Previous Issue
Volume 15, October
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
6.0
4.4
Journals
JoX
Volume 15
Issue 6
share announcement

J. Xenobiot., Volume 15, Issue 6 (December 2025) – 35 articles

  • Issues are regarded as officially published after their release is announced to the table of contents alert mailing list.
  • You may sign up for e-mail alerts to receive table of contents of newly released issues.
  • PDF is the official format for papers published in both, html and pdf forms. To view the papers in pdf format, click on the "PDF Full-text" link, and use the free Adobe Reader to open them.
Order results
Result details
Section
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
23 pages, 5569 KB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review on the Toxicology of European Union-Approved Triazole Fungicides in Cell Lines and Mammalian Models
by Constantina-Bianca Vulpe, Adina-Daniela Iachimov-Datcu, Andrijana Pujicic and Bianca-Vanesa Agachi
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060208 - 5 Dec 2025
Abstract
Triazole fungicides are widely used in agriculture but may pose risks to human health through occupational, accidental, or environmental exposure. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the toxicity of ten European Union-approved triazole fungicides in rodent models and cell lines. A total of [...] Read more.
Triazole fungicides are widely used in agriculture but may pose risks to human health through occupational, accidental, or environmental exposure. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the toxicity of ten European Union-approved triazole fungicides in rodent models and cell lines. A total of 70 studies were included, reporting quantitative in vivo oral, dermal, or inhalation toxicity in mammals or quantitative in vitro cytotoxicity in human or mammalian cell lines; the exclusion criteria comprised publications not in English or not accessible. Literature searches were conducted in Web of Science, Google Scholar, and the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB), and risk of bias in included studies was assessed using ToxRTool. Due to heterogeneity in study designs, reporting formats, and endpoints, data were synthesized descriptively. Quantitative endpoints included LD50/LC50 values for in vivo studies and LOEC, IC50, LC50, and EC50 values for in vitro studies, while mechanistic endpoints highlighted apoptosis, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Difenoconazole and tebuconazole were the most extensively studied compounds, whereas several triazoles had limited data. The limitations included heterogeneity of data and incomplete reporting, which restrict cross-study comparisons. Overall, the findings provide a comprehensive overview of potential human health hazards associated with EU-approved triazole fungicides and highlight critical knowledge gaps. The review was registered in Open Science Framework, under embargo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

29 pages, 1841 KB  
Review
Bisphenol A (BPA) Modifies Cancer Signaling Pathways: A Neglected Global Health Threat
by Minatullah Al-Ani, Yassir Al-Ani, Shahad Sabaawi Ibrahim, Raghad Sabaawi Ibrahim, Peter Kubatka and Dietrich Büsselberg
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060207 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 103
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic industrial compound widely found in plastics and other materials, has been linked to cancer development. As human exposure increases, BPA may pose potential carcinogenic concerns. Although BPA binds to estrogen receptors with much lower affinity than natural estrogens, [...] Read more.
Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic industrial compound widely found in plastics and other materials, has been linked to cancer development. As human exposure increases, BPA may pose potential carcinogenic concerns. Although BPA binds to estrogen receptors with much lower affinity than natural estrogens, its accumulation in human tissues can cause harmful effects. This review summarizes current evidence on BPA’s role in cancer initiation and progression, with a focus on its effects on cancer signaling pathways. These effects involve modulating pathways involved in cell growth, movement, invasion, survival, and adhesion. BPA acts as an estrogen ligand, binding to estrogen receptors and activating related pathways. The main route of exposure is through dietary intake of canned and plastic-packaged foods, with migration rates increasing at higher temperatures. To raise awareness of BPA’s harmful effects, industries have proposed “BPA-free” alternatives, some of which use derivatives like bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF), which, unfortunately, may have even worse effects on human health. Given the ongoing challenges of eliminating BPA and similar harmful compounds, future research should focus on identifying safe substitutes, developing more effective removal technologies, and strengthening stringent regulations to mitigate public health risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Microplastics on Human Health)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

31 pages, 1370 KB  
Review
Drug-Induced Glucose Metabolism Disorders: Role of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor
by Alevtina Y. Grishanova and Maria L. Perepechaeva
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060206 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 265
Abstract
Pharmacological compounds can disrupt glucose homeostasis, leading to impaired glucose tolerance, hyperglycemia, or newly diagnosed diabetes, as well as worsening glycemic control in patients with pre-existing diabetes. Traditional risk factors alone cannot explain the rapidly growing global incidence of diabetes. Therefore, prevention of [...] Read more.
Pharmacological compounds can disrupt glucose homeostasis, leading to impaired glucose tolerance, hyperglycemia, or newly diagnosed diabetes, as well as worsening glycemic control in patients with pre-existing diabetes. Traditional risk factors alone cannot explain the rapidly growing global incidence of diabetes. Therefore, prevention of insulin resistance could represent an effective strategy. Achieving this goal requires a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the development of insulin resistance, with particular attention to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). AhR, a transcription factor functioning as a xenobiotic sensor, plays a key role in various molecular pathways regulating normal homeostasis, organogenesis, and immune function. Activated by a range of exogenous and endogenous ligands, AhR is involved in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism as well as insulin sensitivity. However, current findings remain contradictory regarding whether AhR activation exerts beneficial or detrimental effects. This narrative review summarizes recent studies exploring the role of the AhR pathway in insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis across different tissues, and discusses molecular mechanisms involved in this process. Considering that several drugs act as AhR ligands, the review also compares how these ligands affect metabolic pathways of glucose and lipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity, producing either positive or negative effects. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 2248 KB  
Review
From Food to Humans: The Toxicological Effects of Alternaria Mycotoxins in the Liver and Colon
by Rita Sofia Vilela, Francisco Pina-Martins and Célia Ventura
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060205 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 230
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins represent a significant and emerging concern in the field of food safety due to their widespread occurrence in diverse food and feed commodities, including cereals, tomatoes, oilseeds, and dried fruits. Among these, alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), [...] Read more.
Alternaria mycotoxins represent a significant and emerging concern in the field of food safety due to their widespread occurrence in diverse food and feed commodities, including cereals, tomatoes, oilseeds, and dried fruits. Among these, alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), and altertoxin-I (ATX-I) are the most frequently detected, often co-occurring at varying concentrations, thereby increasing the complexity of exposure and risk assessment. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is a crucial target of these toxins, as well as the liver, particularly considering its detoxifying role. Nevertheless, despite being a source of possible gastrointestinal and hepatic toxicity, there is still scarce data on the toxicokinetics of Alternaria toxins, on their mode of action, and respective toxic effects. To date, in vitro studies have shown that different Alternaria mycotoxins exhibit diverse toxicological effects, which may be dependent on their chemical structure. AOH and ATX-I have shown genotoxicity and cytotoxicity, mainly through interaction with the DNA and apoptosis, respectively. Tentoxin (TEN) has displayed hepatotoxic potential via impairment of detoxification pathways, and altenuene (ALT) has revealed lower toxicity. In vivo, AME and ATX-II revealed genotoxicity, while AOH and ATX-I showed context-dependent variability in their effects. Altogether, this review emphasizes that there is still a great lack of knowledge on these mycotoxins and an urgent need for more comprehensive toxicological and occurrence data to support proper risk assessment and, ultimately, regulatory decision-making. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

22 pages, 1463 KB  
Review
Hazards and Health Risks of the Antibacterial Agent Triclosan to Fish: A Review
by Jiangang Wang, Nannan Ma, Gancong Mo, Xian Qin, Jin Zhang, Xiangping Yao, Jiahua Guo and Zewei Sun
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060204 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 140
Abstract
Triclosan (TCS) is a widely used antimicrobial agent found in personal care products and household cleaners. While valued since the 1960s for its ability to inhibit bacterial fatty acid synthesis, its environmental persistence, ecotoxicity, and bioaccumulative potential have raised significant global concern. The [...] Read more.
Triclosan (TCS) is a widely used antimicrobial agent found in personal care products and household cleaners. While valued since the 1960s for its ability to inhibit bacterial fatty acid synthesis, its environmental persistence, ecotoxicity, and bioaccumulative potential have raised significant global concern. The increased use of disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated its prevalence as an aquatic pollutant. In the environment, TCS is distributed through water bodies and sediments, undergoing processes such as biodegradation and photochemical degradation. Its bioaccumulation poses a substantial threat to aquatic organisms, particularly fish. A growing body of research indicates that TCS acts as an endocrine disruptor and developmental toxicant, with documented adverse effects encompassing impaired embryonic and larval development, skeletal malformations, and induction of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage, and inflammatory responses. Furthermore, TCS exposure is linked to reproductive toxicity, including altered sex hormone levels and diminished reproductive capacity. This review consolidates current knowledge on the chemical properties, environmental fate, biodegradation pathways, and ecotoxicological impacts of TCS, with a specific emphasis on its multifaceted health risks to fish. The synthesis aims to provide a foundation for future research, inform environmental risk assessments, and support the development of evidence-based regulatory measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 1974 KB  
Article
In Vitro Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Evaluation of Nitazenes, a Potent Class of New Synthetic Opioids
by Francesca Rombolà, Sara Bartoletti, Sabrine Bilel, Patrizia Hrelia, Matteo Marti and Monia Lenzi
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060203 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 128
Abstract
In recent years, the expansion of the illicit market for Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) has resulted in the emergence of numerous synthetic recreational drugs specifically designed to evade legal control and analytical detection. Among these, nitazenes represent one of the most potent classes [...] Read more.
In recent years, the expansion of the illicit market for Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) has resulted in the emergence of numerous synthetic recreational drugs specifically designed to evade legal control and analytical detection. Among these, nitazenes represent one of the most potent classes of new synthetic opioids, although information regarding their toxicological properties remains limited. The present study aimed to assess the genotoxic potential of four nitazenes: clonitazene, etonitazene, isotonitazene and metonitazene in human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells using a flow cytometric version of the In Vitro Mammalian Cell Micronucleus Test, following OECD Guideline No. 487. Cells were exposed to concentrations ranging from 12.5 to 100 μM, and cytotoxicity, cytostasis, and apoptosis were evaluated to identify appropriate doses for micronucleus frequency assessment. Vinblastine, a well-established mutagen, was included as positive control. Our findings demonstrated that clonitazene and isotonitazene exhibit mutagenic potential, suggesting an increased long-term risk of developing chronic degenerative diseases. Furthermore, the results revealed that structurally related molecules can induce markedly different cellular effects, underscoring the importance of compound-specific toxicological evaluations to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the risks associated with their illicit use—risks often presumed to involve only addiction or acute toxicity. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1183 KB  
Article
Investigation of Combined Toxic Metals, PFAS, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Essential Elements in Chronic Kidney Disease
by Aderonke Gbemi Adetunji and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060202 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 170
Abstract
Exposure to environmental pollutants, including toxic metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), has been increasingly linked to impaired kidney function. However, the combined effects of these exposures, along with essential elements, on kidney health remain poorly understood. This [...] Read more.
Exposure to environmental pollutants, including toxic metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), has been increasingly linked to impaired kidney function. However, the combined effects of these exposures, along with essential elements, on kidney health remain poorly understood. This study aimed to evaluate the independent and cumulative or mixture effects of toxic metals (cadmium, lead, and mercury), essential elements (iron, manganese, and selenium), PFAS (PFOA and PFOS), and VOCs (m-/p-xylene and o-xylene) on kidney function as measured by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we applied multiple imputation to address missing data and implemented statistical techniques, including Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR), quantile g-computation, and Weighted Quantile Sum Regression (WQSR) to assess complex exposure–response relationships, including non-linear, potential synergistic, and antagonistic effects. The results indicated that several exposures were correlated, particularly o-xylene with m-/p-xylene (r = 0.77), Cd with Pb (r = 0.46), and PFOS with PFOA (r = 0.61). eGFR was negatively associated with Pb, PFOS, PFOA, and Hg. In the BKMR analysis, overall posterior inclusion probabilities (PIPs) highlighted PFOS, Cd, Se, Mn, and Fe as the most influential exposures. Quantile g-computation highlighted Cd and Mn as major contributors, while WQSR modeling confirmed Mn as a key contributor. The findings underscore the importance of considering complex interactions in environmental exposure assessments. While essential elements may offer protective effects, toxic metals, PFAS, and VOCs remain critical contributors to kidney dysfunction. These insights highlight the need for integrative risk assessment approaches and public health strategies aimed at mitigating harmful exposures while promoting optimal nutrient balance. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1398 KB  
Article
Metabolic Profiling and In Vitro Assessment of the Immunomodulatory Effects of Hydrodistillation-Derived Extracts from the Fruticose Lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf. on Human Lymphocytes
by Yasser Essadki, Antonio Casas-Rodríguez, Antonio Cascajosa-Lira, Leticia Diez-Quijada, Alexandre Campos, Vitor Vasconcelos, Fatima El Khalloufi, Brahim Oudra, Ana M. Cameán and Angeles Jos
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060201 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 169
Abstract
Lichens are complex symbiotic systems known for synthesizing diverse secondary metabolites with documented antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities. The present study focused on Pseudevernia furfuracea, a species widely distributed across Moroccan habitats. Two hydrodistillation-derived extracts (HE1 and HE2) were analyzed through ultra-high-Performance [...] Read more.
Lichens are complex symbiotic systems known for synthesizing diverse secondary metabolites with documented antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities. The present study focused on Pseudevernia furfuracea, a species widely distributed across Moroccan habitats. Two hydrodistillation-derived extracts (HE1 and HE2) were analyzed through ultra-high-Performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) to characterize their metabolite composition, and their effects were evaluated on Jurkat cells, a representative human cell line of the immune system. As the results of the characterization, the main compounds identified were Caprolactam, N,N-Diethylaniline, Erucamide, and 4-Isopropylaniline. Cytotoxicity assessment revealed that both HE1 and HE2 decreased the viability of Jurkat cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The mean effective concentrations (EC50) after 24 h of treatment were 53.79 ± 2.92 µg/mL for HE1 and 59.76 ± 2.01 µg/mL for HE2. Cell death mechanisms were further examined by flow cytometry, revealing that apoptosis predominated after 24 h of treatment, progressing mainly to late apoptotic stages after 48 h. In parallel, the expression levels of key cytokine genes, including IL-2, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, were quantified at the mRNA level to evaluate potential immunomodulatory effects. Up-regulation was observed in IL-2 after exposure to both extracts for 24 and 48 h, and in the case of IFN-γ after exposure to HE2 for 24 h; in contrast, HE1 and HE2 produced down-regulation in TNF-α at 24 h. These findings suggest that HE1 and HE2 have immunomodulatory activity in Jurkat cells. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and to clarify how HE1 and HE2 influence immune responses in human systems. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 666 KB  
Perspective
Advancing the One Health Framework in EU Plant Protection Product Regulation: Challenges and Opportunities
by Maura Calliera, Ettore Capri, Nicoleta Alina Suciu and Marco Trevisan
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060200 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 228
Abstract
This paper explores the evolving integration of the One Health framework into the European regulatory landscape for plant protection products, focusing on key scientific and procedural challenges. The analysis addresses three fundamental components of risk evaluation—regulatory complexity, hazard identification, and characterisation—and exposure assessment, [...] Read more.
This paper explores the evolving integration of the One Health framework into the European regulatory landscape for plant protection products, focusing on key scientific and procedural challenges. The analysis addresses three fundamental components of risk evaluation—regulatory complexity, hazard identification, and characterisation—and exposure assessment, while providing an up-to-date overview of emerging policies and challenges affecting the sustainable use of plant protection products in Europe. Addressing these issues requires interdisciplinary collaboration among toxicologists, epidemiologists, ecologists, regulatory authorities, industry stakeholders, and public health experts, working synergistically to tackle complex risks. It emphasises that transitioning to more sustainable and resilient agricultural systems in line with One Health principles requires critically reviewing existing policies. By integrating evolving scientific knowledge with communication and agricultural production needs across diverse European contexts, this approach offers valuable insights to inform future policy development and risk management innovation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 1220 KB  
Article
Environmental Exposure to Cadmium and Lead Exacerbates Kidney Function in People with Diabetes
by Soisungwan Satarug, David A. Vesey, Tanaporn Khamphaya, Donrawee Waeyeng and Supabhorn Yimthiang
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060199 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 170
Abstract
This study investigates the relationship between kidney function and exposure to low-level cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in individuals with and without diabetes. Specifically, it tests the hypothesis that the nephrotoxicity of Cd and Pb reduces the tubular degradation of filtered proteins, namely [...] Read more.
This study investigates the relationship between kidney function and exposure to low-level cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in individuals with and without diabetes. Specifically, it tests the hypothesis that the nephrotoxicity of Cd and Pb reduces the tubular degradation of filtered proteins, namely β2-microglobulin (β2M). Data were obtained from a Thai cohort of 137 people, of which 65 were diagnosed with diabetes. Blood Cd, blood Pb, and urinary excretion of Cd (ECd) were used as exposure indicators, while urinary N-acetylglucosaminidase (ENAG) and fractional tubular degradation of β2M (FrTDβ2M) reflected kidney tubular cell injury and the function of tubular cells, respectively. Spearman’s rank correlation revealed that FrTDβ2M varied directly with the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR; r = 0.434), and inversely with fasting plasma glucose (r = −0.215), ECd (r = −0.527), ENAG (r = −0.536), and Cd/Pb exposure (r = −0.249). In a multiple regression model analysis adjusting for potential confounders, the association between FrTDβ2M and eGFR in those with diabetes was particularly strong (β = 0.476) compared to controls (β = 0.360), whereas an inverse association of FrTDβ2M and ECd (β = −0.295) was found only in those with diabetes, along with a positive association of ENAG with ECd (R2 = 0.071). A mediation analysis has revealed that tubular injury (ENAG) mediated 26% of the FrTDβ2M decrease associated with Cd/Pb exposure. These findings suggested that tubular protein degradation pathways may be compromised under combined metabolic and environmental stressors, Cd, and Pb. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Xenobiotics and Kidney Health: Emerging Challenges in Toxicology and Therapeutics)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 894 KB  
Article
The Pyruvate–Glyoxalate Pathway as a Toxicity Assessment Tool of Xenobiotics: Lessons from Prebiotic Chemistry
by François Gagné and Chantale André
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060198 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 128
Abstract
There is an urgent need to evaluate the toxicity of xenobiotics and environmental mixtures for preventing loss in water quality for the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems. A simple prebiotic chemical pathway based on malate formation from pyruvate (pyr) and glyoxalate (glyox) is proposed [...] Read more.
There is an urgent need to evaluate the toxicity of xenobiotics and environmental mixtures for preventing loss in water quality for the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems. A simple prebiotic chemical pathway based on malate formation from pyruvate (pyr) and glyoxalate (glyox) is proposed as a quick and cheap screening tool for toxicity assessment. The assay is based on the pyr and glyox (aldol) condensation reactions, leading to biologically relevant precursors such as oxaloacetate and malate. Incubation of pyr and glyox at 40–70 °C in the presence of reduced iron Fe(II) led to malate formation following the first 3 h of incubation. The addition of various xenobiotics/contaminants (silver, copper, zinc, cerium IV, samarium III, dibutylphthalate, 1,3-diphenylguanidine, carbon-walled nanotube, nanoFe2O3 and polystyrene nanoparticles) led to inhibitions in malate synthesis at various degrees. Based on the concentration inhibiting malate concentrations by 20% (IC20), the following potencies were observed: silver < copper ~ 1.3-diphenylguanidine ~ carbon-walled nanotube < zinc ~ samarium < dibutylphthalate ~ samarium < Ce(IV) < nFeO3 < polystyrene nanoplastics. The IC20 values were also significantly correlated with the reported trout acute lethality data, suggesting its potential as an alternative toxicity test. The pyr-glyox pathway was also tested on surface water extracts (C18), identifying the most contaminated sites from large cities and municipal wastewater effluents dispersion plume. The inhibition potencies of the selected test compounds revealed that not only pro-oxidants but also chemicals hindering enolate formation, nucleophilic attack of carbonyls and dehydration involved in aldol-condensation reactions were associated with toxicity. The pyr-glyox pathway is based on prebiotic chemical reactions during the emergence of life and represents a unique tool for identifying toxic compounds individually and in complex mixtures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Aquatic Emerging Contaminants and Their Ecotoxicological Consequences, 2nd Edition)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

29 pages, 3634 KB  
Article
Indoor Airborne VOCs from Water-Based Coatings: Transfer Dynamics and Health Implications
by Jana Růžičková, Helena Raclavská, Marek Kucbel, Pavel Kantor, Barbora Švédová and Karolina Slamová
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060197 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 279
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from indoor surface coatings can significantly impact indoor air quality and health. This study compared emissions from water-based polyurethane (PUR) and acrylate–polyurethane (ACR–PUR) coatings, identifying 94 VOCs across 16 chemical classes. Time-resolved concentrations were analysed via Principal Component [...] Read more.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from indoor surface coatings can significantly impact indoor air quality and health. This study compared emissions from water-based polyurethane (PUR) and acrylate–polyurethane (ACR–PUR) coatings, identifying 94 VOCs across 16 chemical classes. Time-resolved concentrations were analysed via Principal Component Analysis (PCA), which revealed distinct temporal emission patterns and chemically coherent clusters. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters, and isocyanates dominated the emission profiles, with ACR–PUR releasing markedly higher concentrations of symptom-relevant compounds. Acute exposure was linked to toluene, styrene, phenol, and methyl butyl ketone (MBK), which decreased sharply within 60 days, while compounds such as 1,3-dioxolane, isopropylbenzene, and ethenyl acetate exhibited persistent emissions, suggesting increased chronic risk. Although total VOC levels remained below the German UBA “excellent” threshold (<200 µg/m3), neurotoxic and carcinogenic compounds remained detectable. The combination of PCA-based temporal insights with toxicological profiling and emission transfer dynamics offers a refined framework for indoor air risk assessment. These results underscore the need to complement total VOC indices with symptom-oriented, time-resolved screening protocols to better evaluate SBS risk in indoor environments using water-based coatings. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 2741 KB  
Article
PLA Nanoplastics Accumulate but Do Not Cause Acute Toxicity to Marine Rotifers, Brine Shrimps, and Zebrafish Embryos
by Doyinsola Suliat Mustapha, Olga Rodríguez-Díaz, Miren P. Cajaraville and Amaia Orbea
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060196 - 12 Nov 2025
Viewed by 553
Abstract
Conventional plastics are widely utilised across industrial sectors and in consumer products. However, the growing use of plastics has led to plastic pollution, including the formation of nanoplastics (NPs), which are harmful to aquatic organisms. Bioplastics are emerging alternatives. They are renewable and/or [...] Read more.
Conventional plastics are widely utilised across industrial sectors and in consumer products. However, the growing use of plastics has led to plastic pollution, including the formation of nanoplastics (NPs), which are harmful to aquatic organisms. Bioplastics are emerging alternatives. They are renewable and/or biodegradable and are supposed to be more environmentally friendly. However, the toxicity and environmental fate of bioplastics are not yet fully understood. This study evaluated the toxicity and fate of commercially available plain or fluorescent polylactic acid (PLA) NPs (250 nm) on aquatic organisms. Confocal microscopy demonstrated the uptake of fluorescent PLA NPs by the test organisms, marine rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis), brine shrimps (Artemia salina) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. However, the results of the bioassays indicate that plain PLA NPs did not induce acute toxicity in either of the two zooplankton species and did not cause substantial mortality, malformations, or hatching delays in zebrafish embryos at the tested concentrations (up to 100 mg/L). However, brine shrimp showed a significant decrease in ingestion capability. The biochemical biomarkers, catalase activity induction, as an indicator of oxidative stress, and acetylcholinesterase inhibition, as a marker of neurotoxicity, showed no significant alterations compared to the control of both zooplankton species and that of zebrafish embryos. Overall, the findings suggest a pattern of no acute and low sublethal toxicity for the tested plain PLA NPs in the studied organisms. Nonetheless, further research is imperative to comprehensively assess the environmental fate of bioplastics found in various consumer products, as these may contain harmful chemical additives, as well as the effects of prolonged exposure and their impact on physiological parameters, ensuring informed decisions before their widespread commercialisation and presence in the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

8 pages, 452 KB  
Communication
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in PM1 of Residential Indoor Air: Levels, Seasonal Variability, and Inhalation Exposure Assessment
by Darija Klinčić, Karla Jagić Nemčić, Ivana Jakovljević, Marija Jelena Lovrić Štefiček and Marija Dvoršćak
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060195 - 12 Nov 2025
Viewed by 306
Abstract
Indoor exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), particularly those bound to fine particulate matter (PM1, particles < 1 µm), may pose a health concern, especially in light of prolonged indoor occupancy and the capacity of ultrafine particles to reach the lower [...] Read more.
Indoor exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), particularly those bound to fine particulate matter (PM1, particles < 1 µm), may pose a health concern, especially in light of prolonged indoor occupancy and the capacity of ultrafine particles to reach the lower respiratory tract. This study investigates indoor exposure to PBDEs associated with PM1 in residential homes in Zagreb, Croatia, across warm and cold seasons. BDE-47 was consistently detected in all samples, while BDE-183 was consistently absent. Elevated concentrations and increased detection frequencies of BDE-99 and BDE-100 were observed during the colder season. Consequently, total PBDE (ΣPBDE) levels in the cold season were approximately 2.5 times higher than in the warm season. Although estimated daily inhalation intakes were below established oral reference doses, the potential for deep pulmonary deposition and systemic distribution underscores the need for further investigation. These findings represent the first reported data on indoor PM1-associated PBDEs in Europe, emphasizing the impact of seasonal dynamics on inhalation exposure due to variation on indoor contaminant levels. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 1244 KB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review: Migration of Chemical Compounds from Plastic Material Containers in Food and Pharmaceutical Fields
by Laura Culleré, Estela Sangüesa, Laura Lomba, María Pilar Ribate, Estefanía Zuriaga and Cristina B. García
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060194 - 11 Nov 2025
Viewed by 995
Abstract
A systematic review was conducted on the migration of compounds from plastic containers in the food and pharmaceutical industries, using Web of Science databases and following PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). The protocol has been registered with the [...] Read more.
A systematic review was conducted on the migration of compounds from plastic containers in the food and pharmaceutical industries, using Web of Science databases and following PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). The protocol has been registered with the OSF registry, with the DOI 10.17605/OSF.10/UQ3T2. This review included only review articles in English published within the last fifteen years. Four reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts, discussing inclusion criteria. In this comprehensive evaluation of the information present in an Excel spreadsheet, a substantial number of records were discarded because they were not representative of the topic under study. Following the review process, a total of twenty-eight key records were selected, primarily focusing on migration in the food and pharmaceutical sectors. Of these, twenty-four addressed only food, just two addressed only pharmaceutical sector, and two covered both fields, highlighting limited information on migration in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and related products. The analysis emphasized the types of compounds studied, the analytical methods employed, the migration tests conducted, and the toxicity assessments undertaken. The most frequently assessed compounds included phthalates, endocrine disruptors like bisphenol A, and non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). Analytical methods used typically involved pre-treatment steps, such as liquid–liquid or solid-phase extraction, followed by gas or liquid chromatography, depending on compound volatility. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1479 KB  
Article
Bioaccumulation and Transfer of Potentially Toxic Elements in the Yam-Soil System and Associated Health Risks in Kampala’s Luzira Industrial Area
by Gabson Baguma, Gadson Bamanya, Hannington Twinomuhwezi, Allan Gonzaga, Timothy Omara, Patrick Onen, Simon Ocakacon, Christopher Angiro, Wilber Waibale and Ronald Ntuwa
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060193 - 11 Nov 2025
Viewed by 638
Abstract
Rapid industrialization in peri-urban centers has accelerated the accumulation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in agricultural soils, with implications for food safety and public health concerns. This study quantified PTEs (Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Zn) in soils and yam (Colocasia esculenta [...] Read more.
Rapid industrialization in peri-urban centers has accelerated the accumulation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in agricultural soils, with implications for food safety and public health concerns. This study quantified PTEs (Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Zn) in soils and yam (Colocasia esculenta) tubers from Kampala’s Luzira Industrial Area. Soil contamination levels were evaluated using the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (CF), and pollution load index (PLI), while soil-to-crop transfer of the PTEs was assessed using the biological accumulation factor (BAF). Statistical analyses (One Way Analysis of Variance, Pearson bivariate correlation, and Principal Component Analysis) were applied to identify relationships among PTEs and sampling sites. Soils exhibited marked industrial influence, with PTE concentrations in the order Zn > Pb > Cu > Cr > Cd. The PLI values above unity confirmed cumulative pollution, with hotspots dominated by Zn, Pb, and Cu. Yam tubers contained lower PTE concentrations but reflected a similar contamination pattern as in the soils. The BAF values were <1 for all the PTEs except Zn, pointing to its greater solubility and mobility in the area’s acidic soils. Health risk assessment indicated that yam consumption was the dominant exposure pathway, with hazard indices (HI) for children exceeding the safe threshold at all industrial sites (HI = 1.14–2.06), and total cancer risks (TCR) ranging from 1.27 × 10−4 to 5.83 × 10−4, well above the US EPA limit. For adults, the TCR also surpassed 1 × 10−4 at sampling points SP3 and SP4. These results found potential transfer of the PTEs from soils into yam tubers, with Cd and Cr being the key drivers of dietary risk. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 483 KB  
Article
Temporal Trends, Multiple Residue Incidence, and Chronic Health Risk of Pesticides in Egyptian Onions: A Four-Year Market Surveillance
by Farag Malhat, Shokr Shokr, Sara Heikal and Nour El-Hoda Zidan
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060192 - 10 Nov 2025
Viewed by 564
Abstract
This study analyzed 5731 Egyptian onion samples collected from 2021 to 2024 to detect 430 pesticide residues and evaluate occurrence patterns, EU Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) compliance, multiple residue prevalence, and consumer health implications. The analysis revealed temporal fluctuations in contamination, with residue-free [...] Read more.
This study analyzed 5731 Egyptian onion samples collected from 2021 to 2024 to detect 430 pesticide residues and evaluate occurrence patterns, EU Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) compliance, multiple residue prevalence, and consumer health implications. The analysis revealed temporal fluctuations in contamination, with residue-free samples ranging from 51.19% (2023) to 75.59% (2022) and MRL exceedances varying from 1.34% (2022) to 8.33% (2023). Throughout 2021–2024, fungicides dominated pesticide residues, declining from 70% to 50%, while insecticides increased from 30% to 40%. Pesticide detection patterns shifted significantly over the study period, with carbendazim decreasing from 20.99% to 2.35%, azoxystrobin fluctuating between 3.86% and 18.78%, and dimethomorph rising to 16.67%, reflecting evolving agricultural practices. Multiple residue occurrence fluctuated dramatically, from 9.76% (2022) to a peak of 30.82% (2023), while single residue occurrence remained more stable, ranging between 14.06% and 22.90%. Several pesticides exceeded EU MRLs, including imazalil, chlorpropham, chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, and profenofos. Despite these violations, the EFSA PRIMo 3.1 model’s chronic risk assessment showed that exposure levels for all population groups remained well below Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) thresholds, with a maximum %ADI of 2.27% for chlorpyrifos in high-consumption regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 6618 KB  
Article
Sustainable Biochar–Alumina Composites for Electroanalytical Sensing of Herbicide and Antibiotic
by Nataša Jović-Jovičić, Tatjana Novaković, Tanja Barudžija, Marija Ajduković, Natalia Czerwinska, Chiara Giosuè and Zorica Mojović
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060191 - 10 Nov 2025
Viewed by 316
Abstract
The problem of water pollution by various xenobiotics has gained a lot of interest due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxic effects on ecosystems and humans. Electrochemical sensors offer a rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective method for on-site monitoring. In this research, an [...] Read more.
The problem of water pollution by various xenobiotics has gained a lot of interest due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxic effects on ecosystems and humans. Electrochemical sensors offer a rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective method for on-site monitoring. In this research, an electrochemical sensor for xenobiotics based on a biochar–alumina composite is developed. The biochar–alumina composites were obtained by the air-limited pyrolysis of oak sawdust in the presence of alumina. Two types of alumina were mixed with oak sawdust in three ratios and subjected to thermal treatment. The resulting composites were characterized by SEM, N2 adsorption isotherm, XRD, and electrochemical characterization. The detection of the herbicide pendimethalin and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin was investigated, and the composite with the optimal biochar/alumina ratio was selected for each of the xenobiotics studied. A linear current response was obtained for pendimethalin in the concentration range 0.7 μM to 70.0 μM with an LOD of 0.5 μM. A linear current response was obtained for ciprofloxacin in the concentration range 1.6 μM to 55.4 μM with an LOD of 0.63 μM. A comparison of the characterization results with the electroanalytical performance implied the importance of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature of the electrode surface for detecting the analyte under investigation. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 1241 KB  
Review
A Double Challenge for Fish: The Combined Stress of Warming and Pharmaceuticals in Aquatic Systems
by Tiago Lourenço, Maria João Rocha, Eduardo Rocha and Tânia Vieira Madureira
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060190 - 8 Nov 2025
Viewed by 573
Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems are increasingly threatened by multiple anthropogenic stressors, notably climate change and pollution by pharmaceuticals. Global warming is predicted to raise water temperatures by 2–5 °C by the end of the century. As ectotherms, fish are particularly vulnerable due to limited thermal [...] Read more.
Aquatic ecosystems are increasingly threatened by multiple anthropogenic stressors, notably climate change and pollution by pharmaceuticals. Global warming is predicted to raise water temperatures by 2–5 °C by the end of the century. As ectotherms, fish are particularly vulnerable due to limited thermal tolerance and temperature-dependent physiology. Pharmaceuticals are introduced into aquatic systems at concentrations ranging from ng·L−1 to µg·L−1, including widely prescribed classes such as antibiotics, hormones, analgesics, antifungals, and neuropsychiatric drugs. This narrative review synthesizes experimental evidence on the interactive effects of warming and pharmaceutical exposure in fish. Thirty-nine peer-reviewed studies published since 2005 were analyzed. The findings indicate that higher temperatures often exacerbate pharmaceutical-induced toxicity, altering oxidative stress, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior. Antibiotic-focused studies showed temperature-dependent acceleration of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, with shorter half-lives and reduced tissue persistence at higher temperatures. Estrogenic hormones and antifungals have been shown to interact with thermal regimes, disrupting reproductive physiology and skewing sex ratios, particularly in species exhibiting temperature-dependent sex determination. Neuropsychiatric drugs exhibited altered uptake and metabolism under warming conditions, resulting in increased brain bioaccumulation and behavioral alterations affecting ecological fitness. Analgesics and anti-inflammatories remain understudied despite their widespread use, with evidence suggesting synergistic effects on oxidative stress at elevated temperatures. Significant research gaps persist regarding chronic exposures, early developmental stages, ecologically relevant temperature scenarios, and underrepresented or absent drug classes, such as hypolipidemic drugs. Ultimately, broader and integrated approaches are needed to better understand and predict the ecological risks of pharmaceutical pollution in a warming world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Aquatic Emerging Contaminants and Their Ecotoxicological Consequences, 2nd Edition)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

26 pages, 3817 KB  
Article
Low Concentrations of Sulfoxaflor Do Not Adversely Affect mRNA Levels in Various Testicular Cells When Administered to Either Mature or Immature Mice
by Hayato Terayama, Kenta Nagahori, Daisuke Kiyoshima, Tsutomu Sato, Yoko Ueda, Masahito Yamamoto, Kaori Suyama, Tomoko Tanaka, Midori Yamamoto, Akifumi Eguchi, Emiko Todaka, Kenichi Sakurai, Shogo Hayashi, Haruki Yamada and Kou Sakabe
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060189 - 7 Nov 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
Sulfoxaflor, an insecticide, acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It has a functional group similar to that of neonicotinoid insecticides, which are testicular toxicants. Recently, the adverse effects of sulfoxaflor on the testes have been reported in rats. This study aimed to address the [...] Read more.
Sulfoxaflor, an insecticide, acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It has a functional group similar to that of neonicotinoid insecticides, which are testicular toxicants. Recently, the adverse effects of sulfoxaflor on the testes have been reported in rats. This study aimed to address the lack of reports on sulfoxaflor administration in mice and its effects on the testes. ICR mice (3- and 10-week-old) were treated ad libitum with two different concentrations (10 and 100 mg/kg) of sulfoxaflor for 4 and 8 weeks. Histological analysis and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were performed. Testis weights relative to body weights in the sulfoxaflor groups showed no significant difference compared to the control group. Testicular tissue in the sulfoxaflor groups was unchanged compared to that in the control group. The sulfoxaflor-treated group showed no significant differences in the mRNA expression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone in the pituitary gland compared to the control group. Furthermore, no significant differences were noted in the mRNA expression levels of various gene markers in the testes between the sulfoxaflor-treated and control groups. These markers include those related to Leydig cells, testosterone synthesis, Sertoli cells, proliferating cells, meiotic cells, pachytene spermatocytes, round spermatids, apoptotic cells, antioxidant enzymes, oxidative stress factors, and mitochondrial function. In contrast to findings in rats, which showed testicular toxicity, sulfoxaflor administration at low concentrations did not adversely affect intratesticular cells in either mature or immature mice at the doses and time points examined. In the future, we would like to conduct research on high concentrations of sulfoxaflor by changing the administration method. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 2070 KB  
Review
Treatment of Xenobiotic Cyclic Nitramine Explosives in Wastewater
by Swati Gupta and Zeev Ronen
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060188 - 7 Nov 2025
Viewed by 439
Abstract
Cyclic nitramine explosives such as octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20) are xenobiotics that are utilized in a variety of propellants and traditional weapons. The primary source of water contamination is the industrial use of these hazardous substances in propellants and wastewater [...] Read more.
Cyclic nitramine explosives such as octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20) are xenobiotics that are utilized in a variety of propellants and traditional weapons. The primary source of water contamination is the industrial use of these hazardous substances in propellants and wastewater generated from munitions production facilities. These chemicals have a negative impact on human health and ecosystems. It is necessary to remove these toxic compounds from the environment safely because their production and usage have seriously contaminated soil and groundwater. Although there are no widely adopted WHO or US federal Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for military explosives, the health advisory limits for RDX in drinking water are 2 µg/L, and for HMX are 400 µg/L. Numerous traditional treatment approaches that incorporate physical, biological, and chemical processes have been used to decontaminate explosive wastewater. However, contaminants are not completely mineralized by these methods. Complete reduction of these chemicals can be accomplished by combining suitable methods. For the remediation of explosive effluent, integrated treatment systems that combine the effectiveness of biological and physical-chemical methods have shown promising results. This review discusses the toxicity and some physical–chemical–biological and combined treatment processes of wastewater polluted by these explosive contaminants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

45 pages, 827 KB  
Review
Global Evidence on Monitoring Human Pesticide Exposure
by Tatiane Renata Fagundes, Carolina Coradi, Beatriz Geovana Leite Vacario, Juliana Maria Bitencourt de Morais Valentim and Carolina Panis
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060187 - 7 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1662
Abstract
This study analyzes global data on human exposure to pesticides, focusing on glyphosate, POPs, carbamates, and organophosphates, which are among the most widely used in agricultural and urban environments, providing an overview of global human contamination by these substances. Current research has increasingly [...] Read more.
This study analyzes global data on human exposure to pesticides, focusing on glyphosate, POPs, carbamates, and organophosphates, which are among the most widely used in agricultural and urban environments, providing an overview of global human contamination by these substances. Current research has increasingly focused on the unintended consequences of pesticide use, including food, water, and soil contamination, biodiversity loss (especially beneficial insects such as pollinators), and the growing evidence of adverse impacts on human health (neurological, reproductive, endocrine, and carcinogenic effects). Therefore, we compiled information from several existing studies that evaluated pesticide residues in human biological samples, specifically urine, blood, and breast milk, to assess the extent of exposure. The analysis takes a global perspective, highlighting the importance of monitoring exposure in countries that demonstrate exceptionally high pesticide use (in terms of absolute volume), such as Brazil, the United States, and China, which are among the largest global consumers. The data cover both contemporary pesticides, whose consumption is driven by intensive agriculture in these and other countries, and persistent legacy compounds (POPs) that continue to circulate in nature and accumulate in the human body decades after their ban in many countries. Globally, there is a wide disparity in global regulations, and many developing countries continue to use pesticides that have been banned or severely restricted in more developed nations. Finally, it provides a critical overview of global data on human pesticide contamination. The data reinforce the critical importance of establishing preventive initiatives and strengthening surveillance and monitoring systems to detect and control pesticide residues in human populations globally, ultimately aiming to mitigate the harms of chronic pesticide exposure to human health and well-being. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1306 KB  
Review
Microplastic Polymer Mass Fractions in Marine Bivalves: From Isolation to Hazard Risk
by Tanja Bogdanović, Irena Listeš, Jennifer Gjerde, Sandra Petričević, Zvonimir Jažo, Eddy Listeš, Jelka Pleadin, Darja Sokolić, Ivona Jadrešin and Federica di Giacinto
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060186 - 6 Nov 2025
Viewed by 646
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are a ubiquitous marine pollutant, and their presence in bivalves is receiving increasing attention due to the associated risks to human health. The steps of pretreatment, detection, and quantification in the analysis of MPs depend on the type of polymer. Research [...] Read more.
Microplastics (MPs) are a ubiquitous marine pollutant, and their presence in bivalves is receiving increasing attention due to the associated risks to human health. The steps of pretreatment, detection, and quantification in the analysis of MPs depend on the type of polymer. Research on MPs is challenging because of the varying characteristics of these materials, such as the size, shape, and polymer type. Consequently, there are no standardized methods for their collection, separation, identification, or quantification. This review specifically examines the available bivalve digestion steps, focusing on efficient and time-reducing methods, such as the microwave-assisted (MAW) procedure and its advantages. Recent achievements in the application of pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC-MS) are presented for the profiling of polymer mass-related microplastics data in marine bivalves. Here, we provide an overview of the abundance, properties, and polymer types of MPs in bivalve species, highlighting the polymer mass fractions. To date, the available mass-based concentrations have revealed nine types of MPs—polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polyamide 66 (PA66), polycarbonate (PC), and polyamide 6 (PA6)—with PE, PP, and PVC being the most common. The total MP levels in bivalves were at ppm levels, ranging from 0.26 µg/g to 36.4 µg/g wet weight. The risk of human ingestion of MPs was assessed through the consumption of bivalves as seafood. The overall potential human health risk value (H) for marine bivalves was classified within the moderate to high hazard category. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

22 pages, 5321 KB  
Article
Ecological and Human Health Risks from Potentially Toxic Elements in Environmental Matrices of Kiteezi Landfill, Uganda
by Emmanuel Ebbu, Irene Nalumansi, Ivan Kiganda, Caroline Kiwanuka Nakiguli, Patrick Onen, Simon Ocakacon, Christopher Adaku, Timothy Omara and Emmanuel Ntambi
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060185 - 4 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 668
Abstract
By the time of this study, Kiteezi landfill was Uganda’s largest waste disposal site and received substantial volumes of municipal solid waste. In the present study, water (n = 36), leachates (n = 36), superficial sediments (n = 30), and [...] Read more.
By the time of this study, Kiteezi landfill was Uganda’s largest waste disposal site and received substantial volumes of municipal solid waste. In the present study, water (n = 36), leachates (n = 36), superficial sediments (n = 30), and Colocasia esculenta corms (n = 6) were sampled from Kiteezi landfill in the dry and wet seasons of 2022 before its tragic collapse in 2024. The physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, and oxidation–reduction potential) and concentration of potentially toxic elements (As, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Zn) were analyzed using standard methods and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry, respectively. Significant seasonal variations (p < 0.05) were observed for all the physicochemical parameters of water and leachates except temperature. Further, significantly higher concentrations (p < 0.05) of potentially toxic elements (PTXEs) were quantified in environmental matrices sampled during the dry season than the wet season. Arsenic and Pb concentrations in water surpassed their WHO permissible limit of 0.01 mg/L. The concentrations of PTXEs were higher in downstream samples (p < 0.05), indicating that landfill activities led to their enrichment in matrices near the facility. Ecological and pollution risk indices indicated that there is severe enrichment of Cu and Zn in the sediments, with dry season downstream samples having contamination factors and geoaccumulation indices of 539.3 and 74.7 and 8.5 and 5.6, respectively. Although ingestion of water may not cause probable health risks, consumption of Colocasia esculenta corms could lead to non-carcinogenic and cancer health risks in both children and adults (hazard indices = 0.085–189.0 and total cancer risk values of 7.33 × 10−6–4.87 × 10−3). These results emphasize the need that any new replacement for Kiteezi landfill should be properly planned and managed to mitigate potential environmental pollution with xenobiotics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 464 KB  
Article
Surfactant Protein D Mediates the Association Between Smoking and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Incidence in the Spanish Adult Population: Di@bet.es Study
by Wasima Oualla-Bachiri, Ana Lago-Sampedro, Eva García-Escobar, Cristina Maldonado-Araque, Viyey Doulatram-Gamgaram, Marta García-Vivanco, Fernando Martín-Llorente, Juan Luis Garrido, Elías Delgado, Felipe J. Chaves, Luis Castaño, Alfonso Calle-Pascual, Josep Franch-Nadal, Gabriel Olveira, Sergio Valdés and Gemma Rojo-Martínez
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060184 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 500
Abstract
It is well known that environmental factors influence the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Several studies have linked the xenobiotics present in tobacco or air pollutants to T2DM development, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Surfactant protein D (SP-D), an immune [...] Read more.
It is well known that environmental factors influence the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Several studies have linked the xenobiotics present in tobacco or air pollutants to T2DM development, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Surfactant protein D (SP-D), an immune component released into the bloodstream after lung injury, has been associated with metabolic diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate whether SP-D mediates the effects of smoking or air pollution exposure on T2DM risk in the Spanish adult population. Socio-demographic, lifestyle (including smoking status) and clinical data from 2155 participants from the Di@bet.es cohort were analyzed. Annual concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, SO2, CO and NO2 according to participants’ residential address codes were used to study air pollution exposure. T2DM was diagnosed at baseline and after 7.5 years of follow-up. SP-D serum levels were measured by ELISA and categorized as above or below the 25th percentile. Our results revealed a higher percentage of smokers in the high SP-D category; however, no associations were observed between air pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, SO2, CO) and SP-D categories. Both smoking and elevated SP-D levels were found to increase the risk of T2DM independently. Mediation analysis indicated that SP-D mediates 14% of the effect of smoking on T2DM incidence in the Spanish adult population. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1738 KB  
Article
Hematological and Biochemical Alterations Induced by Sub-Acute Administration of Permethrin in Rats
by Liliana Carmona-Aparicio, Elvia Coballase-Urrutia, Marisol Orozco-Ibarra, Norma Serrano-García, Silvia Caballero-Salazar, Maritza Ramírez-Pérez, Liliana Rivera-Espinosa, María E. Hernández, Hortencia Montesinos-Correa, Diana L. Pérez-Lozano and Daniel Diaz
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060183 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 473
Abstract
Permethrin (PERM) is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide initially regarded as low risk. However, evidence now indicates that misuse and prolonged exposure can damage multiple physiological systems by disrupting enzymatic functions in subcellular structures. In this study, male Wistar rats were administered PERM (75, [...] Read more.
Permethrin (PERM) is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide initially regarded as low risk. However, evidence now indicates that misuse and prolonged exposure can damage multiple physiological systems by disrupting enzymatic functions in subcellular structures. In this study, male Wistar rats were administered PERM (75, 150, or 300 mg/kg/day) for 15 days to assess its effect on hematological and biochemical parameters, including oxidative stress markers in the liver, kidney, and heart. Subacute PERM administration induced significant, dose-dependent toxicological alterations in exposed animals. Hematological analysis revealed impaired hematopoiesis, characterized by increased erythrocytes and platelets alongside decreased hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, and red cell distribution width. Biochemical analysis revealed elevated liver enzymes and bilirubin, along with reduced albumin levels, indicating hepatic alterations associated with PERM. The assessment of oxidative stress revealed tissue-specific responses following PERM exposure. While GPx, CAT, and SOD levels remained unchanged, GR activity increased in the heart, and GST activity increased in the liver. Additionally, a substantial decrease in MDA was observed in both the liver and heart. These collective alterations found in PERM-subacute exposed rats suggest the potential for cellular damage with the possible development of chronic pathologies, warranting further investigation. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1698 KB  
Article
Aqueous Extract of Limnospira platensis Provides Protection Against Microcystin-Induced Oxidative Stress in Hydroponic Culture of Radish (Raphanus sativus)
by Mohammed Haida, Badr Ezzyky, Zineb Hakkoum, Richard Mugani, Yasser Essadki, Fatima El Khalloufi, Abdelmajid Haddioui, Mohamed Loukid, Brahim Oudra and Noureddine Bouaïcha
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060182 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 491
Abstract
The eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems often triggers the excessive growth of cyanobacteria, many of which release toxic metabolites such as microcystins (MCs). When irrigation water is contaminated by these compounds, adverse consequences may arise for plants as well as for animal and human [...] Read more.
The eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems often triggers the excessive growth of cyanobacteria, many of which release toxic metabolites such as microcystins (MCs). When irrigation water is contaminated by these compounds, adverse consequences may arise for plants as well as for animal and human health. In contrast, certain non-toxic cyanobacterial species like Limnospira platensis are increasingly regarded as valuable tools for sustainable agriculture, given their ability to enhance plant nutrition, growth, yield, and stress tolerance while also mitigating the detrimental impacts of MCs. The present work aimed to investigate the potential of L. platensis extract to enhance growth, physiological responses, and tolerance of radish (Raphanus sativus) plants stressed with Microcystis aeruginosa extract containing microcystins. Experiments were conducted in a hydroponic system under controlled environmental conditions, where radish seedlings were cultivated in perlite and exposed for 45 days to M. aeruginosa extract (10 and 40 µg/L of MCs) and L. platensis extract (0.1 and 1 g/L), applied either separately or in combination. The results showed that the application of L. platensis extract, especially at 1 g/L in combination with 40 µg/L of MCs, decreased the bioaccumulation of MCs from 8.81 to 5.35 µg/kg FW in the leaves and from 14.64 to 10.15 µg/kg FW in the taproots. In addition, it significantly stimulated radish growth and improved several biochemical parameters. In contrast, exposure to MCs at 10 and 40 µg/L negatively affected growth, chlorophyll pigments and protein contents while promoting the accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA), polyphenols and sugars. The activities of peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were also increased under MCs stress, suggesting activation of the antioxidant defense system in response to oxidative damage. Combinations of MCs with L. platensis extract, especially at 1 g/L, improved antioxidant enzyme activities by significantly reducing MDA levels, biometric parameters, chlorophyll pigment, and protein and sugar contents. These results indicate that the application of L. platensis extract as a biostimulant can improve radish development, growth, and tolerance to MC-induced stress. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1010 KB  
Article
Combined Climate and Chemical Stressors: How Spatial Variability Shapes the Response of Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923) to Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) and Heatwaves, and What It Means for Ecotoxicology
by Verdiana Vellani, Manuela Piccardo, Francesca Provenza, Serena Anselmi, Valentina Pitacco, Lovrenc Lipej, Stanislao Bevilacqua and Monia Renzi
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060181 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 411
Abstract
Ficopomatus enigmaticus, a reef-forming serpulid, has emerged as a promising candidate for biomonitoring and ecotoxicology studies. Recent research has focused on adult stress responses, highlighting the need to understand population-specific responses. This study employed a multi-biomarker approach to investigate how F. enigmaticus [...] Read more.
Ficopomatus enigmaticus, a reef-forming serpulid, has emerged as a promising candidate for biomonitoring and ecotoxicology studies. Recent research has focused on adult stress responses, highlighting the need to understand population-specific responses. This study employed a multi-biomarker approach to investigate how F. enigmaticus adults from two populations in the NE Adriatic (Site A) and NE Tyrrhenian (Site B) responded to chronic exposure to heat and chemical stress (dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO), individually and in combination. The analysis detected significant differences in protein content and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) between populations. Notably, no oxidative damage (measured as lipid peroxidation, LPO) was detected in any population or treatment. Similarly, no significant differences were detected in the integrated biomarker response index (IBRv2i). However, lower IBRv2i values at Site A suggested reduced stress conditions, possibly indicating that this site may have lower baseline stress. Overall, treatment effects were limited and site-specific: only the combined heat and DMSO exposure at Site A lowered GST activity compared to heat stress alone. Nevertheless, both populations exhibited broadly similar biochemical response patterns to stress. Our findings deepen the understanding of stress physiology in F. enigmaticus, underscoring the ecological importance of multi-stressor approaches in environmental monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 251 KB  
Article
Bisphenol A Levels in Pasteurized Milk Marketed in Plastic Packaging and Associated Health Risk Assessment: A Pilot Study
by El Amine Cheroual, Khatima Mezhoud, Ilaria Neri, Ouahiba Hadjoudj and Lucia Grumetto
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060180 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 536
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic estrogen widely used in the manufacture of food packaging materials, raising concerns due to its potential migration into food products. This study aims to determine BPA levels in pasteurized milk marketed in Algeria, using an easy-to-handle and [...] Read more.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic estrogen widely used in the manufacture of food packaging materials, raising concerns due to its potential migration into food products. This study aims to determine BPA levels in pasteurized milk marketed in Algeria, using an easy-to-handle and efficient liquid–liquid extraction method coupled with liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection. A total of 30 pasteurized milk samples packaged in plastic were analyzed. The method validation demonstrated excellent linearity, with a limit of detection of 3.76 µg/L and a limit of quantification of 11.40 µg/L. Among the analyzed samples, 17 contained detectable BPA levels, ranging from not detectable to 24.07 µg/L, with an average concentration of 3.77 ± 5.77 µg/L, compliant with European regulation. The health risk assessment, based on estimated chronic daily intake and hazard index, indicated no significant risk associated with BPA exposure through milk consumption in the studied population. Additionally, the estrogenic equivalence of BPA in milk was 6.032 × 10−5 µgE2/L, confirming a low estrogenic activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Exposure and Health Risks for Vulnerable Populations)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 1139 KB  
Systematic Review
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Honey: A Systematic Review of Occurrence, Concentrations, and Health Risk Assessment
by Wenting Li and Surat Hongsibsong
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(6), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15060179 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 548
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic pollutants produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels and biomass. They are highly persistent and can accumulate in the food chain. Honey, a natural product susceptible to atmospheric deposition, has recently been recognized as an important bioindicator [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic pollutants produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels and biomass. They are highly persistent and can accumulate in the food chain. Honey, a natural product susceptible to atmospheric deposition, has recently been recognized as an important bioindicator for monitoring environmental pollution. This systematic review examined 29 articles published from 2000 to 2025 analyzing the global presence, concentrations, and potential health risks of PAHs in honey. Results showed that the sum of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (ΣPAHs) concentrations in honey ranged from below the detection limit to 166.83 µg/kg. Higher levels were observed in urban and industrial areas. Seventeen studies analyzed 16 PAHs prioritized by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), with benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) being the most frequently detected, a highly toxic compound. Although most samples met international food safety standards, levels exceeding European regulatory limits were detected in some areas, raising concerns about local health risks. The results of this study emphasize the need for standardized analytical methods and routine monitoring to more accurately assess the exposure risk of PAHs in honey. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Exposure and Health Risks for Vulnerable Populations)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-35
Previous Issue
Back to TopTop