Journal of Xenobiotics

19 pages, 821 KB

Open AccessReview

A Multidisciplinary Review of Phytoremediation Strategies for Heavy Metal-Contaminated African Soils: From Geochemical Assessment to Genetic Enhancement

by Fatouma Mohamed Abdoul-Latif, Rohit Kumar, Talal Mohamed, Ali Merito, N Chinmaya Kumar, Ibrahim Houmed Aboubaker and Pannaga Pavan Jutur

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030118 (registering DOI) - 22 Jun 2026

Abstract

African soils face increasing levels of metal pollution due to industrialization, artisanal mining activities, improper waste management, and enhanced agricultural productivity. However, unlike many organic pollutants, heavy metals do not degrade naturally and therefore persist in environmental systems for prolonged periods. Heavy metals [...] Read more.

African soils face increasing levels of metal pollution due to industrialization, artisanal mining activities, improper waste management, and enhanced agricultural productivity. However, unlike many organic pollutants, heavy metals do not degrade naturally and therefore persist in environmental systems for prolonged periods. Heavy metals accumulate over many decades in the soil and bioaccumulate through the food chain causing severe health complications such as cancer, kidney problems, and neurological impairment. This paper reviews the current literature on the origin, prevalence, and behavior of the main pollutants Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Hg, and Cu. The major phytoremediation methods including phytoextraction, rhizofiltration, phytostabilization, and phytovolatilization are highlighted alongside in planta screening methods for hyperaccumulating plants including Berkheya coddii (Ni) and Haumaniastrum robertii (Co). The paper evaluates various enhancement techniques such as the use of chelators, Rhizobium inoculations, and genetic modifications. The significance of these approaches in tropical and subtropical climates is discussed. The paper suggests a holistic framework involving empirical kinetic modeling, geospatial machine learning (random forest, kriging), and molecular omics in prediction modeling. Major hurdles in such predictions include lack of field-based verification of the models, biotechnology safety of genetically modified (GM) organisms, and inadequate regulations. Future perspectives emphasize community-driven phytomining, biomass recycling, and resilient phytoremediation solutions. Full article

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20 pages, 4545 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preventing Pesticide Toxicity Risk Through Self-Reported Practices in Children of Farming Communities: A Social Practice Theory Perspective

by Nuraeni Nuraeni, Herdis Herdiansyah, Fatmah Fatmah, Haruki Agustina and Rully Yusuf

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030117 (registering DOI) - 22 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study analyzes the determinants of self-reported behaviours and perceptions associated with pesticide toxicity risk in children using the Social Practice Theory framework, linking individual factors and agricultural practices to understand vulnerability and prevention opportunities. This research was conducted in Pattapang Village, Tinggimoncong [...] Read more.

This study analyzes the determinants of self-reported behaviours and perceptions associated with pesticide toxicity risk in children using the Social Practice Theory framework, linking individual factors and agricultural practices to understand vulnerability and prevention opportunities. This research was conducted in Pattapang Village, Tinggimoncong District, Gowa Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. To examine the relationship between pesticide use patterns, social norms, competence, material, and individual aspects and the risk of sensitive toxicity in children, data were analyzed using structural equation modeling-partial least squares (SEM-PLS) with bootstrapping resampling. Pesticide use patterns had a significant negative effect on toxicity risk. Competence was the strongest predictor of pesticide use patterns, followed by materials and short-term goals. Personal values dominate personal norms and long-term goals, while social norms only influence personal norms. Self-efficacy, personal norms, and long-term goals showed no significant effects. The novelty of this research lies in the integration of a socio-ecological approach with individual psychological factors in a comprehensive structural model that explains the complex mechanisms of children’s protective behavior formation from pesticide toxicity, identifying that personal values—not personal norms or self-efficacy—are the most effective leverage points for farmer behavior change interventions. Full article

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18 pages, 2857 KB

Open AccessArticle

Atmospheric Washout Dynamics of Organic Micropollutants: A Study of PAH, PAE, and BTEX Concentrations in Rainwater Across Northern Serbia

by Brankica Kartalović, Rastko Tomanović, Kristina Habschied, Alma Mikuška, Mirta Sudarić Bogojević, Antonije Žunić and Dora Bjedov

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030116 (registering DOI) - 20 Jun 2026

Abstract

Atmospheric wet deposition represents a major pathway for the transfer of organic micropollutants into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This study investigates the occurrence and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalate esters (PAEs), and BTEX compounds in rainwater across Northern Serbia (Vojvodina [...] Read more.

Atmospheric wet deposition represents a major pathway for the transfer of organic micropollutants into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This study investigates the occurrence and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalate esters (PAEs), and BTEX compounds in rainwater across Northern Serbia (Vojvodina region). Rainwater samples were collected during the 2025–2026 heating season at three locations: a petrochemical site in Kikinda, a traffic- and residentially influenced site in Sremska Mitrovica, and an urban background site in Sombor. Total concentrations showed pronounced spatial variability, with the highest ΣBTEX and ΣPAE levels recorded in Kikinda (∑BTEX = 2.818 μg L^∑1; ∑PAE = 0.930 μg L^∑1). Diagnostic ratios identified a dominant petrogenic signature in Kikinda (LMW/HMW > 1), while pyrogenic sources prevailed in Sremska Mitrovica and Sombor ((Fla/Fla + Pyr) > 0.5). BTEX profiles across all sites were characterised by the absence of benzene and elevated toluene and xylene levels (B/T ≈ 0; T/X > 1). Health risk assessment indicated an acceptable but non-negligible carcinogenic risk from PAHs, particularly for children in industrial areas. These findings highlight the role of precipitation as an efficient scavenger of organic pollutants and emphasise the need for integrated atmospheric–hydrological monitoring frameworks in industrialised regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Silent Crisis: Air Pollution and Its Hidden Impact on Human Health)

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30 pages, 1990 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Network Toxicology Framework for Identification of Immune System Disruption by Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance (PFAS) Mixture: In Silico Analysis

by Katarina Baralić, Katarina Vidić, Đurđica Marić, Jovana Živanović, Aleksandra Buha Djordjevic, Marijana Ćurčić, Zorica Bulat, Biljana Antonijević and Danijela Đukić-Ćosić

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030115 (registering DOI) - 19 Jun 2026

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent, chemically stable compounds widely used in daily life. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) were identified as the most relevant PFAS due to their prevalence and toxicity. This study [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent, chemically stable compounds widely used in daily life. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) were identified as the most relevant PFAS due to their prevalence and toxicity. This study aimed to investigate the immunotoxic mechanisms of a mixture of these PFAS using an in silico approach. Comparative Toxicogenomic Database (CTD), GeneMANIA, CytoHubba (Cytoscape), ToppGene Suite, and Metascape were used for the analysis. A total of 65 immune-related genes were identified as common to all four PFAS, with IFNG, TNF, IL1B, IL6, TYK2, CD3E, CASP8, VAV1, ARHGAP4, and CARD11 emerging as key hub genes. CTD phenotype analysis indicated immune dysregulation, with decreased humoral and adaptive immune responses in humans and tissue-specific modulation of B- and T-cell activity in mice, while no immune-related phenotypes were observed for PFNA. Network analysis identified functional modules associated with apoptotic and immune signaling, endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis, and shared inflammatory and viral response pathways. Disease enrichment analysis associated PFAS with autoimmune disorders (rheumatoid arthritis, asthma), metabolic conditions, and cardiovascular diseases (experimental diabetes, hypertensive disease). These results highlight PFAS involvement in immune modulation, cytokine signaling, and disease susceptibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Chemicals)

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13 pages, 5744 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mortality Burden and Years of Life Lost Attributable to Air Pollution in Liguria, Italy: A Health Impact Assessment

by Sebastiano La Maestra, Francesco D’Agostini and Linda Ferrea

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030114 - 18 Jun 2026

Abstract

Air pollution is a major environmental determinant of premature mortality and population health burden. Liguria represents a vulnerable Mediterranean region due to intense urbanisation, port-related emissions, complex topography and an ageing population. This study quantified the mortality burden and Years of Life Lost [...] Read more.

Air pollution is a major environmental determinant of premature mortality and population health burden. Liguria represents a vulnerable Mediterranean region due to intense urbanisation, port-related emissions, complex topography and an ageing population. This study quantified the mortality burden and Years of Life Lost (YLL) attributable to long-term exposure to PM_2.5, NO₂ and O₃ in Liguria (Italy), and estimated the potentially avoidable burden under WHO guideline scenarios. A Health Impact Assessment (HIA) was conducted using ARPAL air quality data and ISTAT mortality data for the population aged ≥30 years during 2022–2024. Relative risks were derived from the European ELAPSE project and WHO meta-analyses. Attributable mortality was estimated using a log-linear Health Impact Function, while YLL were calculated using regional life tables and normalised per 100,000 inhabitants. PM_2.5 was the main contributor to air pollution-related mortality, accounting for 1333 attributable deaths in 2022. Corresponding YLL ranged from 755 to 1012 per 100,000 inhabitants over the study period. NO₂ showed a relevant but secondary contribution, while O₃ effects were smaller and more uncertain. WHO guideline scenarios indicated a substantial potentially avoidable burden of deaths and YLL. These findings support targeted environmental and public health interventions in highly urbanised coastal regions. Full article

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20 pages, 1736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neurobehavioural Effects of the Methylimidazolium Ionic Liquid M8OI in Rats

by Tarek M. Abdelghany, Alaa A. Budastour, Ahmed S. Kamel, Sherehan M. Ibrahim, Alex Charlton, Simon Wilkinson, Catherine Arden, Noha F. Abdelkader and Matthew C. Wright

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030113 - 17 Jun 2026

Abstract

M8OI is a cytotoxic methylimidazolium ionic liquid solvent through its binding to the ubiquinone binding site on complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Given the overlap in terms of toxic mechanism of action with the pesticide rotenone, the potential neurotoxic effects [...] Read more.

M8OI is a cytotoxic methylimidazolium ionic liquid solvent through its binding to the ubiquinone binding site on complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Given the overlap in terms of toxic mechanism of action with the pesticide rotenone, the potential neurotoxic effects of M8OI were examined. In vitro, cytotoxicity and mitochondrial function were assessed in SH-SY5Y cells by measuring MTT reduction and oxygen consumption/extracellular acidification using a Seahorse analyser. SH-SY5Y cells were sensitised to M8OI toxicity by replacing medium glucose with galactose. Glucose protected the cells from M8OI toxicity, whereas galactose showed no clear dose–response protection. M8OI induced a dose-dependent reduction in oxygen consumption rate with a compensatory increase in extracellular acidification rate, consistent with inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and a shift toward glycolysis. In vivo, rats were orally exposed via drinking water for 20 weeks and assessed using behavioural tests. In addition, the concentrations of M8OI and its metabolites were quantified by LC–MS in rat brain and other tissues. In rats, M8OI concentrations were ~30-fold higher in kidney than brain, and brain levels were at least 100-fold lower than the concentrations that affected SH-SY5Y cell viability in vitro. However, based on open field tests, M8OI exposure suppressed motor activity without any anxious behaviours. The cytotoxicity of M8OI in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells was associated with metabolic mitochondrial dysfunction. However, the neurobehavioural changes observed in orally exposed rats occurred at significantly lower brain concentrations than would be predicted to lead to neural cell death. Nevertheless, direct comparisons between acute in vitro exposures and chronic in vivo outcomes should be interpreted cautiously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Chemicals)

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13 pages, 1775 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sorption of Antibiotics in Sewage Sludge: Distribution Coefficients, Sludge Characteristics, and Implications for Environmental Fate

by Wonsik Shin, Pil-Gon Kim and Min-Ho Oak

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030112 - 14 Jun 2026

Abstract

The sorption behavior of antibiotics in wastewater treatment systems plays a critical role in determining their environmental fate and removal efficiency. In this study, the sorption of 15 antibiotics representing multiple classes was investigated using two sewage sludge samples with different physicochemical characteristics. [...] Read more.

The sorption behavior of antibiotics in wastewater treatment systems plays a critical role in determining their environmental fate and removal efficiency. In this study, the sorption of 15 antibiotics representing multiple classes was investigated using two sewage sludge samples with different physicochemical characteristics. Batch equilibrium experiments were conducted to evaluate time-dependent sorption behavior and to determine solid–water distribution coefficients (K_d). The results showed that sorption occurred rapidly, with most compounds approaching a stable concentration within 24 h. The K_d values varied widely depending on the compound, ranging from 74 to 737 L/kg. For 13 of the 15 investigated antibiotics, higher K_d values were observed in sludge B than in sludge A, with the largest difference observed for tiamulin (402 ± 53 and 737 ± 76 L/kg for sludge A and sludge B, respectively). Sludge B generally exhibited higher sorption capacity for most compounds than sludge A, despite having a lower specific surface area, indicating that sorption was governed primarily by chemical composition and pore structure rather than surface area alone. Elemental and morphological analyses suggested that differences in metal-associated components and pore structure may contribute to the higher sorption capacity observed in sludge B. However, the specific sorption mechanisms could not be directly confirmed by the present analyses. Comparison with previous studies confirmed that the measured K_d values fall within reported ranges but are generally higher for sulfonamides, suggesting enhanced sorption capacity of the investigated sludge matrices. Application of an equilibrium-based model demonstrated that sorption alone can account for approximately 20–70% of antibiotic removal under typical activated sludge conditions, depending on compound affinity. These findings highlight the importance of sludge-specific properties in controlling antibiotic partitioning and demonstrate that incorporating such characteristics into predictive models can improve the accuracy of environmental fate assessments in wastewater treatment systems. Full article

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24 pages, 9189 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vascular Endocrine-Disrupting Effects of Bisphenol F and Bisphenol S on Human Umbilical Artery

by Fatima Abrantes-Soares, Mariana Marques Santos, Melissa Mariana, Margarida Lorigo and Elisa Cairrao

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030111 - 13 Jun 2026

Abstract

In recent years, bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) have been used in several everyday products to replace bisphenol A (BPA), since exposure to BPA has been associated with the development of several pathologies. However, recent studies have also been associating exposure [...] Read more.

In recent years, bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) have been used in several everyday products to replace bisphenol A (BPA), since exposure to BPA has been associated with the development of several pathologies. However, recent studies have also been associating exposure to BPA substitutes with the development of various pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases, and the safety of BPA substitutes for human health has been questioned. Thus, this study aimed to investigate and compare BPA, BPF and BPS effects on arterial tone and to explore the mechanisms involved. The results suggest that BPA, BPS and BPF exert non-genomic and endothelium-independent relaxant effects on arteries and smooth muscle cells from the umbilical cord. Regarding genomic effects, the results suggest that BPA, BPF, and BPS disrupted the primary mechanisms underlying HUA relaxation by interfering with the cGMP signaling pathway and modulating the Ca²⁺ channels activity. Moreover, these results suggest that BPF alters the vasorelaxant response more than BPA and BPS. Therefore, replacing BPA with its substitutes does not appear to be beneficial for human cardiovascular health. Thus, in the future, the vascular effects of these bisphenols should be further evaluated to clarify their modes of action and future implications for maternal-fetal health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Toxicological Research on Chemical Entities: Mechanistic Insights and Safety Profiles)

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20 pages, 915 KB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Anemia and Pediatric Neurodevelopment in Children from Mothers Exposed to Mixed Heavy Metals in Suriname

by Anisma R. Gokoel, Arti Shankar, Simran F. Mokiem, Ashna D. Hindori-Mohangoo, Maureen Y. Lichtveld, Jeffrey K. Wickliffe and Wilco C. W. R. Zijlmans

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030110 - 11 Jun 2026

Abstract

Maternal anemia and prenatal exposure to neurotoxic metals are widespread in low- and middle-income countries and may affect early childhood development. In Suriname, where mercury contamination from artisanal gold mining and social disparities coexist, we examined associations between maternal anemia, prenatal exposure to [...] Read more.

Maternal anemia and prenatal exposure to neurotoxic metals are widespread in low- and middle-income countries and may affect early childhood development. In Suriname, where mercury contamination from artisanal gold mining and social disparities coexist, we examined associations between maternal anemia, prenatal exposure to mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), selenium (Se), and cadmium (Cd), and early neurodevelopment. The study included 755 pregnant women and 644 children (10–26 months) from the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health (CCREOH) cohort. Maternal anemia was defined using WHO criteria for Hb, metals were measured in maternal blood, and child development was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition (BSID-III-NL). Analyses used non-parametric tests, correlations, and multivariable regression. Anemia, though common (34%), was not independently associated with cognitive, language, motor, or social–emotional outcomes. However, iron status was not directly measured; therefore, the absence of an observed association should not be interpreted as evidence that maternal iron deficiency is unrelated to early neurodevelopment. Pb showed the most consistent associations, with higher prenatal levels predicting poorer cognitive, motor, and language scores. Hg demonstrated weaker but significant negative associations with several domains, while Mn and Cd showed limited direct effects. Interaction analyses suggested a potential modifying role of Se in certain metal-neurodevelopment associations; however, these findings require confirmation in future studies. Overall, these results suggest that prenatal exposure to neurotoxic metals and sociodemographic disparities may be important contributors to variation in early neurodevelopment in this population, but causal inferences cannot be made from this cross-sectional analysis. Full article

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30 pages, 4050 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Ecological Threats to Monitoring Tools: Multi-Contaminant Profiles in Silurus glanis and Procambarus clarkii for Pollution Tracking and Preliminary Food/Feed Safety Assessment

by Sara Glorio Patrucco, Roberta Giugliano, Alessandra Griglione, Giorgia Zicarelli, Camilla Mossotto, Leo Costa, Giuseppe Esposito, Alice Gabetti, Serena Anselmi, Tecla Bentivoglio, Barbara Vivaldi, Valentina Ciccotelli, Bruno Aimone, Marino Prearo, Damià Barceló, Monia Renzi, Stefania Squadrone and Paolo Pastorino

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030109 - 9 Jun 2026

Abstract

Invasive alien species (IAS) such as Silurus glanis and Procambarus clarkii represent major ecological threats but may also serve as effective bioindicators of environmental contamination; therefore, this study aimed to evaluate their potential for multi-contaminant monitoring and assess their suitability as alternative feed [...] Read more.

Invasive alien species (IAS) such as Silurus glanis and Procambarus clarkii represent major ecological threats but may also serve as effective bioindicators of environmental contamination; therefore, this study aimed to evaluate their potential for multi-contaminant monitoring and assess their suitability as alternative feed and food resources within a circular economy framework. Multi-contaminant profiles were investigated in S. glanis and P. clarkii from Avigliana Lakes (NW Italy), analyzing trace elements, rare earth elements (REEs), and organic contaminants in fish muscle, and microplastics (MPs) in intestinal tracts. In S. glanis, total trace element concentrations and ΣREEs were markedly higher in Small Lake than in Great Lake, with ΣREEs reaching 0.445 and 0.056 mg/kg w.w., respectively. Mean concentrations of the regulated elements in Great Lake were 0.017 mg/kg w.w. (As), 0.003 mg/kg w.w. (Cd), and 0.16 mg/kg w.w. (Pb), increasing in Small Lake to 0.19, 0.03, and 1.86 mg/kg w.w., respectively. In P. clarkii, contamination levels were lower, with ΣREEs averaging 0.074 mg/kg w.w. and mean concentrations of As, Cd, and Pb of 0.25, 0.006, and 0.21 mg/kg w.w., respectively. Organic contaminants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs), and pesticides, were generally below limits of quantification. MPs were detected in 100% of specimens, with mean concentrations of 4.2 ± 2.15 and 4.4 ± 2.70 MPs per intestinal tract in S. glanis (Great and Small Lake, respectively) and 2.7 ± 2.39 MPs/intestinal tract in P. clarkii. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) indicated significant site-related differences in S. glanis and species-related differences between S. glanis and P. clarkii within Great Lake. Most regulated contaminants were below applicable EU thresholds; however, Pb in S. glanis from Small Lake exceeded the maximum level established for fish muscle intended for human consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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16 pages, 8647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Food Additive Titanium Dioxide (E171) Increases Intracellular Labile Fe²⁺ Levels and Induces Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in H9c2 Cardiomyoblasts

by Alfredo Cruz-Gregorio, Alejandro Silva-Palacios, Javier A. Belmont-Díaz, María del Pilar Ramos-Godinez and Rebeca López-Marure

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030108 - 9 Jun 2026

Abstract

Food-grade titanium dioxide (E171) is widely used as a food additive and has raised concerns about its potential systemic toxicity. However, its impact on cardiac cellular metabolism and mitochondrial function remains incompletely understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of E171 [...] Read more.

Food-grade titanium dioxide (E171) is widely used as a food additive and has raised concerns about its potential systemic toxicity. However, its impact on cardiac cellular metabolism and mitochondrial function remains incompletely understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of E171 on intracellular labile iron, oxidative stress, mitochondrial ultrastructure, and mitochondrial bioenergetics in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. Exposure to E171 leads to a significant increase in intracellular labile iron (Fe²⁺) levels. This alteration was accompanied by elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reduced intracellular glutathione levels, consistent with enhanced oxidative stress following E171 exposure. Ultrastructural analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed marked mitochondrial alterations, including reduced cristae density and structural damage. Functional assessment of mitochondrial bioenergetics demonstrated impaired oxidative phosphorylation and reduced maximal respiratory capacity in E171-treated cells. The potential protective role of quercetin (a powerful antioxidant and iron chelator) was explored in mitochondrial respiration assays; however, at the concentration and exposure conditions tested, quercetin treatment did not fully restore the bioenergetic parameters induced by E171. Collectively, these findings indicate that E171 increases intracellular labile iron levels and promotes oxidative stress, associated with alterations in mitochondrial ultrastructure and impaired bioenergetic function in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, suggesting a potential mechanism by which food additives may affect cardiac cellular metabolism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Nanotoxicology and Nanopharmacology)

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16 pages, 1658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lactic Acid Bacteria as In Vivo Protective Strategy Against Dietary Methylmercury Exposure

by Luzmila Burbano, Pilar Rodríguez-Viso, Manuel Zúñiga, Vicente Monedero, Vicenta Devesa and Dinoraz Vélez

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030107 - 8 Jun 2026

Abstract

The aim of this study was to characterize the toxicokinetics of dietary Hg and to identify lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains capable of reducing methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation in organs. BALB/c mice and Wistar rats were exposed via drinking water [Hg(II) MeHg] and feed [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to characterize the toxicokinetics of dietary Hg and to identify lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains capable of reducing methylmercury (MeHg) accumulation in organs. BALB/c mice and Wistar rats were exposed via drinking water [Hg(II) MeHg] and feed (swordfish, mushrooms). The data showed that the feed matrix did not modify MeHg accumulation, though it reduced Hg(II) accumulation compared to the data observed with drinking water. Two in vitro LAB strains (L. intestinalis LE1 and L. johnsonii LE2) were selected to determine their efficacy in reducing tissue accumulation in mice exposed for 40 days to dietary MeHg. Daily dosing of both strains produced a relevant reduction in Hg content in the organs of animals exposed through drinking water (18–64%). The LE1 strain also reduced Hg content in animals exposed via feed (13–40%). LAB could be a useful strategy in populations which are chronically exposed to Hg through their diet. Full article

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18 pages, 1447 KB

Open AccessReview

Chronic Opioid Use and Endocrine Disruption in Women: Mechanisms, Life-Course Vulnerabilities, and Reproductive Health Implications

by Doonyah Alucozai and Elizabeth Kwo

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030106 - 7 Jun 2026

Abstract

Chronic opioid use disrupts the female endocrine system, affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG), hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA), and hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axes. In women, these disruptions manifest as menstrual irregularity, infertility, early menopause, reduced bone mineral density, adrenal insufficiency, and altered mood and sexual function. Despite the [...] Read more.

Chronic opioid use disrupts the female endocrine system, affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG), hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA), and hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axes. In women, these disruptions manifest as menstrual irregularity, infertility, early menopause, reduced bone mineral density, adrenal insufficiency, and altered mood and sexual function. Despite the magnitude of the opioid epidemic and its impact on women of reproductive age, the existing evidence base is overwhelmingly male: across the major studies of opioid-induced endocrinopathy reviewed here, 99.5 percent of participants were male. Sex-specific mechanisms, prevalence estimates, and clinical thresholds therefore remain poorly defined, and current guidelines do not adequately address the reproductive, skeletal, and adrenal consequences of chronic opioid exposure in women. This review synthesizes available human and preclinical evidence on opioid-induced endocrine dysfunction in women across the lifespan, distinguishing established findings from hypotheses extrapolated from male or animal data. We propose a practical framework for routine endocrine screening of HPG, HPA, and HPT axis function, bone health, and fertility, and outline the roles of relevant specialties in multidisciplinary care. Available evidence suggests a substantial risk of endocrine dysfunction in women on chronic opioid therapy, but the precise prevalence remains unknown. Sex-sensitive research, guidelines, and routine screening are urgently needed to close this gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Exposures and Their Impact on Reproduction)

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15 pages, 3095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Atmospheric Pollutant Dispersion on Campus: Impacts of Wind Environment and Newly Constructed Buildings’ Height

by Chongxi Liao, Luxin Ren, Lulu Xu, Renjie Zhao, Baocong Zhao, Sihao Lin, Ting Zhang, Yijie Zhuang, Yanpeng Gao and Yuemeng Ji

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030105 - 4 Jun 2026

Abstract

Toluene, as a common organic solvent in academic laboratories in university campuses, poses potential exposure concerns to students and staff in university campuses. Hence, by using a computational fluid dynamics simulation, we investigated the dispersion characteristics of toluene at a campus in Guangzhou [...] Read more.

Toluene, as a common organic solvent in academic laboratories in university campuses, poses potential exposure concerns to students and staff in university campuses. Hence, by using a computational fluid dynamics simulation, we investigated the dispersion characteristics of toluene at a campus in Guangzhou under meteorological conditions and the impact of newly constructed buildings on toluene concentrations. The numerical simulation results reveal that toluene is readily accumulated in the free movement area under the prevailing east wind, in the administrative area under the prevailing north-northeast wind, and in the teaching area under the prevailing south wind. Therein, the teaching buildings (TB3–TB6) possess the highest average concentration of toluene compared with other functional areas. In the presence of newly constructed buildings, the toluene concentrations are decreased under the south-southeast wind but are aggravated under the southeast wind. As the height increases, under south-southeast winds, the merging of vortex structures continuously reduces toluene concentrations at TB3 and TB4 and the expansion of the wake region rebounds the toluene pollution at TB5 and TB6; under southeast winds, the expanding vertical vortex structures aggravate toluene pollution at TB3 and TB5 but attenuate toluene pollution at TB4 and TB6. Our results reveal that the teaching areas of the target campus represent a critical zone for potential student exposure during summer and require particular attention. This study provides new insights into the coupled effects of prevailing wind conditions and campus morphology on VOC dispersion characteristics and improves the understanding of airflow pollutant interactions in complex campus environments. Full article

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18 pages, 1343 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tissue-Specific Biomarkers and Bioaccumulation in Mytilus galloprovincialis: Seasonal Anthropogenic Stress in the North Ionian Sea (Calabria, Italy)

by Maria Assunta Iovine, Mariacristina Filice, Luisa Albarano, Alessia Caferro, Sandra Imbrogno, Rosa Mazza, Francesca Esposito, Maria Costantini, Valerio Zupo, Alfonsina Gattuso, Giovanni Libralato and Maria Carmela Cerra

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030104 - 4 Jun 2026

Abstract

Coastal ecosystems are increasingly threatened by human activities, highlighting the need for sensitive tools to assess environmental risk. An active biomonitoring approach, using the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), was employed to evaluate anthropogenic chemical contamination in the North Ionian Sea, a [...] Read more.

Coastal ecosystems are increasingly threatened by human activities, highlighting the need for sensitive tools to assess environmental risk. An active biomonitoring approach, using the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), was employed to evaluate anthropogenic chemical contamination in the North Ionian Sea, a still poorly studied area, by comparing mussel health status before (PrePT) and after (PostPT) the peak tourist season. Bioaccumulation of metal(loid)s was quantified in whole organisms. Oxidative stress was assessed in the gills and digestive gland through catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and oxidized carbonyl proteins (OMP). Neurotoxicity was evaluated via acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, while gene expression of stress-related biomarkers was analysed for metallothioneins (mt10, mt20), sod, cat, Glutathione S-transferase (gst), and Heat Shock Protein 70 (hsp70). Results suggest a progressive contaminant accumulation likely associated with intensified summer anthropogenic activity. Biomarker responses revealed clear activation of oxidative stress, with tissue-specific patterns. The findings confirm the effectiveness of active biomonitoring and multibiomarker approach in assessing coastal water quality and provide valuable baseline data for the management of marine ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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32 pages, 40686 KB

Open AccessArticle

Subchronic Cadmium-Induced Xenobiotic Toxicity in Male Wistar Rats: Antioxidant and Reproductive Protection by Standardized Silymarin with Molecular Docking Insights

by Imen Hammami, Fatma Arrari, Rahma Mahjoub, Ridha Ben Ali, Haifa El Hentati, Afef Nahdi, Eduardo Alberto López-Maldonado and Emna Talbi

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030103 - 3 Jun 2026

Abstract

Cadmium is a widespread environmental xenobiotic that poses serious risks to hepatic, renal, and male reproductive functions. Natural compounds such as silymarin, a bioactive extract from Silybum marianum, have gained attention for their protective potential against xenobiotic-induced toxicity. This study investigated whether [...] Read more.

Cadmium is a widespread environmental xenobiotic that poses serious risks to hepatic, renal, and male reproductive functions. Natural compounds such as silymarin, a bioactive extract from Silybum marianum, have gained attention for their protective potential against xenobiotic-induced toxicity. This study investigated whether subchronic oral administration of silymarin (30 mg/kg) mitigates cadmium-induced toxicity (5 mg/kg) in adult rats over six weeks. Twenty-four rats were assigned to four groups: control, cadmium-exposed, silymarin-treated, and co-treated. Biochemical, hematological, oxidative stress, and reproductive parameters were assessed. Sperm quality was evaluated using CASA, and testicular tissues were examined histologically. Cadmium exposure significantly reduced body weight (−30.8%), elevated transaminases (AST, ALT; p < 0.01), increased serum creatinine and total cholesterol, and induced multi-organ oxidative stress, as reflected by elevated malondialdehyde and markedly reduced SOD, CAT, and thiol group levels in testicular, hepatic, and renal tissues (p < 0.01). Sperm concentration dropped from 75.2 to 21.8 × 10⁶/mL, with total motility falling to 35% and progressive motility to 18%, accompanied by severe seminiferous tubule degeneration (Score III in 5 rats). Co-administration of silymarin partially restored these parameters, sperm concentration recovered to 38.5 × 10⁶/mL, total motility improved to 50.2%, and antioxidant enzyme activities and liver/kidney biomarkers showed significant but incomplete recovery (p < 0.05). Molecular docking revealed favorable binding affinities of silybin toward GPx (−8.4 kcal/mol), CAT (−8.3 kcal/mol), and SOD (−6.4 kcal/mol), offering a preliminary computational hypothesis suggesting possible interactions between silybin and antioxidant enzymes, pending experimental validation. Silymarin alone exerted no adverse effects. These findings establish silymarin as a partial but promising multi-organ cytoprotectant against cadmium toxicity, and highlight the need for future studies optimizing dosing strategies, exploring longer treatment durations, and investigating combination approaches with metal chelators or Nrf2-activating agents to achieve complete tissue recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Exposure and Health Risks for Vulnerable Populations)

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26 pages, 4779 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sorghum and Hemp Responses to Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganism Inoculation in Metal-Contaminated Dredged Sediment: A System-Level Assessment Under Environmentally Relevant Outdoor Pot Conditions

by Marko Šolić, Nina Đukanović, Tamara Apostolović, Jelena Beljin, Irina Jevrosimov, Dragana Tamindžija, Ivana Bajić, Stanko Milić, Tijana Zeremski, Marijana Kragulj Isakovski and Snežana Maletić

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030102 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

Metal-contaminated dredged sediments represent heterogeneous environmental matrices in which remediation responses are frequently constrained by elevated background metal loads and complex geochemical conditions. Within such systems, phytoremediation has been discussed as a nature-based management approach whose outcomes depend on plant biomass, internal metal [...] Read more.

Metal-contaminated dredged sediments represent heterogeneous environmental matrices in which remediation responses are frequently constrained by elevated background metal loads and complex geochemical conditions. Within such systems, phytoremediation has been discussed as a nature-based management approach whose outcomes depend on plant biomass, internal metal allocation, and context-dependent interactions between plants and sediment. The present study evaluated whether bacterial and fungal plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs) were associated with changes in plant metal uptake and internal allocation in Sorghum bicolor L. and Cannabis sativa L. grown in dredged sediment collected from the Bega Canal. An outdoor pot experiment was conducted under environmentally relevant conditions, including bacterial and fungal inoculation treatments alongside non-inoculated controls, with plant responses to Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb characterized using concentration- and mass-based uptake metrics, root–shoot partitioning, and sediment geochemical assessment based on pseudo-total concentrations and BCR sequential extraction fractions. Across treatments, plant responses were largely governed by intrinsic species traits and biomass production, while PGPM-associated effects remained modest and variable. Root-dominated metal retention and limited translocation were evident irrespective of species, consistent with a phytostabilization-type response rather than systematic extraction. Absolute metal uptake accounted for only a minor fraction of total sediment metal pools, underscoring the importance of interpreting concentration-based indices jointly with mass-based metrics when evaluating system-scale responses. Altogether, the findings indicate that under the investigated outdoor dredged sediment pot conditions, PGPM inoculation acts primarily as a context-specific modulator of plant responses rather than a driver of enhanced phytoremediation performance, reflecting the central role of intrinsic plant traits and stabilization-oriented processes in complex sediment systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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24 pages, 5214 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Glyphosate and Chlorpyrifos Induces Oxidative Stress, Potentially Impacting Sex Determination in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

by Daniela Arias-Camacho, Brian Antonio Rochin-Peraza, Miguel Betancourt-Lozano, Selene Abad-Rosales, José Basilio Heredia, Nayely Leyva-López, Samuel Calderón-Liévanos and Alejandra García-Gasca

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030101 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture has increased their levels in water bodies, threatening aquatic ecosystems. Among these, glyphosate and chlorpyrifos are widely used in Mexico and can cause toxic effects even at low doses. In aquatic organisms, early exposure to these [...] Read more.

The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture has increased their levels in water bodies, threatening aquatic ecosystems. Among these, glyphosate and chlorpyrifos are widely used in Mexico and can cause toxic effects even at low doses. In aquatic organisms, early exposure to these pollutants can disrupt vital processes, such as sex determination, through oxidative stress. This study assessed the effects of exposure to environmental concentrations of glyphosate (100 μg/L), chlorpyrifos (1.5 μg/L), and their combination on zebrafish (Danio rerio) from early stages to 90 days post fertilisation (dpf). Survival was measured using Kaplan–Meier curves; lipid peroxidation was assessed by malondialdehyde (MDA); sex-related gene expression was measured by qPCR of selected genes at 30 dpf; and gonadal development was assessed by histology at 65 dpf. The results showed increased MDA levels in exposed fish. Glyphosate caused early toxicity and a higher proportion of undifferentiated fish, implying delayed sex determination. Chlorpyrifos induced oxidative stress and affected amh gene expression linked to masculinisation. Combined exposure reduced survival and altered gene expression and gonadal development. Exposure shifted the sex ratio toward males, suggesting that pesticide-induced oxidative stress may alter the expression of sex determination genes during early development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 2454 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phenotypic Subacute Toxicity Assessment of Intranasally Administered Larixyl Acetate: Implications for Potential Airway Applications

by Zaina Kalaji, Ibrahim Hachim, Marwa Almazrouei, Hanaa Habbal, Vidya Bijosh Mohan, Mohammad G. Mohammad, Rifat Hamoudi and Rabih Halwani

J. Xenobiot. 2026, 16(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16030100 - 1 Jun 2026

Abstract

Larixyl acetate, a primary component of Larch turpentine, is a naturally occurring compound with a broad spectrum of medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory effects. It is a potent and selective inhibitor of TRPC6, a widely expressed Ca²⁺ channel that is involved in many [...] Read more.

Larixyl acetate, a primary component of Larch turpentine, is a naturally occurring compound with a broad spectrum of medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory effects. It is a potent and selective inhibitor of TRPC6, a widely expressed Ca²⁺ channel that is involved in many respiratory diseases. Despite its demonstrated efficacy, it lacks a well-defined preclinical and phenotypic safety profile, which limits its therapeutic potential and implementation. In this study, female BALB/c mice were used to assess the toxicity of intranasally administered Larixyl acetate through a subacute model based on OECD Test Guideline 412, followed by a detailed analysis of physical, blood, biochemical, and tissue changes at the administration sites and beyond. Within the study’s 30-day timeframe, our results show no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) in any of the examined toxicity parameters between the controls or three treatment groups (0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg). While no pharmacokinetic data were obtained to confirm local or systemic exposure of Larixyl acetate, these findings are crucial for establishing a solid foundation for future therapeutic endeavors, especially in the context of TRPC6-driven respiratory diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products/Herbal Medicines)

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