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Horticulturae

Horticulturae is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Society of Horticultural Sciences (SECH) is affiliated with Horticulturae and its members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubAg, AGRIS, FSTA, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Horticulture) / CiteScore - Q2 (Horticulture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.1 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2311-7524

Latest Articles

17 pages, 13788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cutting Phenological Stage, Chemical Treatments, and Substrate on Rooting Softwood Cuttings of Tree Peony

by Dongli Li, Fangyun Cheng, Xiwen Tao and Yuan Zhong

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050552 - 20 May 2025

Tree peony is well-known for its ornamental value, medicine function, oil, and edible use. However, the difficulty in propagating tree peony impedes its cultivation and industrial advancement. Softwood cutting is an effective method to promote the propagation of tree peony. This research investigated [...] Read more.

Tree peony is well-known for its ornamental value, medicine function, oil, and edible use. However, the difficulty in propagating tree peony impedes its cultivation and industrial advancement. Softwood cutting is an effective method to promote the propagation of tree peony. This research investigated the effects of several factors (cultivar, cutting phenological stage, auxin type, polyamine, and substrate) on the rooting of softwood cutting in tree peony. The results showed that rooting ability varied with cultivars and cutting phenological stages, with the highest rooting rates being for ‘High noon’ and ‘Jinghua Qingxue’ during the vigorous growth stage, reaching 50% and 53.33%, respectively. IBA 2000 mg·L⁻¹ was optimal for rooting in ‘High noon’ cuttings, with the maximum root number (5.67) and root length (6.3 cm). Putrescine of 1.0 mM could significantly improve the rooting rate and rooting quality of ‘Jinghua Qingxue’ cuttings, which had the highest rooting rate of 54.17% in the cocopeat/perlite substrate (v:v 1:1). Anatomical observation showed that most adventitious roots were generated from callus meristem nodules differentiated from cortical parenchyma cells while a few came from stem bark, as well as integrated root induction. This study is an innovation in and supplement to tree peony propagation research, and a propagation protocol was primarily established for softwood cuttings in tree peony. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Propagation and Flowering of Ornamental Plants)

37 pages, 12210 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Environmental Sensing Technologies for Targeted Spraying in Orchards

by Yunfei Wang, Zhengji Zhang, Weidong Jia, Mingxiong Ou, Xiang Dong and Shiqun Dai

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050551 - 20 May 2025

Precision pesticide application is a key focus in orchard management, with targeted spraying serving as a core technology to optimize pesticide delivery and reduce environmental pollution. However, its accurate implementation relies on high-precision environmental sensing technologies to enable the precise identification of target [...] Read more.

Precision pesticide application is a key focus in orchard management, with targeted spraying serving as a core technology to optimize pesticide delivery and reduce environmental pollution. However, its accurate implementation relies on high-precision environmental sensing technologies to enable the precise identification of target objects and dynamic regulation of spraying strategies. This paper systematically reviews the application of orchard environmental sensing technologies in targeted spraying. It first focuses on key sensors used in environmental sensing, providing an in-depth analysis of their operational mechanisms and advantages in orchard environmental perception. Subsequently, this paper discusses the role of multi-source data fusion and artificial intelligence analysis techniques in improving the accuracy and stability of orchard environmental sensing, supporting crown structure modeling, pest and disease monitoring, and weed recognition. Additionally, this paper reviews the practical paths of environmental sensing-driven targeted spraying technologies, including variable spraying strategies based on canopy structure perception, precise pesticide application methods combined with intelligent pest and disease recognition, and targeted weed control technologies relying on weed and non-target area detection. Finally, this paper summarizes the challenges faced by multi-source sensing and targeted spraying technologies in light of current research progress and industry needs, and explores potential future developments in low-cost sensors, real-time data processing, intelligent decision making, and unmanned agricultural machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fruit Production Systems)

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18 pages, 3632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Functional Analysis of the DhMYB2 and DhbHLH1 Promoters from Phalaenopsis-Type Dendrobium Involved in Stress Responses and Tissue-Specific Expression

by Yachen Wang, Chonghui Li, Wenjuan Zhu, Yamei Li, Xiqiang Song and Junmei Yin

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050550 - 19 May 2025

Phalaenopsis-type Dendrobium (Den-Phals) is a commercially valuable orchid, with floral color being key to its market appeal. Despite the significance of anthocyanin biosynthesis in color development, its transcriptional regulation in Den-Phals remains unclear. This study functionally characterized the promoters of DhMYB2 and [...] Read more.

Phalaenopsis-type Dendrobium (Den-Phals) is a commercially valuable orchid, with floral color being key to its market appeal. Despite the significance of anthocyanin biosynthesis in color development, its transcriptional regulation in Den-Phals remains unclear. This study functionally characterized the promoters of DhMYB2 and DhbHLH1, two key transcription factors involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis. A 1864 bp DhMYB2 promoter and a 1995 bp DhbHLH1 promoter were isolated using genome walking. Bioinformatics analysis identified cis-acting elements associated with abiotic stress responses, phytohormone signaling, and floral-specific regulation. 5′-Deletion analysis in tobacco leaves identified core regulatory regions for the DhMYB2 promoter (−1864 to −937 bp) and DhbHLH1 promoter (−1995 to −924 bp). GUS staining and activity assays demonstrated that the activities of the DhMYB2 and DhbHLH1 promoters were significantly increased under treatments of long light, low temperature, drought, salicylic acid (SA), and abscisic acid (ABA), while the DhbHLH1 promoter was also induced by methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Furthermore, promoter activity of DhMYB2 and DhbHLH1 was detected only in transgenic Arabidopsis flowers, suggesting that these promoters exhibit floral-specific activity. This study provides the first functional analysis of Den-Phals anthocyanin promoters, revealing their stress-responsive nature and floral specificity, which will facilitate molecular breeding of novel orchid cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color Formation and Regulation in Horticultural Plants)

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23 pages, 3947 KiB

Open AccessStudy Protocol

Combined Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Mechanism of ‘Shine Muscat’ Pollen Abortion Induced by CPPU and TDZ Treatment

by Mengfan Ren, Yixu Wang, Siyi Yi, Jingyi Chen, Wen Zhang, Haoran Li, Ke Du, Jianmin Tao and Huan Zheng

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050549 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea (CPPU) and N-phenyl-1,2,3-thidiazole-5ylurea (TDZ) are plant growth regulators used for seedless treatment in grape. In this study, the flowers of ‘Shine Muscat’ (Vitis labruscana Bailey × V. vinifera L.) were treated with 3, 5, and 10 mg/L CPPU and TDZ one [...] Read more.

N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea (CPPU) and N-phenyl-1,2,3-thidiazole-5ylurea (TDZ) are plant growth regulators used for seedless treatment in grape. In this study, the flowers of ‘Shine Muscat’ (Vitis labruscana Bailey × V. vinifera L.) were treated with 3, 5, and 10 mg/L CPPU and TDZ one week before flowering. The results showed that both CPPU and TDZ treatments reduced the pollen germination rate and caused abnormal stamen and pollen grain phenotypes, resembling the male sterility observed in ‘Y_14’ (a novel grapevine germplasm derived from the self-progeny of ‘Shine Muscat’). Using RNA-seq technology, the stamens of flowers treated with 10 mg/L CPPU (CPPU_10), 10 mg/L TDZ (TDZ_10), and the control (CK) were analyzed. A total of 520 and 722 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in CPPU and TDZ treatments, respectively. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that the common pathways leading to pollen abortion in both treatments were primarily associated with hydrolase activity (acting on glycosyl bonds), phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, pentose and glucuronate interconversions, and ABC transporters. By comparing the DEGs across the three groups (Y_14 vs. SM, CPPU_10 vs. CK, TDZ_10 vs. CK), 16 DEGs exhibited similar expression patterns. Further tissue-specific expression analysis identified nine genes that were highly expressed in stamens and shared the same expression pattern in sterile lines. These findings provide a foundation for further studies on the impact of CPPU and TDZ treatments on grape stamen fertility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Grapevine and Kiwifruit Breeding Studies)

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23 pages, 8255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Growth and Floral Induction in Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) Under Blue and Red LED Light and Their Alternation

by Yao Hervé Yao, Banah Florent Degni, Pascal Dupuis, Laurent Canale, Arouna Khalil Fanny, Cissé Théodore Haba and Georges Zissis

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050548 - 19 May 2025

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is a tropical vegetable with high nutritional and economic value. Rich in fiber, vitamins (C, K, and B9), and minerals (magnesium, potassium, calcium, and iron), it contributes to food security in many tropical regions. Global production is estimated [...] Read more.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is a tropical vegetable with high nutritional and economic value. Rich in fiber, vitamins (C, K, and B9), and minerals (magnesium, potassium, calcium, and iron), it contributes to food security in many tropical regions. Global production is estimated at 11.5 million tons in 2023, 62% of which will come from India. Nigeria, Mali, Sudan, Pakistan, and Côte d’Ivoire are also among the major producers. Given its economic importance, optimizing its growth through controlled methods such as greenhouse cultivation and light-emitting diode (LED) lighting is a strategic challenge. Energy-efficient LED horticultural lighting offers promising prospects, but each plant variety reacts differently depending on the light spectrum, intensity, and duration of exposure (photoperiod). This study evaluated the effects of different LED spectra on okra’s flowering after 30 days of growth using B (blue, 445 nm) and R (red, 660 nm) LED lights and red-blue alternating in a three-day cycle (R3B3) by alternating the photoperiod from 14 to 10 h. Outdoor and greenhouse conditions served as controls. The results show that the R3B3 treatment improves germination in terms of both speed and percentage. However, plant growth (height, stem diameter, and leaf area) remains higher in the control group. R3B3 and red light stimulate leaf and node development. Flowering occurs earlier in the control group (51 days) and later under LED, particularly blue (73 days). Fruit diameter after petal fall was also larger in the control group. These results confirm the sensitivity of okra to photoperiod and light quality, and highlight the potential of spectral and photoperiod manipulation to regulate flowering in controlled-environment agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Protected Culture)

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13 pages, 1862 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Hydroponic Wastewater Treatment with Microalgae: A Sustainable Alternative for Irrigating Pelargonium × hortorum

by Alejandro Rápalo-Cruz, Cintia Gómez-Serrano, Cynthia Victoria González-López, Miguel Urrestarazu-Gavilán and Silvia Jiménez-Becker

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050547 - 19 May 2025

Microalgae are an effective solution for the treatment and valorization of wastewater generated in hydroponic systems. In the current context of sustainability and resource management, the search for ecological alternatives in agriculture is essential. This study investigated the use of wastewater from hydroponic [...] Read more.

Microalgae are an effective solution for the treatment and valorization of wastewater generated in hydroponic systems. In the current context of sustainability and resource management, the search for ecological alternatives in agriculture is essential. This study investigated the use of wastewater from hydroponic systems, purified by microalgae, for the irrigation of Pelargonium × hortorum. An experiment was designed under controlled conditions in which different irrigation treatments were applied. Hydroponic leachates treated by microalgae were used at 100%, 75%, and 50% (diluted using tap water), in addition to tap water as a negative control and nutrient solution as a positive control. The treatment system was established in a raceway photobioreactor, which allowed the proliferation of microalgae that act as bioremediators for the elimination of pollutants and the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. The growth parameters, biomass, and general health of the Pelargonium × hortorum plants were evaluated, complemented with physicochemical analyses of the water carried out during the experimental period. These analyses showed that the water obtained after the purification process retained nutrients that can be reused for irrigation. The results indicated that plants irrigated with treated water showed significant improvements in height, diameter, number of leaves, leaf area, leaf dry weight, and flower dry weight compared to those irrigated with tap water. In conclusion, the study shows that the treatment of hydroponic wastewater by means of microalgal cultivation represents a viable and ecological alternative for the irrigation of ornamental plants such as Pelargonium × hortorum. The implementation of this system contributes both to the reduction of pollutants and to the optimal use of water resources, establishing a solid basis for future research in which additional nutrients could be incorporated to balance the nutrient solution studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Biostimulants on the Growth and Development of Horticultural Crops)

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19 pages, 12488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Anatomical Characterization of Stems in Lilium Taxa

by Peng Zhou, Kuangkuang Liao, Xiunian Feng, Rui Liang, Nianjun Teng and Fang Du

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050546 - 18 May 2025

Lilium holds significant horticultural and ecological importance. Understanding the morpho-anatomical diversity of the stems can provide insights into taxonomy and breeding strategies. This study comprehensively examined the stem morpho-anatomy of 71 Lilium taxa to elucidate taxonomic and structural differences. For the first time, [...] Read more.

Lilium holds significant horticultural and ecological importance. Understanding the morpho-anatomical diversity of the stems can provide insights into taxonomy and breeding strategies. This study comprehensively examined the stem morpho-anatomy of 71 Lilium taxa to elucidate taxonomic and structural differences. For the first time, four distinct jigsaw-puzzle-shaped shapes of epidermal cells (Ep) in monocot stems, novel I-shaped and Co-xylem (O-, X-, W-, Q-shaped) vascular bundles (Vb) in Lilium stems, and quantitative characteristics (Vb density, xylem/phloem area ratio, etc.) were systematically discovered and analyzed. Asiatic (A) and Longiflorum × A (LA) hybrids displayed epidermal appendages, while Oritenal × Trumpet (OT) hybrids featured thicker sclerenchymatous rings (Sr). Collateral Vb in hybrids visually displayed bicollateral with degraded bundle sheaths (Bs), contrasting with intact circular Bs in wild species. Ward.D clustering categorized Lilium taxa into group A (Oritenal and OT hybrids) and B (A, LA, Trumpet, Longiflorum × Oriental hybrids and wild species), with Mantel’s test identified height, Ep shape, Ep length/width ratio, cortex/Sr thickness ratio and Bs integrity as key discriminators. Bending stems exhibited a higher Vb area. These findings establish a comprehensive pheno-anatomical framework for Lilium, which can guide future breeding programs and ecological studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Floriculture, Nursery and Landscape, and Turf)

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17 pages, 1878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deterministic Processes Dominantly Shape Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Community Associated with Pinus tabuliformis, an Endemic Tree Species in China

by Yongjun Fan, Zhimin Yu, Jinyan Li, Xinyu Li, Lu Wang, Jiani Lu, Jianjun Ma and Yonglong Wang

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050545 - 18 May 2025

Pinus tabuliformis is a well-recognized woody mycorrhizae host plant growing in North China. EM fungi contribute to the host health and the stability of the forest ecosystem. However, ectomycorrhiae (EM) fungal community associated with this species is less documented. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Pinus tabuliformis is a well-recognized woody mycorrhizae host plant growing in North China. EM fungi contribute to the host health and the stability of the forest ecosystem. However, ectomycorrhiae (EM) fungal community associated with this species is less documented. In this study, we examined EM fungal diversity and composition of P. tabuliformis from three sites in Inner Mongolia, China by using Illumina MiSeq sequencing on the rDNA ITS2 region. Our results showed that a total of 105 EM fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified from 15 composite root samples, and the dominant lineages were /suillus-rhizopogon, /tomentella-thelephora, /tricholoma, /amphinema-tylospora, /wilcoxina, /inocybe, and /Sebacina. A high proportion of unique EM fungal OTUs (33, 31.4% of total OTUs) were detected, and some abundant OTUs preferred to exist in specific sites. The composition of EM fungal communities was significantly different among the sites, with soil, climatic, and spatial variables being related to the community variations. The EM fungal community assembly was mainly driven by environmental factors in deterministic processes. These findings suggest that this endemic Pinaceae species in China also harbored a rich and distinctive EM fungal community and deterministic processes played more important roles than stochastic in shaping the symbiotic fungal community. Our study improves our understanding of EM fungal diversity and community structure from the perspective of a single host plant that has not been investigated exclusively before. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Pathology and Disease Management (PPDM))

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18 pages, 3011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Consequences of Micro- and Macronutrient Deficiencies on Physiological and Growth Metrics in Hydroponic ‘Thompson Seedless’ Grapevines

by Maoxiang Zhao, Jianjun He, Jiebu Suolang, Luyao Liu, Faisal Hayat, Shipping Wang, Hafiz Umer Javed and Lei Wang

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050543 - 18 May 2025

(1) Background: Mineral nutrient deficiencies are a major constraint on grapevine growth and productivity, yet the clear identification of deficiency symptoms and their physiological impacts remains challenging. (2) Methods: In this study, ‘Thompson Seedless’ grapevines were grown hydroponically under the controlled omission of [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Mineral nutrient deficiencies are a major constraint on grapevine growth and productivity, yet the clear identification of deficiency symptoms and their physiological impacts remains challenging. (2) Methods: In this study, ‘Thompson Seedless’ grapevines were grown hydroponically under the controlled omission of ten essential nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu) to assess their impact on growth, leaf morphology, chlorophyll content, photosynthesis, respiration, and tissue nutrient concentrations. (3) Results: Deficiencies in N, P, K, Mn, and B caused distinct leaf symptoms: nitrogen (N) deficiency led to pale leaves with bluish-green veins, phosphorus (P) deficiency caused yellowing in apical leaves followed by interveinal chlorosis, and potassium (K) deficiency induced pale yellow discoloration, curling, and rotting of the leaves. Manganese (Mn) and boron (B) deficiencies showed symptoms such as irregular leaf shapes and brittle, glossy leaves, respectively. These deficiencies resulted in reduced dry matter accumulation, decreased shoot length, and lower chlorophyll content. In contrast, iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) deficiencies had minimal effects, closely resembling those of the control conditions with only slight growth suppression. Notably, N, B, and Mg deficiencies led to significant reductions in Cu, Mg, B, and N levels, particularly evident through distinct symptoms in newly formed leaves. (4) Conclusions: Deficiencies in N, P, K, Mg, and B significantly affect grapevine growth, physiological processes, and nutritional quality. These findings emphasize the importance of maintaining balanced mineral nutrition for optimal grapevine health and productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Grape Genetic Diversity)

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13 pages, 6174 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Pollen–Stigma Coordination in Dendrobium Hybridization: A Strategy to Maximize Fruit Set and Hybrid Seed Viability

by Qian Wu, Yanbing Qian, Ao Guan, Yan Yue, Zongyan Li, Bruce Dunn, Jianwei Yang, Shuangshuang Yi, Yi Liao and Junmei Yin

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050544 - 17 May 2025

This study investigated dynamic pollen–stigma coordination to optimize interspecific hybridization in Dendrobium using D. ‘Burana Jade’ as the maternal parent and eight wild species as pollen donors. Stigma receptivity was comprehensively evaluated using a multi-indicator approach, including morphological characterization (crystal secretion and bulging [...] Read more.

This study investigated dynamic pollen–stigma coordination to optimize interspecific hybridization in Dendrobium using D. ‘Burana Jade’ as the maternal parent and eight wild species as pollen donors. Stigma receptivity was comprehensively evaluated using a multi-indicator approach, including morphological characterization (crystal secretion and bulging papillae), histochemical benzidine-H₂O₂ staining, and enzymatic activity profiling (esterase and superoxide dismutase). Concurrently, pollen viability was assessed through TTC testing coupled with ultrastructural observations. Results identified a critical synchronization window: pollen viability peaked at 1–3 days post anthesis (DPA) or during the mid-anthesis phase, while stigmas exhibited maximal receptivity when secretory activity and antioxidant enzyme levels significantly increased. Using stage-specific pollination criteria, 8.4% of crosses (8/95) produced viable fruits, outperforming empirical methods by 2.8-fold. D. ‘Burana Jade’ showed cross-compatibility with four Dendrobium species (D. aphyllum, D. chrysotoxum, D. hercoglossum, D. thyrsiflorum), with D. thyrsiflorum hybrids achieving 54.81% embryogenesis and 22.38% germination. Three compatible combinations germinated successfully in vitro within 45–55 days on 1/4 MS medium supplemented with 20 g/L sucrose, 1 g/L tryptone, 180 mL/L coconut water, and 2.2 g/L Phytagel. Our findings establish that synchronizing pollen viability windows with stigma receptivity phases significantly enhances fruit set and hybrid seed viability, providing a phenology-driven strategy to overcome reproductive barriers in orchid breeding programs. This study provides key physiological criteria for Dendrobium hybridization, though their applicability to other orchids needs validation. Future multi-omics studies should explore cross-species compatibility mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Orchids: Advances in Propagation, Cultivation and Breeding)

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26 pages, 14787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Insights into Quality Formation of Orange-Red Carrot (Daucus carota L.) During Maturation

by Chongzhen Gao, Hongtao Zhang, Jiayu Wang, Ziqing Guo, Ruixue Shen, Weilong Zhu, Tianyue Song and Hongxia Song

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050542 - 17 May 2025

Carrots, a multi-nutrient dietary source rich in natural bioactive compounds, have gained broad recognition due to their nutritional properties and potential health-promoting effects. Studying metabolic changes during carrot maturation can provide deeper insights into the formation of their nutritional value and quality. Using [...] Read more.

Carrots, a multi-nutrient dietary source rich in natural bioactive compounds, have gained broad recognition due to their nutritional properties and potential health-promoting effects. Studying metabolic changes during carrot maturation can provide deeper insights into the formation of their nutritional value and quality. Using Liquid Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (LC-MS) metabolomics, we systematically profiled metabolic dynamics during orange-red carrot maturation, with large-scale compound detection, structural identification, and absolute quantification. The results showed that a total of 607 metabolites were detected. Further analysis of three distinct stages of taproot swelling and maturation revealed the following: Most sugars in primary metabolites exhibited an increasing accumulation trend across the three stages. Organic acids (including TCA cycle intermediates) displayed a pronounced decreasing accumulation pattern. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significantly upregulated expression of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in the TCA cycle from the fleshy root formation stage (30 days after sowing, DAS), expansion stage (50 DAS), and maturation stage (115 DAS) in carrots. Phytochemical profiling identified 206 secondary metabolites (92 phenolic acids and 114 non-phenolic compounds). Notably, many phenolic acids maintained relatively high levels during early carrot development but exhibited a rapid decline in subsequent stages. The extensive downregulation of genes involved in phenolic acid biosynthesis pathways likely drives the rapid decline in phenolic acid content during early developmental stages. Correlation analysis further revealed significant crosstalk between primary and secondary metabolites during carrot maturation, with a pronounced negative correlation between sugars and secondary metabolites. These data provide a global perspective of carrot metabolomics and a comprehensive analysis of metabolic variations during development, establishing a molecular and metabolic basis for a deeper and more systematic understanding of carrot quality traits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Developmental Physiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology)

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19 pages, 16201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An AI-Based Horticultural Plant Fruit Visual Detection Algorithm for Apple Fruits

by Bin Yan, Xiameng Li and Rongshan Yan

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050541 - 16 May 2025

In order to improve the perception accuracy of the apple tree fruit recognition model and to reduce the model size, a lightweight apple target recognition method based on an improved YOLOv5s artificial intelligence algorithm was proposed, and relevant experiments were designed. The Depthwise [...] Read more.

In order to improve the perception accuracy of the apple tree fruit recognition model and to reduce the model size, a lightweight apple target recognition method based on an improved YOLOv5s artificial intelligence algorithm was proposed, and relevant experiments were designed. The Depthwise Separable Convolution (DWConv) module has many advantages: (1) It has high computational efficiency, reducing the number of parameters and calculations in the model; (2) It makes the model lightweight and easy to deploy in hardware; (3) DWConv can be combined with other modules to enhance the multi-scale feature extraction capability of the detection network and improve the ability to capture multi-scale information; (4) It balances the detection accuracy and speed of the model; (5) DWConv can flexibly adapt to different network structures. Because of its efficient computing modes, lightweight design, and flexible structural adaptation, the DWConv module has significant advantages in multi-scale feature extraction, real-time performance improvement, and small-object detection. Therefore, this method improves the original YOLOv5s network architecture by replacing the embedded Depthwise Separable Convolution in its Backbone network, which reduces the size and parameter count of the model while ensuring detection accuracy. The experimental results show that for the test-set images, the proposed improved model has an average recognition accuracy of 92.3% for apple targets, a recognition time of 0.033 s for a single image, and a model volume of 11.1 MB. Compared with the original YOLOv5s model, the average recognition accuracy was increased by 0.8%, the recognition speed was increased by 23.3%, and the model volume was compressed by 20.7%, effectively achieving lightweight improvement of the apple detection model and improving the accuracy and speed of detection. The detection algorithm proposed in the study can be extended to the intelligent measurement of apple biological and physical characteristics, including for size measurement, shape analysis, and color analysis. The proposed method can improve the intelligence level of orchard management and horticultural technology, reduce labor costs, assist precision agriculture technology, and promote the transformation of the horticultural industry toward sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Tree Crop Cultivation and Fruit Quality Assessment)

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12 pages, 1386 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Variations in Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Terminalia catappa Nuts

by Shahla Hosseini Bai, Bruce Randall, Repson Gama, Basil Gua, Doni Keli, Kim Jones, Brittany Elliott and Helen M. Wallace

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 540; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050540 - 16 May 2025

Indigenous forest foods have great potential to diversify cropping systems and increase food security and the resilience of food systems to climate change. Underutilised indigenous tree nuts in particular can provide health benefits to local communities and improve livelihoods when commercialised. However, for [...] Read more.

Indigenous forest foods have great potential to diversify cropping systems and increase food security and the resilience of food systems to climate change. Underutilised indigenous tree nuts in particular can provide health benefits to local communities and improve livelihoods when commercialised. However, for many tree nut species, there is little knowledge of important kernel characteristics. Kernel size and oil composition are important factors for commercialisation and health benefits, respectively. We assessed kernel attributes of Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae), a traditional forest food in the Pacific, in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji. We assessed kernel mass and kernel-to-fruit mass ratio, explored the fatty acid profile of oil, and oil stability against oxidation using accelerated ageing at 45 °C for 21 days. The largest kernels were found in the Solomon Islands with an average mass of 1.66 g. Similarly, kernel-to-fruit mass ratios were higher in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu than in Fiji. Terminalia catappa contained higher concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids than saturated fatty acids. Among the unsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid and linoleic acid were the two most abundant. Kernels incubated at 45 °C exhibited significantly higher hexanal concentrations on day 7 compared to those on day 0 of incubation. This rapid oil oxidation may be associated with high unsaturated fatty acid concentrations in kernels. These findings may have implications for oil shelf life. Our study suggests T. catappa trees from the Solomon Islands exhibit desirable kernel characteristics that make them suitable for selection and commercialization. The commercialization of an underutilised forest food tree like T. catappa will enhance food and nutrition security for local communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wild Plant Species as Potential Horticultural Crops: An Opportunity for Farmers and Consumers—2nd Edition)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 2132 KiB

Open AccessReview

Onion Male Sterility: Genetics, Genomics and Breeding

by Hela Chikh-Rouhou, Saurabh Singh, Srija Priyadarsini and Cristina Mallor

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050539 - 16 May 2025

Onion, belonging to the Allium genus, is an essential and versatile vegetable crop that plays a pivotal role in culinary traditions worldwide. Renowned for its distinctive flavor and nutritional value, onion is an indispensable ingredient in countless dishes. As the global demand for [...] Read more.

Onion, belonging to the Allium genus, is an essential and versatile vegetable crop that plays a pivotal role in culinary traditions worldwide. Renowned for its distinctive flavor and nutritional value, onion is an indispensable ingredient in countless dishes. As the global demand for onion continues to surge, securing a stable supply of high-quality, high-yielding onion varieties becomes ever more pressing. The onion umbel bears numerous tiny flowers that are protandrous in nature. Hybrid breeding is limited in onion due to high inbreeding depression, tedious emasculation and lack of elite inbreds. In this quest for crop improvement, the phenomenon of male sterility stands out as a key tool in modern onion breeding. Male sterility, which is recognized as the incapacity to produce viable pollen grains, inhibition of anther dehiscence and production of non-functional male gametes, has been harnessed as a mechanism to control cross-pollination and escalating hybrid development. The successful utilization of stable male sterile lines in onion holds the promise of producing uniform, high-yielding and disease-resistant hybrids. In recent decades, scientific advances have illuminated the molecular intricacies underlying male sterility systems in onion. Much progress has been made in elucidating the regulation of male sterility systems in the post-genomics era. This review highlights the current status of molecular markers linked with male sterility and provides genetic and molecular insights into its regulation. Additionally, it discusses the role of male sterility as a transformative tool in onion breeding in the genomics era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vegetable Genomics and Breeding Research)

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17 pages, 3048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Association Studies Provide Molecular Insights into the Genetic Determination of the Fruit Shape-Related Traits of Actinidia eriantha

by Lu Chen, Dongfeng Jia, Yansong Liu, Huan Gao, Jipeng Mao and Xiaobiao Xu

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050538 - 15 May 2025

In the selection of new horticultural crops varieties, fruit shape and size are key agronomic traits targeted by breeders, as well as critical criteria for commercial evaluation and grading. Wild germplasm resources typically exhibit greater genetic diversity in fruit morphology compared to cultivated [...] Read more.

In the selection of new horticultural crops varieties, fruit shape and size are key agronomic traits targeted by breeders, as well as critical criteria for commercial evaluation and grading. Wild germplasm resources typically exhibit greater genetic diversity in fruit morphology compared to cultivated varieties. The study analyzed fruit shape-related traits of 216 Actinidia eriantha plants from a wild population in Jiangxi Province, China, and identified significant associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and candidate genes for the target traits using genome-wide association analysis (GWAS). The results revealed substantial phenotypic variation in fruit shape- and size-related traits. A total of 115 SNPs and 349 putative coding genes were significantly associated with 7 fruit shape-related traits. Within the candidate genomic regions, we identified several key genes linked to specific morphological features, including F-box and MADS4, previously reported to influence fruit shape; WOX, F-box, and OVATE, associated with fruit shape index; RING-type E3 ubiquitin transferase, correlated with transverse diameter; and PLATZ, COL, and Aux/IAA, implicated in fruit weight regulation. These findings facilitate the precise identification of genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) governing fruit morphology. Furthermore, the associated SNP markers provide valuable tools for marker-assisted breeding, enabling the development of elite cultivars with desirable fruit characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Breeding and Genetic Improvement of Fruit Crops)

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26 pages, 7613 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Orthodox vs. Recalcitrant? Germination and Early Growth of Phoenix Species (Arecaceae) Stored for up to Ten Years

by Concepción Obón, Sofía Pardo-Pina, Dennis Johnson and Diego Rivera

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050537 - 15 May 2025

This study investigated seed storage behavior and seedling development patterns in the genus Phoenix L. (Arecaceae), addressing the knowledge gap regarding orthodox versus recalcitrant characteristics in these ecologically and economically significant palms. We examined the germination capacity and subsequent growth in [...] Read more.

This study investigated seed storage behavior and seedling development patterns in the genus Phoenix L. (Arecaceae), addressing the knowledge gap regarding orthodox versus recalcitrant characteristics in these ecologically and economically significant palms. We examined the germination capacity and subsequent growth in 31 seed samples from various Phoenix species stored for up to 10 years at approximately 5 °C, at the Germplasm Bank at the Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela, comprising 465 seeds monitored over a one-year period. The seed germination trials involved planting seeds in pots placed in an open-air greenhouse after ambient temperatures consistently exceeded 20 °C, typically after mid-June. Phoenix dactylifera, P. canariensis, P. theophrasti, the hybrid P. dactylifera × P. canariensis, and P. × “Palmeri” demonstrated orthodox seed storage behavior, maintaining viability for up to nine years. Conversely, P. sylvestris, P. pusilla, P. rupicola, and P. loureiroi consistently failed to germinate despite previous germination success, suggesting potential recalcitrant characteristics. Statistical analyses revealed that species identity and geographic origin exerted greater influence on germination success than seed age. Seedling development exhibited a conserved seasonal pattern across all species, with synchronized leaf emergence in September and March–July, followed by winter dormancy. Significant intraspecific variation was observed, particularly within P. dactylifera varieties, in both leaf production and final leaf length. These findings provide valuable insights into germplasm preservation and cultivation strategies, demonstrating that while some Phoenix species are suitable for long-term seed banking, others may require alternative conservation approaches. The observed species-specific and variety-specific differences offer important selection criteria for horticultural applications and conservation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Cultivation of Horticultural Crops)

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11 pages, 1254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Root Endophyte Pseudomonas putida A32 in the Protection of Two Pepper Genotypes from Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata

by Aleksandra Mesaroš, Marija Nedeljković, Iva Atanasković, Marija Anđelković, Dario Danojević, Slaviša Stanković and Jelena Lozo

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050536 - 15 May 2025

Endophytes, as an integral part of plants, form unique relationships with their hosts that go beyond classical definitions of symbiosis and influence plant development, immunity, and stress responses. The pepper endophyte strain Pseudomonas putida A32 has several plant growth-promoting properties and increases the [...] Read more.

Endophytes, as an integral part of plants, form unique relationships with their hosts that go beyond classical definitions of symbiosis and influence plant development, immunity, and stress responses. The pepper endophyte strain Pseudomonas putida A32 has several plant growth-promoting properties and increases the tolerance of pepper to drought, but its biocontrol potential is unknown. In this study, we investigated the protective role of P. putida A32 against infection with the pathogenic bacterium P. syringae pv. aptata P21 in two pepper genotypes in laboratory experiments. The percentage of lesion reduction in genotype 26 treated with P. putida A32 was 46.62%. The results showed a significant reduction in hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde levels by 29.45 and 20.22%, respectively, in infected genotype 26. The treated but uninfected controls showed a significant increase in superoxide dismutase activity in genotype 26 by 41.26% and ascorbate peroxidase activity in genotype 19 by 40.28% in the treated infected plants. The tolerant genotype 19 was much less dependent on the bacterial treatment under stress conditions than the susceptible genotype 26. Future research will investigate the role of P. putida A32 in the induced systemic resistance of different pepper genotypes to protect against pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biotic and Abiotic Stress)

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19 pages, 4871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Identification of Regulatory Genes Involved in Light-Induced Anthocyanin Accumulation in Aft Tomato Developing Fruits

by Jiazhen Li, Ji Li, Rui Su, Haifang Yan, Fei Zhao, Qijiang Xu and Bo Zhou

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050535 - 15 May 2025

Anthocyanins, which accumulate in fruits, flowers, and vegetative organs, play a critical role in plant reproduction, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and promoting human health. Although light significantly influences the development of various fruit pigments, the specific mechanisms through which it regulates anthocyanin accumulation [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins, which accumulate in fruits, flowers, and vegetative organs, play a critical role in plant reproduction, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and promoting human health. Although light significantly influences the development of various fruit pigments, the specific mechanisms through which it regulates anthocyanin accumulation during fruit ripening are not yet fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the role of light in anthocyanin biosynthesis using Aft tomato fruits, which accumulate pigments in the epidermis. To explore the effects of light on anthocyanin biosynthesis, half of each fruit was covered with aluminum foil to establish light-exposed and bagged conditions for comparative analysis. The results showed that the bagged treatment led to a significant decrease in the total anthocyanin content of the fruits. Transcriptome analysis revealed a notable upregulation of several structural genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, specifically Sl4CL, SlCHS, SlCHI, SlF3H, SlDFR, and Sl3GT in the light-exposed fruits. Additionally, the expression levels of light-responsive genes and transcription factors, such as SlCRY1, SlSPA, SlUVR3, SlHY5, SlBBX24, SlMYB11, MADS-box transcription factor 23, SlHD-ZIP I/II, SlAN2-like, SlbHLH and SlWD40 proteins, were significantly higher in the light-exposed samples compared to those subjected to the bagged treatment. Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) demonstrated a strong association between light-induced gene expression such as SlPAL, SlCHS1, SlDFR, SlF3H, SlF3′5′H, SlANS, SlHY5, and SlAN2-like quantified by qRT-PCR analysis and anthocyanin biosynthesis. Moreover, as the fruit matured, both anthocyanin accumulation and the expression of genes related to its biosynthetic pathway increased. These findings contribute to a foundational understanding of the regulatory network that influences light-induced processes and fruit development impacting anthocyanin accumulation, which will facilitate in-depth study of the functions of these identified genes and provide a foundation for breeding anthocyanin-rich tomato varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Abiotic Stress or Environmental Influence on Horticultural Traits of Garden Crops)

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28 pages, 27429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Transcriptome Profiling Reveals Differential Defense Responses of Resistant and Susceptible Phalaenopsis to Dickeya fangzhongdai

by Jingjing Xin, Jiyong Tang, Ying Mao, Dongdong Ren, Ping Luo and Yongyi Cui

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050534 - 15 May 2025

Soft rot caused by Dickeya fangzhongdai is a destructive disease in Phalaenopsis production that seriously impacts the quality and yield of Phalaenopsis. To explore the molecular mechanisms underlying disease resistance, transcriptome analysis was conducted on resistant and susceptible Phalaenopsis varieties. By comparing [...] Read more.

Soft rot caused by Dickeya fangzhongdai is a destructive disease in Phalaenopsis production that seriously impacts the quality and yield of Phalaenopsis. To explore the molecular mechanisms underlying disease resistance, transcriptome analysis was conducted on resistant and susceptible Phalaenopsis varieties. By comparing the transcriptomes of the resistant variety ‘ES L20’ and the susceptible variety ‘Zishuijing’ after D. fangzhongdai infection, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses were performed. The results revealed that the differentially expressed genes were mainly enriched in pathways related to plant–pathogen interaction, plant hormone signal transduction, and the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway. In the resistant variety ‘ES L20’, some genes in the Ca²⁺ pathway, PAMP-triggered immunity pathway, and Effector-triggered immunity pathway were significantly up-regulated. Analysis of the transcriptome levels of genes in the phytohormone-related pathways showed that genes associated with IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid signal transduction pathways were all up-regulated in the resistant variety after inoculation. Furthermore, the analysis of genes in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway demonstrated significant up-regulation in the resistant variety. The determination of lignin content validated this result, confirming the crucial role of lignin synthesis in Phalaenopsis defense against soft rot. These findings suggest that the differentially expressed genes in phytopathogenic interaction pathways, along with those involved in hormone-related and lignin synthesis pathways, play important roles in Phalaenopsis resistance to soft rot. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular basis of Phalaenopsis resistance to soft rot and may contribute to the development of effective disease control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Omics Technologies and Regulatory Mechanisms of Ornamental Plants)

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22 pages, 6985 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Provide Insights into Strawberry Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activities Under Varying Ecological Conditions

by Mingzheng Duan, Huaizheng Wang, Kangjian Song, Honggao Liu, Shu Jiang, Jieming Feng, Shiping Jiang, Muhammad Junaid Rao, Abdul Rauf, Muhammad Ikram, Muhammad Faizan Khurram, Maryam Tahira, Shunqiang Yang and Xiande Duan

Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050533 - 14 May 2025

Strawberries are nutrient-rich fruits containing beneficial phytochemicals and bioactive compounds with significant health benefits. Among secondary metabolites, the polyphenolic compounds have been extensively studied. However, limited research exists on bioactive alkaloids in strawberry fruits. Additionally, the local “Akihime” strawberry variety cultivated in the [...] Read more.

Strawberries are nutrient-rich fruits containing beneficial phytochemicals and bioactive compounds with significant health benefits. Among secondary metabolites, the polyphenolic compounds have been extensively studied. However, limited research exists on bioactive alkaloids in strawberry fruits. Additionally, the local “Akihime” strawberry variety cultivated in the high altitude of Zhaotong city is of inferior quality; in contrast, the “Red Face” variety cultivated in the lower altitude of Dandong city demonstrates superior quality attributes. This study aimed to introduce the “Red Face” strawberry variety from the lower altitude region of Dandong to the high altitudes of Zhaotong. The primary objectives were to enhance local strawberry quality and investigate the diversity of alkaloids and their biosynthesis genes in response to varying ecological conditions. In this study, a transcriptomic and LC–MS/MS approach identified several biosynthesis genes, 33 alkaloids, and 38 other bioactive compounds, reported for the first time in the strawberry fruits. Five alkaloids ergotamine, 3-indoleacrylic acid, L-pipecolic acid, 8-hydroxyquinoline, and indole, were abundantly found in both strawberry varieties. Principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis revealed significant variation in the individual alkaloid compounds among the different strawberry varieties and ecological conditions. Cultivation of the “Red Face” variety at high-altitude environments modified the gene expressions and enhanced the total alkaloid contents and the antioxidant activity and capacity of strawberry fruits. Our study concluded that strawberries possess a diversity of bioactive alkaloid compounds, and introducing the “Red Face” variety at high-altitude environments produces superior quality of strawberry fruits with improved total alkaloid contents and antioxidant activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Environmental Changes on Fruit Production)

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