructure. The cellulose films exhibited low mechanical resistance, with different colouration depending on the degree of delignification. The composites had lower mechanical strength than pure chitosan films. The PO cellulose fibres had a similar, but attenuated, effect when laminated with PLA layers. The fibres improved the oxygen barrier capacity of chitosan films, although this effect only occurred in PLA laminates for cellulose purified with sodium chlorite. In no case did cellulose improve the water vapour barrier of the films compared to pure polymers. The thermal stability was not notably altered by the blending effect, thus reflecting the absence of significant interactions between the fibres and polymer. However, there is a need to improve the functionality of cellulose fibres from PO waste for their incorporation as fillers or laminates in biodegradable food packaging materials. Full article

As a biodegradable material, chitin possesses exceptional physical and chemical properties, making it valuable in various industrial sectors. Compared to chitin, its derivative, chitosan, offers even more versatile applications due to its higher solubility and reactivity. As the key precursor for chitosan production, chitin is typically harvested from shrimp and crab exoskeletons. However, the quest for alternative sources has intensified to reduce reliance on crustacean-derived chitin. Black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens), particularly its puparium, has emerged as a promising alternative, though it is typically considered waste. In this study, we investigated different combinations and sequences of extraction treatments for chitin from the BSF puparium. The results demonstrate that sequential treatments of demineralization (DM), deproteination (DP), and decolorization (DC) produce chitin with the lowest ash, lipid, and protein contents—approximately 1.01%, 1.99%, and 3.01%, respectively, yielding degrees of DM and DP at 94.77% and 92.24%, and a chitin purity of 93.98%. In contrast, combining DP and DC following the DM treatment facilitates partial chitosan transformation with a degree of deacetylation (DD) of 65.90%, offering a direct alternative for producing chitosan without an additional deacetylation process. Full article

Bleeding is a potentially life-threatening emergency that can result in severe complications or death regardless of the cause of bleeding. The development of hemostatic materials has been a long-standing concern for emergency treatment in surgery and combat. In recent years, there have been many reviews on hemostatic materials, but there have been few specific studies about performance requirements and development in recent years on natural polysaccharide-based hemostatic sponge as a type of hemostatic excipient. Currently, natural polysaccharide hemostatic sponge has attracted wide attention due to the enhancement or interaction of various hemostatic mechanisms. These polysaccharide sponges show a high hemostatic effect. In this paper, the application history of natural polysaccharides (chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, cellulose, starch, etc.) as a new generation of hemostatic sponge materials in recent years is reviewed. The design principles and new achievements in polysaccharide-based hemostatic sponge are introduced. Finally, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of polysaccharide hemostatic sponge and prospect the development opportunities and challenges of this material. Full article

Fucoidan is a sulfated fucan marine polysaccharide with potential therapeutic applications, including antibacterial activity and the control of virulence factors associated with quorum sensing. This study investigates the bioactivity of fucoidan derived from the brown algae Ascophyllum nodosum, as well as their fucoidan oligosaccharides (OFuc; <3 kDa), on the growth, motility, biofilm formation, and adhesion of Campylobacter jejuni, the leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. The results showed that fucoidan decreased the growth rate of C. jejuni at concentrations greater than 25 µg/mL, while no effect was observed with different concentrations (5–100 µg/mL) of OFuc. Neither compound affected bacterial motility. Both fucoidan and OFuc inhibited abiotic biofilm formation and diminished pathogen adhesion in a concentration-dependent manner. The study also found that C. jejuni recognized the fucoidan molecule through an enzyme-like lectin assay (ELLA) showing a lectin-like adhesin-carbohydrate recognition. Overall, these results suggest the potential of fucoidan from A. nodosum for controlling abiotic biofilm formation in the food industry, and they open new avenues for research into the use of fucoidan as a molecule aimed at blocking infections caused by C. jejuni. Full article