Recent Advances in Biocatalytic Dearomative Spirocyclization Reactions
Activity and Stability Enhancement of Carbonic Anhydrase Entrapped Within Biomimetic Silica by Methyl-Substituted Silanes
Faster Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Microspherical Carbons from Commercial and Biomass-Derived Carbohydrates
A Novel Polymer-Derived Ni/SiOC Catalyst for the Dry Reforming of Methane
Enhanced Oxygen Reduction Reaction Activity of Carbon-Supported Pt-Co Catalysts Prepared by Electroless Deposition and Galvanic Replacement

Journal Description

Catalysts

Catalysts is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of catalysts and catalyzed reactions, published monthly online by MDPI. The Romanian Catalysis Society (RCS) is affiliated with Catalysts and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, CAPlus / SciFinder, CAB Abstracts, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Chemistry, Physical) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Environmental Science )
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Cluster of Chemical Reactions and Catalysis: Catalysts, Chemistry, Electrochem, Inorganics, Molecules, Organics, Oxygen, Photochem, Reactions, Sustainable Chemistry.

Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4344

Latest Articles

30 pages, 1530 KB

Open AccessArticle

Steam-Induced Aluminum Speciation and Catalytic Enhancement in ZSM-5 Zeolites

by Luigi Madeo, Niels Blom, Finn Joensen, Janos B.Nagy and Pierantonio De Luca

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121130 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

ZSM-5 zeolites with varying aluminum content were subjected to steam treatments of different severities by adjusting the temperature, duration, and water vapor pressure. The steamed samples were characterized using a range of analytical techniques. A quantitative assessment of the aluminum species—namely, tetrahedrally coordinated framework Al, dislodged framework Al, non-framework pentacoordinated Al, and non-framework hexacoordinated Al—was achieved through a combination of EDX analysis on Cs-exchanged materials and quantitative ²⁷Al MAS NMR spectroscopy, including spectral simulation. Contrary to previous reports, the catalytic activity per framework Al site in unsteamed ZSM-5 increases with aluminum content at low Si/Al ratios, aligning with recently proposed medium effects. Notably, at the point of maximum activity enhancement due to steaming, equivalent amounts (1:1) of framework and dislodged framework Al—both in tetrahedral coordination—are observed. The maximum enhancement factor per framework Al site, for a given material and reaction, remains independent of the specific steaming conditions (temperature, time, and pressure). However, the degree of activity enhancement varies with the type of reaction: it is more pronounced for n-hexane cracking (α-test) than for m-xylene isomerization. This suggests that both catalyst modification and reaction characteristics contribute to the observed steam-induced activity enhancement. A synergistic interaction between Brønsted and Lewis acid sites appears to underpin these effects. One plausible mechanism involves the strengthening of Brønsted acidity in the presence of adjacent Lewis acid sites. This enhancement is expected to be more significant for n-hexane cracking, which demands higher acid strength compared to m-xylene isomerization. In cases of n-hexane cracking, the increased acid strength and the formation of olefins via reactions on Lewis acid sites may act cooperatively. Importantly, the dislodged framework Al species—tetrahedrally coordinated in the hydrated catalyst at ambient temperature and functioning as Lewis acid sites in the dehydrated zeolite under reaction conditions—are directly responsible for the observed enhancement in acid activity. The transformation of framework Al into dislodged framework Al species is reversible, as demonstrated by hydrothermal treatment of the steamed samples at 150–200 °C. Nonetheless, reinsertion of Al into the framework is not fully quantitative: a portion of the dislodged framework Al is irreversibly converted into non-framework penta- and hexacoordinated species during the hydrothermal process. Among these, non-framework pentacoordinate Al species may serve as counterions to balance the lattice charges associated with framework Al. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zeolites and Zeolite-Based Catalysis: Development, Application and Challenges)

23 pages, 4476 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Methanol Oxidation over Pd-Doped Co- and/or Ag-Based Catalysts: Effect of Impurities (H₂O and CO)

by Eleni Pachatouridou, Angelos Lappas and Eleni Iliopoulou

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121129 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

The methanol oxidation reaction was investigated on Co- and/or Ag-based γ-Al₂O₃ catalysts, which were prepared by different methods (WI: wet impregnation and SI: spray impregnation) and further doped with noble metals (Pd, Pt). During the present study, three different reaction pathways were revealed. The complete oxidation of methanol to CO₂ and H₂O was achieved on Pd-doped catalysts prepared by the spray impregnation method (Pd-Co/Al-SI and Pd-Ag/Al-SI), while partial oxidation to intermediates such as formaldehyde was observed for Ag/alumina catalysts. The dehydration reaction of methanol to dimethyl ether was carried out on Co/alumina, Ag-Co/alumina, and Pt-Co/alumina catalysts. The improved reducibility of the 5Co/Al-SI catalyst with the incorporation of Pd, combined with the easier surface oxygen desorption, resulted in higher catalytic activity compared to the Pt-doped catalyst. On the other hand, the incorporation of Pd into Ag/Al-SI enhanced the well-dispersed Ag₂O species, mainly affecting the structural properties of the catalyst, thus resulting in partial oxidation of methanol. The 0.5 wt.% Pd-5 wt.% Co/γ-Al₂O₃ catalyst, prepared by the spray impregnation method, exhibited the highest methanol oxidation efficiency (T₅₀: 43 °C) and was further evaluated in the presence of H₂O and CO in the feed for several hours on stream and at reaction temperature of 230 °C. The presence of impurities initially reduced the catalyst’s activity from 100% methanol conversion (in the absence of H₂O and CO in the feed) to 80%; however, over time complete methanol oxidation was regained (achieving again 100% methanol conversion after 12 h on stream). Characterization of the used catalyst (after the stability experiment) revealed that in addition to the Co₃O₄ phase, initially formed in the fresh, as-prepared catalyst, some Co₃O₄ species were reduced to CoO under the reaction conditions, suggesting that the active phase of the 0.5Pd-5Co/Al-SI catalyst for the methanol oxidation reaction in the presence of the impurities (such as H₂O and CO) is probably a mixture of Co₃O₄ and CoO phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Catalysis)

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15 pages, 1996 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interplay Between Ionic Liquids, Kolbe Chemistry, and 2D Photocatalyst Supports in Aqueous CO₂ Photoreduction over Pd/TiO₂ and Pd/g-C₃N₄

by Yulan Peng, Pierre-Yves Dugas, Kai-Chung Szeto, Catherine C. Santini and Stéphane Daniele

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121128 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

The photocatalytic reduction of CO₂ in aqueous media offers a sustainable route for solar-to-fuel conversion, yet remains challenged by CO₂’s thermodynamic stability and kinetic inertness, low solubility, and competitive hydrogen evolution. Here, we investigate the interplay between ionic liquids (ILs), photocatalyst supports, and additive composition in directing product selectivity among CO, CH₄, and H₂. Using imidazolium acetate as a benchmark, we demonstrate that ILs not only pre-activate CO₂ but can also undergo decomposition pathways under illumination, notably Kolbe-type reactions leading to methane formation from acetate rather than from CO₂. Comparative studies of Pd-decorated TiO₂ and g-C₃N₄ nanosheets reveal distinct behaviors driven by their interfacial interactions with the imidazolim-based ionic liquid: weak interaction with TiO₂ strongly promotes hydrogen evolution, whereas strong coupling with g-C₃N₄ synergizes with C₁C₄ImOAc to trigger acetate-derived Kolbe reactivity. The systematic evaluation of alternative salts confirms the determinant role of anion basicity and medium-pH-basic anions facilitate CO₂ activation, whereas weakly basic or non-coordinating anions favor water splitting. Overall, these results clarify the dual role of ionic liquids as both CO₂ activators and sacrificial agents, and highlight design principles for improving product selectivity and efficiency in aqueous CO₂ photoreduction systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ionic Liquids and Deep Eutectic Solvents in Catalysis)

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26 pages, 2563 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Advances in Strategies for In Vivo Directed Evolution of Targeted Functional Genes

by Hantong Wu, Lang Yin, Jingwen Chen, Xin Wang and Kequan Chen

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121127 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

Enzymes are indispensable in fields such as biotechnology, medicine, and industrial manufacturing due to their high catalytic specificity and efficiency under mild conditions. However, their natural versions often suffer from limitations, including low activity toward non-natural substrates, poor stability under extreme conditions, and narrow substrate spectra. Directed evolution, a key protein engineering strategy that optimizes protein function via genetic diversity introduction and directed selection, has become the primary solution to these limitations. Among its mature methodological systems, in vivo evolution platforms (advanced by synthetic biology) are particularly efficient, as they integrate in-cell mutation, translation, selection, and replication into an automated process, significantly improving experimental efficiency. This review will focus on two core strategies that enhance these platforms: in vivo targeted gene hypermutation and heterologous polymerase-mediated targeted hypermutation. These techniques enable the rapid optimization of enzymes to acquire novel functions, as well as the comprehensive engineering of microbial strains to enhance their performance and stress tolerance. Analyzing these strategies provides a robust technical framework for enzyme engineering and promises to drive future innovations across multiple fields. Full article

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16 pages, 2157 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Bimetallic Pd- and Co-Containing Mesoporous Carbons as Efficient Reusable Nanocatalysts for Hydrogenations of Nitroarenes and Enones Under Mild and Green Conditions

by Mohamed Enneiymy, Cyril Vaulot, Loïc Vidal, Camelia Matei Ghimbeu, Claude Le Drian and Jean-Michel Becht

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121126 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

Easy and rapid preparations of magnetic Co- and Pd-containing mesoporous carbons (IM1, IM2 and DM) from green phenolic resins, amphiphilic templates and metallic salts via two synthetic routes are reported. Catalysts IM1 and IM2 are prepared via an indirect method involving two steps, i.e., the preparation of Co-containing mesoporous carbons with different Co contents (2.5 and 12.5%) and the further introduction of Pd (2.3%) via impregnation using a solution of a Pd salt and a process of thermal reduction. The mesoporous carbon obtained contains two distinct crystalline metallic phases, i.e., Co particles of 5.0 nm (IM1) and Pd nanoparticles of ~1.3 nm (IM1), while the increase in Co content triggers higher Co particle sizes of 23 nm and Pd particle sizes of 1.3 and 6.8 nm (IM2). Differently, the catalyst DM is prepared via direct synthesis, in one step, including all precursors and both metal salts. This results in Pd₅₀-Co₅₀ nanoalloys of 6.5 nm uniformly dispersed in the carbon matrix. The reactivity and reusability of catalysts IM1, IM2 and DM were then ascertained in organic synthesis for hydrogenations of nitroarenes and enones. It turned out that no reactions were observed in the presence of the catalyst DM due to the presence of Co in Pd₅₀-Co₅₀, which deactivates the catalytic activity of Pd. Gratifyingly, catalysts IM1 and IM2 were very efficient for mild hydrogenations of both nitroarenes and enones using only 5 mequiv. of supported Pd in EtOH at room temperature. The smaller Pd particle sizes (1.3 nm) and the high surface-to-volume area are probably responsible for the high reactivity observed. Catalysts IM1 and IM2 can be recovered by application of an external magnetic field. However, a more efficient magnetic recovery of catalyst IM2 compared to IM1 was observed due to its higher Co content. Catalyst IM2 can be successfully reused at least seven times without a loss of efficiency. Finally, almost-Pd-free products can be obtained directly after reaction without any purification step, since the Pd leaching is very low (<0.1% of the initial amount), thus decreasing waste and increasing the reaction’s efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalyst Immobilization)

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11 pages, 2301 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Selective Dehydration of 1,3-Cyclopentanediol to Cyclopentadiene over Lanthanum Phosphate Catalysts

by Hao Liu, Xing Zhang, Xiannian Sun, Yu Cong and Ning Li

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121125 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

Cyclopentadiene is an important intermediate that is widely used in the production of useful chemicals, high-density aviation fuels and polymers. Conventional technologies for the production of cyclopentadiene from fossil energies suffer from low yield and selectivity. Therefore, the selective production of cyclopentadiene from renewable biomass is highly expected. In this work, a series of metal phosphates were found to be effective solid acid catalysts for the selective synthesis of cyclopentadiene from the dehydration of 1,3-cyclopentanediol, a platform compound that can be obtained from the aqueous phase rearrangement of furfuryl alcohol followed by hydrogenation. Among the investigated catalysts, lanthanum phosphate (LaP) exhibited the best performance. Over it, 100% 1,3-cyclopentanediol conversion and higher than 90% carbon yield of cyclopentadiene were achieved at 473 K under atmospheric pressure. Based on the results of characterization, the excellent performance of LaP catalyst can be rationalized by its higher amount of acid sites and average pore size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Catalytic Conversion of Renewable Materials and Biomass to Sustainable Products and Energy)

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18 pages, 8721 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption and Catalytic Decomposition Mechanism of C₆F₁₂O on Cu Surfaces: A Density Functional Theory Study

by Haoran Xing, Song Lu and Heping Zhang

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121124 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

C₆F₁₂O has been recognized as an environmentally friendly substitute applied in the fire protection, insulation equipment, and refrigeration industry. The stability and catalytic decomposition characteristics of C₆F₁₂O in the presence of metals are crucial for evaluating the applicability of such alternatives across different scenarios and recycling treatment. In this study, the adsorption and decomposition mechanisms of C₆F₁₂O on Cu (1 0 0), Cu (1 1 0), and Cu (1 1 1) surfaces have been investigated based on the density functional theory (DFT). The adsorption structures and energies of C₆F₁₂O and its key dissociation products are investigated to obtain the most stable adsorption configurations. Additionally, the projected density of states (PDOS) and electron density difference calculations are performed to explore the electronic properties of the adsorption systems. Four major dissociation reactions involving the C-C bond breakage of C₆F₁₂O that occurred on Cu surfaces are examined individually, with comparisons made to the corresponding homolytic reactions of free C₆F₁₂O. The results indicate that Cu surfaces exhibit a promising catalytic effect for C₆F₁₂O decomposition, which depends on both the kind of surfaces and the reaction pathway. Furthermore, most decomposition pathways of C₆F₁₂O on Cu surfaces are exothermic and C₆F₁₂O tends to decompose into C₅F₉O and CF₃ under the Cu catalytic effect. Full article

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21 pages, 4825 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synergy in Sonogashira Cross-Coupling Reactions with a Magnetic Janus-Type Catalyst

by Majid Vafaeezadeh, Fatemeh Rajabi, Xuanya Qiu, Marco A. M. Tummeley, Paul Hausbrandt, Sven Schaefer, Alina Ouissa, Anna Demchenko, Johannes L’huillier, Volker Schünemann, Wolfgang Kleist and Werner R. Thiel

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121123 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

This work describes the straightforward synthesis of a novel heterogeneous palladium catalyst immobilized on magnetic Janus-type silica particles coated with an amphiphilic ionic liquid (IL) layer. The material was prepared via a one-pot process wherein TEOS (tetraethoxysilane) and a bis(triethoxysilane) IL precursor are combined to form hollow shells. The IL motifs are selectively located on the outer surface of the hollow particles and serve as centers for the immobilization of palladium species on the material’s surface. The outer surface also hosts magnetic nanoparticles in close proximity to the palladium sites. Thanks to the uniform coverage of the surface with the amphiphilic IL functionality, the material exhibits a well-balanced wettability with reaction components of different polarities. The catalyst’s activity was tested in the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction of terminal acetylenes and iodobenzene derivatives in water as the solvent. The results show that the mixed palladium–iron oxide catalyst exhibits higher activity than materials containing either immobilized palladium or iron oxide alone, suggesting a synergistic effect in this reaction. Additionally, the reaction proceeds well in the absence of expensive organic ligands and commonly employed additives such as copper co-catalysts or phase transfer catalysts. Furthermore, the material was also used in the oxidative Sonogashira coupling reaction of phenylboronic acid and phenylacetylene. The catalyst can be easily separated using an external magnet and can be reused several times. The feasibility of producing diphenylacetylene on a gram scale via the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction was also investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Synthesis of Nanostructured Catalysts, 3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 7287 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Conversion of Syngas to Long-Chain α-Olefins over Rh-Promoted CoMnO_x Catalyst

by Yuting Dai, Xuemin Cao, Fei Qian, Xia Li, Li Zhang, Peng He, Zhi Cao and Chang Song

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121122 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

The direct synthesis of long-chain α-olefins from syngas offers a strategically vital pathway for producing high-value chemicals from alternative carbon resources. However, achieving high selectivity toward C₅₊ olefins remains challenging due to competing paraffin formation and difficulties in precisely regulating chain growth kinetics. To mitigate these critical challenges, a series of Rh-promoted Co-Mn catalysts supported on SiO₂ were synthesized using a carbon-mediated impregnation strategy for the direct conversion of syngas to long-chain α-olefins (C₅₊). The introduction of Rh significantly enhanced both catalytic activity and C₅₊ olefin selectivity. The optimal 1.1 wt% Rh-loaded catalyst achieved 24.6% CO conversion and 46.0% total olefin selectivity, with 34.2% of the selectivity toward C₅₊ olefins, while maintaining low CH₄ (6.2%) and CO₂ (<1%) selectivity. Comprehensive characterization techniques, including XRD, H₂-TPR, XPS, and TEM/HAADF-STEM, revealed that the carbon-mediated method facilitated the formation of highly dispersed Co₃O₄ nanoparticles with abundant oxygen vacancies and strengthened the Co-MnO_x interface. Rh promotion modulated the cobalt speciation (Co⁰/Co²⁺), improved reducibility, and enhanced the metal-support interaction. This promoted chain growth and olefin desorption while suppressing over-hydrogenation. This study demonstrates the efficacy of Rh promotion and carbon mediation in designing high-performance Fischer-Tropsch catalysts for selective α-olefin synthesis, offering new insights into the design of efficient metal-oxide interfacial catalysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in "Industrial Catalysis" Section, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 3864 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Investigation of the Synergistic Aromatization Effect During the Co-Pyrolysis of Wheat Straw and Polystyrene Modulated by an HZSM-5 Catalyst

by Zhenhong Cai, Yongkang Ye, Akash Kumar, Hongwei Rong, Baihui Cui, Fang Zhang and Dabin Guo

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121121 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

To achieve the high-value utilization of agricultural and plastic wastes, the catalytic co-pyrolysis behavior of wheat straw (WS) and polystyrene (PS) was systematically investigated using HZSM-5 zeolite as a catalyst. The results revealed that oxygenates and aliphatic hydrocarbons derived from WS pyrolysis were efficiently converted into aromatics over the HZSM-5 catalyst, increasing the yield of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) from 7.8% to 30.3%. A significant synergistic effect was observed at a WS:PS ratio of 60:40, where the yield of BTX (benzene, toluene, and xylene) reached 41.1%, exceeding the levels achieved from the catalytic pyrolysis of either WS or PS alone. This synergy originates from the reconstruction of reaction pathways: the hydrogen-rich environment generated by PS promoted hydrodeoxygenation of biomass, which suppressed CO₂ formation (−16%) and enhanced carbon atom utilization; meanwhile, HZSM-5 facilitated dealkylation and alkyl transfer reactions, leading to an increase in benzene production (+12%). Moreover, elevating the catalytic temperature helped to inhibit the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and further increased the MAH yield. These findings provide a valuable reference and experimental basis for the synergistic conversion of waste materials into high-value-added aromatics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalytic Valorization and Utilization of Biomass and Biomass Derivatives)

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15 pages, 4264 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Recyclable Magnetic Fe₃O₄-Supported Copper Oxide as Efficient Catalyst for Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-Furanediformic Acid

by Peng Yang, Hualei Hu, Yong Yang, Guojun Lan, Soliman I. El-Hout, Qianquan Fang, Guowen Lu, Chunlin Chen and Jian Zhang

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121120 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

The nano-metal oxide-catalyzed oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) with sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) is an effective and mild technique for synthesizing 2,5-furanediformic acid (FDCA). However, the rapid and large-scale separation of nanocatalysts remains a major challenge. In this study, we developed a magnetic and recyclable copper oxide-based catalyst supported on the mechanochemically synthesized Fe₃O₄. Benefiting from the introduction of the Fe₃O₄ carrier and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) surfactant, the CuO-CTAB/Fe₃O₄ catalyst owns smaller CuO particle sizes, which endows it with excellent catalytic activity in the oxidation of HMF, achieving a high FDCA yield of 90.3%. Furthermore, the rapid magnetic separation of the catalyst effectively inhibits the excessive conversion of FDCA. The recovered catalyst can be reused for at least five cycles without significant loss of catalytic performance, confirming the promising application prospect of the CuO-CTAB/Fe₃O₄ catalyst. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalytic Conversion of Biomass to Chemicals, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2042 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Bi-Dentate Pyridyl Amine-Derived Complexes of Aluminium: Synthesis, Structure and ROP Capability

by Shunsuke Sato, Ignas Motuzis, Mark R. J. Elsegood, Kotohiro Nomura and Carl Redshaw

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121119 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

The pyridylamines 2,6-Me₂C₆H₃NHCR₂-C₅H₅H-2 (R = H, L¹H; Me, L²H) on treatment with Me₃Al (one equivalent) afforded the complexes [Al(Me)₂(L¹)] (1 [...] Read more.

The pyridylamines 2,6-Me₂C₆H₃NHCR₂-C₅H₅H-2 (R = H, L¹H; Me, L²H) on treatment with Me₃Al (one equivalent) afforded the complexes [Al(Me)₂(L¹)] (1) and [Al(Me)₂L²] (2), respectively. Use of excess L¹H led to [Al(Me)(L¹)₂] (3). The molecular structures of 1–3 are reported, and the three complexes, as well as the parent compounds L¹H and L²H, have been screened, in the presence of benzyl alcohol (BnOH), as catalysts for the ring opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone and δ-valerolactone. Results revealed that these ROPs proceed in a controlled nature (Đ ≤ 1.33 for ε-CL and ≤1.48 for δ-VL) in the process without catalyst deactivation, whilst the products formed were predominantly linear with OBn/OH end groups; L¹H and L²H exhibited little or no activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th Anniversary of Catalysts: Shaping a Sustainable Future Through Catalysis)

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15 pages, 3423 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Rapid Preparation of g-C₃N₄/GO Composites via Electron Beam Irradiation for Enhanced Ofloxacin Removal

by Zhiying Li, Shaohua Guo, Beibei Ni, Zhuopeng Lin, Tao Han, Denghui Wang, Jianqiu Lei and Ning Liu

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121118 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

In this study, a highly efficient graphitic carbon nitride/graphene oxide (X kGy-g-C₃N₄/GO, X: mean different irradiation dose of 200, 300, 400, and 500 kGy) adsorbent was successfully prepared by electron beam irradiation method (EBR) and used for the adsorption of ofloxacin (OFL). Structure and morphology characterization results confirmed the successful composite of g-C₃N₄ and GO through EBR. The effects of various conditions on the adsorption capacity, including irradiation dose, pH, adsorbent dosage, and initial OFL concentration were analyzed in detail through experiments. Results indicated that 400 kGy-g-C₃N₄/GO exhibited the maximum adsorption capacity for OFL (222.0 mg·g⁻¹), and the adsorption performance was affected by pH through electrostatic interactions, reaching optimum at pH = 7.0. Coexisting ion experiments revealed that CO₃²⁻ reduced OFL adsorption capacity. The adsorption isotherm and kinetics were best described by the Langmuir model (R² = 0.984) and pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.995), respectively. Thermodynamic studies of adsorption indicated a spontaneous and exothermic in adsorption process (∆G⁰ = −25.21, ∆S⁰ = 0.050, and ∆H⁰ = −10.25). This research provides a fresh approach to the reasonable design of g-C₃N₄/GO composites as adsorbent with potential applications in OFL wastewater treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Catalytic Materials for Water and Air Treatment)

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13 pages, 5810 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Cobalt Nanoparticle-Modified Boron Nitride Nanobelts for Rapid Tetracycline Degradation via PMS Activation

by Pengcheng Dai, Xiangjian Wang, Yongxin Zhao, Huishan Chen, Hui Zhao, Longzhen Cheng, Longxi Xu and Zeyu Zhang

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121117 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

Tetracycline (TC), a widely used antibiotic, persists in aquatic environments due to its chemical stability, bioaccumulation potential, and role in promoting antimicrobial resistance, posing significant ecological and public health risks. To address the pressing need for effective wastewater treatment technologies, a cobalt nanoparticle-embedded boron nitride nanocomposite (Co/BN) was developed for efficient peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation. Among the synthesized catalysts, Co/BN-1 exhibited outstanding performance, achieving near-complete TC degradation within 5 min under mild conditions, along with excellent stability and reusability over four consecutive cycles, accompanied by minimal cobalt leaching. Mechanistic studies combining radical scavenging assays and LC-MS analysis revealed the involvement of both radical species (SO₄⁻ and OH) and non-radical pathways (¹O₂), highlighting a synergistic effect between Co nanoparticles and the BN matrix. This work demonstrates the feasibility of Co/BN composites as highly efficient, stable, and eco-friendly catalysts for sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes (SR-AOPs), providing a promising strategy for the rapid and sustainable removal of antibiotic pollutants from water systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalysis and New Energy Materials)

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12 pages, 4106 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Dynamic Self-Adaptive Behavior of Photocatalysts

by Tianyang Li, Jichuang Wu, Shufang Zhao, Wenlan Ji, Zhongyi Liu, Jinpeng Li, Young Dok Kim and Wenlei Zhang

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121116 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

Harnessing solar energy directly through photocatalysis is an effective approach to addressing the energy crisis and environmental pollution. This green technology enables both sustainable energy production and the removal of environmental contaminants simultaneously. Heterojunction photocatalysts demonstrate superior performance by enhancing light utilization efficiency and inhibiting the recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. The reconstruction of active sites in heterojunction photocatalysts, encompassing changes in their valence states and coordination environments, has been extensively studied. However, the unique structural self-adaptive phenomenon displayed by heterojunction photocatalysts that incorporate flexible components during the photocatalysis process has not been extensively investigated. Indeed, this intriguing self-adaptive behavior may be closely linked to their photocatalytic properties. Extensive studies indicate that this structural self-adaptation is predominantly driven by flexible materials, with flexible metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) finding particularly broad application. Based on this understanding, we briefly summarize and offer insights into the structural design and fundamental principles of such photocatalytic heterojunction catalysts while also providing an outlook for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Applications of Heterogeneous Catalysis in Energy Utilization)

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34 pages, 2364 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Development of TiO₂ Films by Sol–Gel/Sedimentation for the Inactivation of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium in Greywater

by Luz Adriana Rincón-Barón, María Paula Forero-Carvajal, Laura Gabriela Ramírez-Alemán, Augusto Enrique Mejía-Gómez, Juan Carlos Salcedo-Reyes, Ana Karina Carrascal-Camacho, Camilo Velez and Aura Marina Pedroza-Rodríguez

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121115 - 30 Nov 2025

Abstract

Crystalline TiO₂ films were synthesized on hydrophilic glass substrates by Peroxo sol–gel and sedimentation (S1–S4) and compared with conventional sol–gel protocols (S5–S10). The films were deposited on soda-lime glass and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and UV–Vis absorption. Photocatalytic activity was evaluated through the inactivation of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, and the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from greywater under UV irradiation. The obtained films exhibited anatase crystallinity, crystallite sizes of ~60 nm, and grain sizes between 1.5 and 3.0 µm. S1 films showed a bandgap of 3.26 eV (380 nm). Under UV exposure, S1 reduced E. coli and S. Typhimurium by 4.78 and 3.00 Log₁₀ units, respectively, at pH 5.0 after 30 min, while COD decreased to 380 mg L⁻¹ compared to 433 mg L⁻¹ with UV photolysis alone. Increasing TiO₂ loading and extending irradiation to 120 min further enhanced bacterial inactivation (93 and 78% for E. coli and S. Typhimurium), COD (33%), NH₄⁺ (90%), and H₂S (89%) oxidation, outperforming UV-light controls. These results indicate that S1 films exhibited superior crystallinity, photocatalytic performance, and bacterial inactivation compared to other protocols, although complete mineralization was not achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photocatalytic Degradation)

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24 pages, 4123 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Simultaneous Catalytic Removal of NO_x and VOCs: From Mechanism to Modification Strategy

by Zhongliang Tian, Xingjie Ding, Hua Pan, Qingquan Xue, Jun Chen and Chi He

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121114 - 30 Nov 2025

Abstract

Simultaneous catalytic elimination of nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) represents a promising technology for addressing the synergistic pollution of fine particulate matters of <2.5 μm diameter (PM_2.5) and O₃. Nevertheless, it has been maintaining significant challenges in practical implementation, particularly the inherent mismatch in temperature windows between NO_x reduction and VOCs oxidation pathways, coupled with catalyst poisoning and deactivation phenomena. These limitations have hindered the industrial application of bifunctional catalysts for the removal of concurrent pollutant. This review systematically explored the fundamental mechanisms and functional roles of active sites in controlling synchronous catalytic processes. The mechanism of catalyst deactivation caused by multiple toxic substances has been comprehensively analyzed, including sulfur dioxide (SO₂), water vapor (H₂O), chlorine-containing species (Cl*), reaction by-products, and heavy metal contaminants. Furthermore, we critically evaluated the strategies of doping regulation, nanostructure engineering and morphology optimization to enhance the performance and toxicity resistance of catalysts. Meanwhile, emerging regeneration techniques and reactor design optimizations are discussed as potential solutions to improve the durability of catalysts. Based on the above critical aspects, this review aims to provide insights and guidelines for developing robust catalytic systems capable of controlling multi-pollutants in practical applications, and to offer theoretical guidance and technical solutions to bridge the gap between laboratory research and industrial environmental governance applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Environmental Catalysis for a Sustainable Future)

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22 pages, 8462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Spent Bio-Adsorbents into High-Performance Eco-Friendly Anodes for Direct Urea Fuel Cells

by Samar M. Mahgoub, Ahmed A. Allam, Hala Mohamed, Hassan A. Rudayni, Rehab Mahmoud, Kholoud Khaled Mohammed and Amal Zaher

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121113 - 29 Nov 2025

Abstract

The commercialization of direct urea fuel cells (DUFCs) is hampered by the scarcity of low-cost, high-performance electrocatalysts for the urea oxidation reaction (UOR), while water treatment processes generate spent adsorbents as a secondary waste. This study presents a circular economy solution by transforming a waste product—spent progesterone-loaded Reishi mushroom biosorbents—into high-performance anodes for DUFCs. We demonstrate that the thermal conversion of Ganoderma lucidum into biochar (Biochar/RM), followed by its “activation” through progesterone (PG) adsorption, creates a superior electrocatalytic composite (Biochar/RM/PG). Electrochemical evaluation revealed that this spent adsorbent delivers an exceptional UOR activity, achieving a peak current density of 225.52 mA cm⁻², which is 79% higher than its pristine counterpart. This enhancement is driven by a unique synergy: the biochar provides a conductive, porous framework, while the thermally transformed PG acts as an in situ dopant, creating nitrogen-rich active sites and optimizing the surface architecture for urea electro-oxidation. The catalyst further demonstrated remarkable operational stability over 3600 s. This work establishes a pioneering “waste-to-wealth” strategy, simultaneously addressing the challenges of pharmaceutical wastewater management and the need for sustainable energy materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Electrocatalysis)

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17 pages, 2255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism Investigation of Solvent Effect on Selective Decomposition of Formic Acid

by Zheyuan Zhang, Jianrong Shan, Feng Shen, Fukuan Li and Haixin Guo

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121112 - 29 Nov 2025

Abstract

The selective decomposition of formic acid to hydrogen gas represents a highly promising strategy for sustainable energy production. The influence of solvent effects on the selective decomposition of formic acid into H₂ and CO₂ or H₂O and CO was investigated. A variety of solvents, including polar protic solvents (e.g., water, ethanol, methanol), polar aprotic solvents (e.g., tetrahydrofuran, dimethyl sulfoxide), and ionic liquids, were employed in conjunction with a 5 wt% Pd/C catalyst. The yield of formic acid decomposition and the turnover number (TON) were found to be dependent on the choice of solvent. To elucidate the solvent effects, classical solvent parameters and Kamlet–Taft solvatochromic parameters were studied. The study revealed correlations between the TON and the solubility of hydrogen, Kamlet–Taft parameters (acidity, basicity, and polarity/dipolarity), hydrogen bond donor (HBD) capability, and hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) capacity. The solvent identity was found to play a dominant role in both the polarity/dipolarity and the catalytic mechanism of formic acid decomposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heterogeneous Catalysis in China: New Horizons and Recent Advances)

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17 pages, 6647 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Nickel Content on a NiMoS Catalyst for Deep Hydrodearomatisation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

by Qianmin Jiang, Da Wu, Shuandi Hou, Zixian Jia and Zhentao Chen

Catalysts 2025, 15(12), 1111; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15121111 - 29 Nov 2025

Abstract

A series of NiMo catalysts with a low MoO₃/NiO mass ratio were prepared by introducing SiO₂ and Ni during the formation of the support. The supports were improved by adding SiO₂ to optimise the surface acidity properties, regulate the main structure of the NiMoS active phase, reduce the formation proportion of NiAl₂O₄, and improve the utilisation rate of Ni. The catalysts were improved by increasing the Ni content to adjust the Ni/Mo atomic ratio at the edge and corner positions of the NiMoS active phase to promote the generation and transfer of activated hydrogen. The NiMoS phase with high Ni content achieved good dispersion on the catalyst surface, reaching the highest hydrogenation saturation depth of aromatic hydrocarbon when the MoO₃/NiO mass ratio is 3 and the SiO₂ content is 5 wt.%. The catalysts with high Ni content also exhibit high activity and stability in removing Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) during hydrotreating. Increasing the Ni content of the catalyst helps to remove impurities such as S and N from the residual oil. Full article

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