Journal Description
Sustainable Chemistry
Sustainable Chemistry
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published quarterly by MDPI.
- Open Access—free to download, share, and reuse content. Authors receive recognition for their contribution when the paper is reused.
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision provided to authors approximately 18.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2021).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
- Sustainable Chemistry is a companion journal of Sustainability.
subject
Imprint Information
Open Access
ISSN: 2673-4079
Latest Articles
Alkyl Levulinates from Furfuryl Alcohol Using CT151 Purolite as Heterogenous Catalyst: Optimization, Purification, and Recycling
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(3), 493-505; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030027 - 13 Aug 2021
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Commercially available Purolite CT151 demonstrated to be an efficient acid catalyst for the synthesis of alkyl levulinates via alcoholysis of furfuryl alcohol (FA) at mild temperatures (80–120 °C) and short reaction time (5 h). Reaction conditions were first optimized for the synthesis of
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Commercially available Purolite CT151 demonstrated to be an efficient acid catalyst for the synthesis of alkyl levulinates via alcoholysis of furfuryl alcohol (FA) at mild temperatures (80–120 °C) and short reaction time (5 h). Reaction conditions were first optimized for the synthesis of ethyl levulinate and then tested for the preparation of methyl-, propyl-, isopropyl-, butyl, sec-butyl- and allyl levulinate. Preliminary scale-up tests were carried out for most of the alkyl levulinates (starting from 5.0 g of FA) and the resulting products were isolated as pure by distillation in good yields (up to 63%). Furthermore, recycling experiments, conducted for the preparation of ethyl levulinate, showed that both the Purolite CT151 and the exceeding ethanol can be recovered and reused for four consecutive runs without any noticeable loss in the catalyst activity.
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Open AccessReview
Terpenes and Terpenoids: Building Blocks to Produce Biopolymers
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, , , , , , , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(3), 467-492; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030026 - 12 Aug 2021
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Polymers are essential materials in our daily life. The synthesis of value-added polymers is mainly performed from fossil fuel-derived monomers. However, the adoption of the circular economy model based on the bioeconomy will reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. In this context, biorefineries
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Polymers are essential materials in our daily life. The synthesis of value-added polymers is mainly performed from fossil fuel-derived monomers. However, the adoption of the circular economy model based on the bioeconomy will reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. In this context, biorefineries have emerged to convert biomass into bioenergy and produce high value-added products, including molecules that can be further used as building blocks for the synthesis of biopolymers and bioplastics. The achievement of catalytic systems able to polymerize the natural monomer counterparts, such as terpenes or terpenoids, is still a challenge in the development of polymers with good mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. This review describes the most common types of bioplastics and biopolymers and focuses specifically on the polymerization of terpenes and terpenoids, which represent a source of promising monomers to create bio-based polymers and copolymers.
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Open AccessReview
Grape Infusions: Between Nutraceutical and Green Chemistry
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Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(3), 441-466; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030025 - 05 Aug 2021
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By tradition, herbal infusions have been mainly consumed for their pleasant taste, but, nowadays, the consumer, along with the pleasantness of drinking a savory beverage, also looks for their health benefits. Grapes and grape/wine by-products are a rich source of health-promoting compounds, presenting
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By tradition, herbal infusions have been mainly consumed for their pleasant taste, but, nowadays, the consumer, along with the pleasantness of drinking a savory beverage, also looks for their health benefits. Grapes and grape/wine by-products are a rich source of health-promoting compounds, presenting great potential for the development of new beverages. Moreover, grape-infusion preparation is no more than a sustainable or green way of extracting polyphenols and other nutraceutical compounds from grapes and grape leaves. In this review, we summarize the benefits of drinking grape infusions and discuss the sustainable processes of extracting potential nutraceutical compounds from grapes and grape by-products, which are often considered fermentation waste and are discarded to the environment without proper treatment.
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Open AccessReview
Redox Active Organic-Carbon Composites for Capacitive Electrodes: A Review
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(3), 407-440; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030024 - 28 Jul 2021
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The pressing concerns of environmental sustainability and growing needs of clean energy have raised the demands of carbon and organic based energy storage materials to a higher level. Redox-active organic-carbon composites electrodes are emerging to be enablers for high-performance, high power and long-lasting
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The pressing concerns of environmental sustainability and growing needs of clean energy have raised the demands of carbon and organic based energy storage materials to a higher level. Redox-active organic-carbon composites electrodes are emerging to be enablers for high-performance, high power and long-lasting energy storage solutions, especially for electrochemical capacitors (EC). This review discusses the electrochemical redox active organic compounds and their composites with various carbonaceous materials focusing on capacitive performance. Starting with the most common conducting polymers, we expand the scope to other emerging redox active molecules, compounds and polymers as well as common carbonaceous substrates in composite electrodes, including graphene, carbon nanotube and activated carbon. We then discuss the first-principles computational studies pertaining to the interactions between the components in the composites. The fabrication methodologies for the composites with thin organic coatings are presented with their merits and shortcomings. The capacitive performances and features of the redox active organic-carbon composite electrodes are then summarized. Finally, we offer some perspectives and future directions to achieve a fundamental understanding and to better design organic-carbon composite electrodes for ECs.
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Open AccessArticle
Greenness Assessment and Synthesis for the Bio-Based Production of the Solvent 2,2,5,5-Tetramethyloxolane (TMO)
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(3), 392-406; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2030023 - 28 Jul 2021
Abstract
2,2,5,5-tetramethyloxolane (TMO) has recently been identified and demonstrated as a safer solvent to replace toluene, THF, and hydrocarbons in a handful of applications. Herein, several bio-based routes to TMO are presented and assessed for greenness, assisted by the CHEM21 Metrics Toolkit and BioLogicTool
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2,2,5,5-tetramethyloxolane (TMO) has recently been identified and demonstrated as a safer solvent to replace toluene, THF, and hydrocarbons in a handful of applications. Herein, several bio-based routes to TMO are presented and assessed for greenness, assisted by the CHEM21 Metrics Toolkit and BioLogicTool plots. Using glucose as a common starting point, two chemocatalytic routes and two biochemical routes to TMO were identified and the pathways compared using the aforementioned tools. In addition, bio-based TMO was synthesised via one of these routes; from methyl levulinate supplied by Avantium, a by-product of the sugar dehydration step during the production of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid. First, methyl levulinate underwent triple methylation using methyl magnesium chloride (MeMgCl) to yield 2,5-dimethylhexane-2,5-diol (DHL) in high yields of 89.7%. Then DHL was converted to high purity TMO (>98.5%) by cyclodehydration using H-BEA zeolites based on the previously reported approach. Bio-based content of this TMO was confirmed by ASTM D6866-20 Method B and found to have 64% bio-based carbon, well above the threshold of 25% set by CEN/TC 411 standards and matching the anticipated content. This study represents the first demonstration of a bio-based synthesis of TMO and confirmation of bio-content by accepted standards.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemicals and Materials from Lignocellulose: From Biomass to End Products)
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Removing Simultaneously Sulfur and Nitrogen from Fuel under a Sustainable Oxidative Catalytic System
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, , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 382-391; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020022 - 19 Jun 2021
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An effective process to remove nitrogen-based compounds from fossil fuels without harming the process of sulfur removal is an actual gap in refineries. A success combination of desulfurization and denitrogenation processes capable of completely removing the most environmental contaminates in diesel under sustainable
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An effective process to remove nitrogen-based compounds from fossil fuels without harming the process of sulfur removal is an actual gap in refineries. A success combination of desulfurization and denitrogenation processes capable of completely removing the most environmental contaminates in diesel under sustainable conditions was achieved in this work, applying polyoxometalates as catalysts, hydrogen peroxide as oxidant, and an immiscible ionic liquid as an extraction solvent. The developed process based in simultaneous oxidative desulfurization (ODS) and oxidative denitrogenation (ODN) involved initial extraction of sulfur and nitrogen compounds followed by catalytic oxidation. Keggin-type polyoxomolybdates revealed much higher reusing capacity than the related polyoxotungstate. Effectively, the first catalysts practically allowed complete sulfur and nitrogen removal only in 1 h of reaction and for ten consecutive cycles, maintaining the original catalyst and ionic liquid samples.
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Open AccessEditorial
Sustainable Chemistry—A New Open Access Journal
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020021 - 16 Jun 2021
Abstract
There are many issues facing society, such as energy/food/water security, plastic pollution, antibiotic resistance, global warming and the COVID-19 pandemic [...]
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Open AccessReview
Environmental Contamination and Human Exposure to Select Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Review
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 343-380; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020020 - 31 May 2021
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Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are exogenous compounds that interfere with the normal hormone functions and ultimately lead to health disorders. Parabens, phenols, and phthalates are well-known EDCs, produced globally in large quantities and widely used in a variety of applications. Several studies have monitored
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Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are exogenous compounds that interfere with the normal hormone functions and ultimately lead to health disorders. Parabens, phenols, and phthalates are well-known EDCs, produced globally in large quantities and widely used in a variety of applications. Several studies have monitored these compounds in a variety of environmental matrices, including air, water, sediment, fish, human tissues, soil, indoor dust, and biosolids, etc. In recent years, environmental contamination and human exposure to these chemicals have become a great concern, due to their residue levels exceeding the permissible/acceptable limits. In this review, we focus on the origin of these EDCs, aquatic contamination pathways, distribution, human exposure, health implications, and healthcare costs. Further, this review identifies critical challenges and future research needs in removing or minimizing environmental contamination and exposure to these chemicals to protect living resources.
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Open AccessArticle
Synthesis and Characterization of a New Organocatalytic Biosourced Surfactant
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, , , , , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 335-342; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020019 - 07 May 2021
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This article describes the synthesis of a new bio-based organocatalytic surfactant. The nine steps of the synthesis were optimized, fully respecting the principles of green chemistry. The surfactant aspect was then evaluated with the use of tensiometric studies. The molecular organization of the
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This article describes the synthesis of a new bio-based organocatalytic surfactant. The nine steps of the synthesis were optimized, fully respecting the principles of green chemistry. The surfactant aspect was then evaluated with the use of tensiometric studies. The molecular organization of the surfactant in vesicles in an aqueous medium was characterized by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and confirmed using Density Functional Theory (DFT) modelling.
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Open AccessArticle
Longevity of Raw and Lyophilized Crude Urease Extracts
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 325-334; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020018 - 06 May 2021
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The stability (longevity of activity) of three crude urease extracts was evaluated in a laboratory study as part of an effort to reduce the cost of urease for applications that do not require high purity enzyme. A low-cost, stable source of urease will
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The stability (longevity of activity) of three crude urease extracts was evaluated in a laboratory study as part of an effort to reduce the cost of urease for applications that do not require high purity enzyme. A low-cost, stable source of urease will greatly facilitate engineering applications of urease such as biocementation of soil. Inexpensive crude extracts of urease have been shown to be effective at hydrolyzing urea for carbonate precipitation. However, some studies have suggested that the activity of a crude extract may decrease with time, limiting the potential for its mass production for commercial applications. The stability of crude urease extracts shown to be effective for biocementation was studied. The crude extracts were obtained from jack beans via a simple extraction process, stored at room temperature and at 4 ℃, and periodically tested to evaluate their stability. To facilitate storage and transportation of the extracted enzyme, the longevity of the enzyme following freeze drying (lyophilization) to reduce the crude extract to a powder and subsequent re-hydration into an aqueous solution was evaluated. In an attempt to improve the shelf life of the lyophilized extract, dextran and sucrose were added during lyophilization. The stability of purified commercial urease following rehydration was also investigated. Results of the laboratory tests showed that the lyophilized crude extract maintained its activity during storage more effectively than either the crude extract solution or the rehydrated commercial urease. While incorporating 2% dextran (w/v) prior to lyophilization of the crude extract increased the overall enzymatic activity, it did not enhance the stability of the urease during storage.
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Open AccessReview
Continuous Valorization of Glycerol into Solketal: Recent Advances on Catalysts, Processes, and Industrial Perspectives
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 286-324; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020017 - 21 Apr 2021
Cited by 1
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With the global biodiesel production growing as never seen before, encouraged by government policies, fiscal incentives, and emissions laws to control air pollution, there has been the collateral effect of generating massive amounts of crude glycerol, a by-product from the biodiesel industry. The
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With the global biodiesel production growing as never seen before, encouraged by government policies, fiscal incentives, and emissions laws to control air pollution, there has been the collateral effect of generating massive amounts of crude glycerol, a by-product from the biodiesel industry. The positive effect of minimizing CO2 emissions using biofuels is jeopardized by the fact that the waste generated by this industry represents an enormous environmental disadvantage. The strategy of viewing “waste as a resource” led the scientific community to propose numerous processes that use glycerol as raw material. Solketal, the product of the reaction of glycerol and acetone, stands out as a promising fuel additive capable of enhancing fuel octane number and oxidation stability, diminishing particle emissions and gum formation, and enhancing properties at low temperatures. The production of this chemical can rely on several of the Green Chemistry principles, besides fitting the Circular Economy Model, once it can be reinserted in the biofuel production chain. This paper reviews the recent advances in solketal production, focusing on continuous production processes and on Process Intensification strategies. The performance of different catalysts under various operational conditions is summarized and the proposed industrial solketal production processes are compared.
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Open AccessReview
Lignocellulosic-Based Sorbents: A Review
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 271-285; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020016 - 10 Apr 2021
Cited by 1
Abstract
The combustion of fossil fuels is intensifying global warming and destructing the ecosystem with negative human health impacts as well. Even so, other anthropogenic activities have unfortunately constituted pollution also to our environment, say, in the form of waste waters. Beside these, the
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The combustion of fossil fuels is intensifying global warming and destructing the ecosystem with negative human health impacts as well. Even so, other anthropogenic activities have unfortunately constituted pollution also to our environment, say, in the form of waste waters. Beside these, the existing technologies for waste water treatment have problems such as high costs, sludge disposal challenges, etc. Thus, it is now important to find economically viable and safe alternatives to decontaminate waste waters. Hence, low cost, renewable, easily accessible, and readily prepared biosorbents have become favourable alternatives to traditional counterpart for the elimination of pollutants from aqueous systems. Fortunately, these biosorbents also have requisite and comparable properties necessary for adsorption of pollutants. Many studies have been reported on the application of biosorbents for pollutants removal. However, this paper provides an overview of biosorbents preparation, properties, their applications in pollutants removal and related use. Biosorbents are usually used in raw or processed forms such as activated carbon (AC), biobar (BC), and charcoal (CC) for removal of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, organics, inorganics, mycotoxins, etc. from aqueous systems. Besides classical sorption of the pollutants, biosorbents have prospect of applications as electrodes in the microbial fuel cells, green packaging materials, energy storage devices, catalysts, soil remediation agent, carbon sequestration, etc. Hence, further concerted investigations should be exercised to develop feasibly best conditions for the preparations and modifications of biosorbents. In addition, mean pore size, pore size distribution, porosity, surface functionality, and zeta potential studies are necessary to be had about biosorbents, especially novel types. There is need for development of biosorbents for specific tasks. Another essential thing is to determine desorption studies of these novel biosorbents. Focus should also be directed on more economically viable and sustainable biosorbents to enhance their use. Again, it is suggested that more suitable biomasses be identified to enable successful preparation of efficient biosorbents. More so, biosorbents can be recycled after use to avoid littering and possible pollution.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemicals and Materials from Lignocellulose: From Biomass to End Products)
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Open AccessReview
Green Chemistry Approach for Fabrication of Polymer Composites
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, , , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 254-270; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020015 - 09 Apr 2021
Abstract
Solvents are an inevitable part of industries. They are widely used in manufacturing and processing industries. Despite the numerous controlling measures taken, solvents contaminate our environment to a vast extent. Green and sustainable solvents have been a matter of growing interest within the
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Solvents are an inevitable part of industries. They are widely used in manufacturing and processing industries. Despite the numerous controlling measures taken, solvents contaminate our environment to a vast extent. Green and sustainable solvents have been a matter of growing interest within the research community over the past few years due to the increasing environmental concerns. Solvents are categorized as “green” based on their nonvolatility, nonflammability, availability, biodegradability and so on. The use of ionic liquids, super critical carbon dioxide and aqueous solvents for the fabrication of polymer composites is discussed in this review. The progress of utilizing solvent-free approaches for polymer composite preparation and efforts to produce new biobased solvents are also summarized.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry)
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Open AccessArticle
Food Waste Digestate-Based Biorefinery Approach for Rhamnolipids Production: A Techno-Economic Analysis
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, , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 237-253; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020014 - 08 Apr 2021
Abstract
The present work evaluates the techno-economic feasibility of a rhamnolipids production process that utilizes digestate from anaerobic digestion (AD) of food waste. Technical feasibility, profitability and extent of investment risks between fermenter scale and its operating strategy for rhamnolipids production was investigated in
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The present work evaluates the techno-economic feasibility of a rhamnolipids production process that utilizes digestate from anaerobic digestion (AD) of food waste. Technical feasibility, profitability and extent of investment risks between fermenter scale and its operating strategy for rhamnolipids production was investigated in the present study. Three scenarios were generated and compared: production using a single large fermenter (Scenario I), using two small fermenters operated alternately (Scenario II) or simultaneously (Scenario III). It was found that all the scenarios were economically feasible, and Scenario III was the most profitable since it allowed the most optimum fermenter operation with utilization of multiple small-scale equipment to reduce the downtime of each equipment and increase the production capacity and overall productivity. It had the highest net present value, internal rate of return and shortest payback time at a discount rate of 7%. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to indicate how the variation in factors such as feedstock (digestate) cost, rhamnolipids selling price, extractant recyclability and process capacity influenced the process economics. The work provides important insights on techno-economic performance of a food waste digestate valorization process which would be useful to guide its sustainable scale-up.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable (Bio)Chemical Processes for Lignocellulosic and Lipid Waste Biomass Valorization to Fuels, Chemicals and Materials)
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Open AccessArticle
Alkali Iodide Deep Eutectic Solvents as Alternative Electrolytes for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(2), 222-236; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2020013 - 06 Apr 2021
Abstract
Different alkali deep eutectic solvents (DES), such as LiI:nEG, NaI:nEG, and KI:nEG, have been tested as electrolytes for dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). These DSSCs were prepared using pure DES or, alternatively, DES combined with different amounts of iodine (I2). The
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Different alkali deep eutectic solvents (DES), such as LiI:nEG, NaI:nEG, and KI:nEG, have been tested as electrolytes for dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). These DSSCs were prepared using pure DES or, alternatively, DES combined with different amounts of iodine (I2). The most important parameters, such as open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current density (JSC), fill factor (FF), and the overall conversion efficiency (η), were evaluated. Some DES seem to be promising candidates for DSSC applications, since they present higher VOC (up to 140 mV), similar FF values but less current density values, when compared with a reference electrolyte in the same experimental conditions. Additionally, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) has been performed to elucidate the charge transfer and transport processes that occur in DSSCs. The values of different resistance (Ω·cm2) phenomena and recombination/relaxation time (s) for each process have been calculated. The best-performance was obtained for DES-based electrolyte, KI:EG (containing 0.5 mol% I2) showing an efficiency of 2.3%. The efficiency of this DES-based electrolyte is comparable to other literature systems, but the device stability is higher (only after seven months the performance of the device drop to 60%).
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry)
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Open AccessArticle
Synthesis of Biodiesel from Tall Oil Fatty Acids by Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(1), 206-221; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010012 - 10 Mar 2021
Cited by 3
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This study compared the yield of biodiesel produced from tall oil fatty acids (TOFA) via (i) homogeneous catalyst (sulfuric acid) and (ii) a heterogeneous catalyst (Amberlyst® BD20, together with Ambersep BD 19 (Midcontinental Chemical Co., Olathe, KS, USA)® using a batch
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This study compared the yield of biodiesel produced from tall oil fatty acids (TOFA) via (i) homogeneous catalyst (sulfuric acid) and (ii) a heterogeneous catalyst (Amberlyst® BD20, together with Ambersep BD 19 (Midcontinental Chemical Co., Olathe, KS, USA)® using a batch reactor. The effect of operation conditions including temperature, catalyst concentration, methanol: oil ratio and reaction time on esterification yield were investigated. Gas chromatographic data showed that the major fatty acids present in the TOFA are oleic acid (C18:1n9) and linoleic acid (C18:2n6). Homogenous catalysis yielded 96.76% biodiesel compared to 90.24% for heterogeneous catalysis. Optimized conditions for homogenous catalysis were at a catalyst concentration of 0.5 w/w%, 15:1 methanol: oil mass ratio at 55 °C for 60 min. FTIR results also showed that the homogeneous catalyst yielded a more complete reaction toward biodiesel production in a shorter time (60 min) compared to the heterogeneous catalyst (4.7 h). For heterogeneous catalysis, the highest yield and the lowest acid value were achieved after a second recycling because the reactants were not fully in contact with the catalyst during the first recycling. The catalyst did not show a reduction in catalytic activity even after the fourth recycling. However, the acid value was higher than that for ASTM standards for biodiesel.
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Open AccessReview
A Review on Battery Market Trends, Second-Life Reuse, and Recycling
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, , , , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(1), 167-205; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010011 - 09 Mar 2021
Cited by 5
Abstract
The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the next few years as these batteries reach end-of-life. Battery reuse and recycling are
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The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the next few years as these batteries reach end-of-life. Battery reuse and recycling are becoming urgent worldwide priorities to protect the environment and address the increasing need for critical metals. As a review article, this paper reveals the current global battery market and global battery waste status from which the main battery chemistry types and their management, including reuse and recycling status, are discussed. This review then presents details of the challenges, opportunities, and arguments on battery second-life and recycling. The recent research and industrial activities in the battery reuse domain are summarized to provide a landscape picture and valuable insight into battery reuse and recycling for industries, scientific research, and waste management.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy in Energy Storage Materials)
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Open AccessArticle
Unveiling the Influence of Non-Toxic Fluorinated Ionic Liquids Aqueous Solutions in the Encapsulation and Stability of Lysozyme
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(1), 149-166; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010010 - 04 Mar 2021
Abstract
Proteins are bioactive compounds with high potential to be applied in the biopharmaceutical industry, food science and as biocatalysts. However, protein stability is very difficult to maintain outside of the native environment, which hinders their applications. Fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs) are a promising
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Proteins are bioactive compounds with high potential to be applied in the biopharmaceutical industry, food science and as biocatalysts. However, protein stability is very difficult to maintain outside of the native environment, which hinders their applications. Fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs) are a promising family of surface-active ionic liquids (SAILs) that have an amphiphilic behavior and the ability to self-aggregate in aqueous solutions by the formation of colloidal systems. In this work, the protein lysozyme was selected to infer on the influence of FILs in its stability and activity. Then, the cytotoxicity of FILs was determined to evaluate their biocompatibility, concluding that the selected compounds have neglected cytotoxicity. Therefore, UV–visible spectroscopy was used to infer the FIL-lysozyme interactions, concluding that the predominant interaction is the encapsulation of the lysozyme by FILs. The encapsulation efficiency was also tested, which highly depends on the concentration and anion of FIL. Finally, the bioactivity and thermal stability of lysozyme were evaluated, and the encapsulated lysozyme keeps its activity and thermal stability, concluding that FILs can be a potential stabilizer to be used in protein-based delivery systems.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry)
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Open AccessArticle
Unlock the Potentials to Further Improve CO2 Storage and Utilization with Supercritical CO2 Emulsions When Applying CO2-Philic Surfactants
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(1), 127-148; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010009 - 02 Mar 2021
Abstract
Supercritical CO2 (ScCO2) emulsion has attracted lots of attention, which could benefit both climate control via CO2 storage and industry revenue through significantly increased oil recovery simultaneously. Historically, aqueous soluble surfactants have been widely used as stabilizers, though they
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Supercritical CO2 (ScCO2) emulsion has attracted lots of attention, which could benefit both climate control via CO2 storage and industry revenue through significantly increased oil recovery simultaneously. Historically, aqueous soluble surfactants have been widely used as stabilizers, though they suffer from slow propagation, relatively high surfactant adsorption and well injectivity issues. In contrast, the CO2-soluble surfactants could improve the emulsion performance remarkably, due to their CO2-philicity. Here, comprehensive comparison studies are carried out from laboratory experiments to field scale simulations between a commercially available aqueous soluble surfactant (CD 1045) and a proprietary nonionic CO2-philic surfactant whose solubility in ScCO2 and partition coefficient between ScCO2/Brine have been determined. Surfactant affinity to employed oil is indicated by a phase behavior test. Static adsorptions on Silurian dolomite outcrop are conducted to gain the insights of its electro-kinetic properties. Coreflooding experiments are carried out with both consolidated 1 ft Berea sandstone and Silurian dolomite to compare the performances as a result of surfactant natures under two-phase conditions, while harsher conditions are examined on fractured carbonate with presence of an oleic phase. Moreover, the superiorities of ScCO2 foam with CO2-philic surfactant due to dual phase partition capacity are illustrated with field scale simulations. ScCO2 and WAG injections behaviors are used as baselines, while the performances of two types of CO2 emulsions are compared with SAG injection, characterized by phase saturations, CO2 storage, oil production, CO2 utilization ratio and pressure distribution. A novel injection strategy, named CO2 continuous injection with dissolved surfactant (CIDS), which is unique for a CO2-philic surfactant, is also studied. It is found that the CO2-soluble surfactant displays much lower oil affinity and adsorption on carbonate than CD 1045. Furthermore, in a laboratory scale, a much higher foam propagation rate is observed with the novel surfactant, which is mainly ascribed to its CO2 affinity, assisted by the high mobility of the CO2 phase. Field scale simulations clearly demonstrate the potentials of CO2 emulsion on CO2 storage and oil recovery over conventional tertiary productions. Relative to traditional aqueous soluble surfactant emulsion, the novel surfactant emulsion contributes to higher injectivity, CO2 storage capability, oil recovery and energy utilization efficiency. The CIDS could further reduce water injection cost and energy consumption. The findings here reveal the potentials of further improving CO2 storage and utilization when applying ScCO2-philic surfactant emulsion, to compromise both environmental and economic concerns.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Final Sinks of Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS))
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Open AccessArticle
Ecotoxicity and Hemolytic Activity of Fluorinated Ionic Liquids
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, , , and
Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2(1), 115-126; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010008 - 02 Mar 2021
Abstract
The task-specific design of ionic liquids (ILs) has emerged in several industrial and pharmaceutical applications. The family of ILs with fluorine tags equal to or longer than four carbon atoms, the fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs), combine the best properties of ILs with the
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The task-specific design of ionic liquids (ILs) has emerged in several industrial and pharmaceutical applications. The family of ILs with fluorine tags equal to or longer than four carbon atoms, the fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs), combine the best properties of ILs with the ones of perfluorinated compounds, and are being designed for several specific purposes. In the pharmaceutical field, there is an urgency to search for novel antibacterial agents to overcome problems associated to antimicrobial resistances. Then, the main purpose of this work is to evaluate the environmental impact and the ability of FILs to be used as antibacterial agents against Pseudomonas stutzeri bacteria. Beyond its rare pathogenicity, these bacteria are also used as a bioremediation agent to treat several contamination sites. Then, it is important to determine which FILs have antibacterial properties, and which do not impact the bacterial growth. The biocompatibility of FILs was also evaluated through their hemolytic activity and represent a step forward the application of FILs in pharmaceutical applications. The results proved that high concentrations of FILs can have a reduced ecotoxicity and a high biocompatibility. [C8C1Im][CF3SO3] was identified as the most promising compound to be used as an antibacterial agent since it prevents the growth of bacteria at concentrations compatible with the red blood cells’ viability.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry)
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