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3D Optical Wave Field Microscope for Cell Observation
Cutting-Edge Sensor Technologies for Exosome Detection: Reviewing Role of Antibodies and Aptamers
Non-Enzymatic Selective Detection of Histamine in Fishery Product Samples on Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes

Journal Description

Biosensors

Biosensors is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the technology and science of biosensors, published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Ei Compendex, Embase, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Instruments and Instrumentation) / CiteScore - Q1 (Instrumentation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 21.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 5.6 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.7 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-6374

Latest Articles

35 pages, 3387 KB

Open AccessReview

Immunosensing Platforms for Detection of Metabolic Biomarkers in Oral Fluids

by Nadezhda S. Komova, Kseniya V. Serebrennikova, Anatoly V. Zherdev and Boris B. Dzantiev

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120794 (registering DOI) - 2 Dec 2025

Widespread and simple detection of diseases and disfunctions in the body is crucial for reliable and prompt diagnostics, efficient use of healthcare resources, and improved quality of life. The presence of a large number of metabolic products in saliva, the relationship between their [...] Read more.

Widespread and simple detection of diseases and disfunctions in the body is crucial for reliable and prompt diagnostics, efficient use of healthcare resources, and improved quality of life. The presence of a large number of metabolic products in saliva, the relationship between their levels in saliva and blood, the diagnostic value of many of these compounds, and the advantages of noninvasive sampling drive interest in oral fluid as a biomatrix. This review summarizes established oral fluid biomarkers, as well as potential salivary indicators for remote health monitoring and noninvasive point-of-care diagnostics. Recent advances in the search for new solutions for sensitive and high-throughput immunodetection of biomarkers in oral fluid are discussed, along with strategies for overcoming the analytical and technical challenges associated with the salivary matrix testing. Another focus of the current review is optical and electrochemical immunosensors with an emphasis on lateral flow immunoassays for point-of-care testing due to their speed, simplicity and cost-effectiveness. Finally, future directions are discussed that may enable non-invasive monitoring of endocrine, infectious, immune, neurodegenerative diseases and other human conditions using immunoassay platforms, paving the way for personalized and accessible healthcare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensing Technologies in Medical Diagnosis—2nd Edition)

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36 pages, 6926 KB

Open AccessReview

AI-Integrated Micro/Nanorobots for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances in Design, Fabrication, and Functions

by Prashant Kishor Sharma and Chia-Yuan Chen

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120793 (registering DOI) - 2 Dec 2025

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and micro/nanorobotics is fundamentally reshaping biosensing by enabling autonomous, adaptive, and high-resolution biological analysis. These miniaturized robotic systems fabricated using advanced techniques such as photolithography, soft lithography, nanoimprinting, 3D printing, and self-assembly can navigate complex biological environments [...] Read more.

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and micro/nanorobotics is fundamentally reshaping biosensing by enabling autonomous, adaptive, and high-resolution biological analysis. These miniaturized robotic systems fabricated using advanced techniques such as photolithography, soft lithography, nanoimprinting, 3D printing, and self-assembly can navigate complex biological environments to perform targeted sensing, diagnostics, and therapeutic delivery. AI-driven algorithms, mainly those in machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), act as the brains of the operation, allowing for sophisticated modeling, genuine real-time control, and complex signal interpretation. This review focuses recent advances in the design, fabrication, and functional integration of AI-enabled micro/nanorobots for biomedical sensing. Applications that demonstrate their potential range from quick point-of-care diagnostics and in vivo biosensing to next-generation organ-on-chip systems and truly personalized medicine. We also discuss key challenges in scalability, energy autonomy, data standardization, and closed-loop control. Collectively, these advancements are paving the way for intelligent, responsive, and clinically transformative biosensing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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18 pages, 1698 KB

Open AccessReview

Opportunities and Challenges in Gas Sensor Technologies for Accurate Detection of COVID-19

by Masoom Fatima, Munazza Fatima, Naseem Abbas and Pil-Gu Park

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120792 (registering DOI) - 2 Dec 2025

Gas sensors provide versatile opportunities for detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as acetone, methanol, ethanol, propanol, isoprene, and aldehydes in exhaled breath (EB) associated with COVID-19 respiratory infections. These VOCs provide valuable information about metabolic markers linked with COVID-19. They have opened [...] Read more.

Gas sensors provide versatile opportunities for detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as acetone, methanol, ethanol, propanol, isoprene, and aldehydes in exhaled breath (EB) associated with COVID-19 respiratory infections. These VOCs provide valuable information about metabolic markers linked with COVID-19. They have opened opportunities to develop sensors for COVID-19 screening based on breath analysis. These sensors have the potential to provide the rapid detection of viruses in healthcare settings. RT-PCR, as a conventionally adopted diagnostic method, has a detection limit around 10–100 RNA copies/mL, with an accuracy of around 95%. Gas sensors have demonstrated VOC detection limits at the ppm level in COVID-19 EB and have displayed a sensitivity and specificity of 98.2% and 74.3%, respectively. Multiple gas sensors combined with machine learning algorithms have the potential to enhance the specificity of VOC detection. In addition to having an accuracy similar to that of the PCR method, the VOC-based diagnosis of COVID-19 offers unique advantages in terms of non-invasive and rapid detection. This review provides an overview of state-of-the-art gas sensors developed for COVID-19 detection. Despite there being significant developments in this field, there are certain challenges that still need to be addressed—these include the impact of environmental factors, the specificity of detection, the sensing range, and precision limitations, leading to accuracy issues. Despite these existing challenges, the integration of gas sensors with machine learning methods can enhance the accuracy of the detection of COVID-19. Future research directions are proposed to validate and standardize the application of gas sensors for COVID-19 in clinical settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Detection of Virus and Bacteria)

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12 pages, 2207 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Detection of Staphylococcus aureus from Gym Environments for Health Risk Monitoring Using Printed Nanochains-Based Biosensors

by Liang Huang, Shidong Hu, Zhicheng Zheng, Yaxin Li, Maolin Xu, Zeying Zhang, Jingqun Cheng, Yujing Zhang, Yonggan Xue, Meng Su and Xiaohui Du

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120791 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Gyms are indoor environments in which many people perform physical exercise and could potentially increase the risks of bacterial contamination and dissemination. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most prevalent bacteria in community-acquired infections; thus, the rapid detection and [...] Read more.

Gyms are indoor environments in which many people perform physical exercise and could potentially increase the risks of bacterial contamination and dissemination. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most prevalent bacteria in community-acquired infections; thus, the rapid detection and continuous monitoring of S. aureus are crucial for evaluating the hygienic status of gym environments. This work describes the fabrication of a nanochain-based biosensor for S. aureus detection using carboxyl-modified polystyrene (PS) nanoparticles functionalized with a specific antibody. When target bacteria bind to the nanochains, they yield distinct color changes which support the directly visualizable analysis of optical images, recorded using optical microscopy or even a smart mobile phone. In addition to high portability, this biosensor is also capable of the quantification and continuous monitoring of the bacterial load in a gym environment over a broad linear range (10⁰ CFU/mL~10⁵ CFU/mL), with a detection limit of 1 CFU/mL. In summary, this study validated the applicability of the biosensors for the rapid detection and real-time monitoring of gym environmental pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices)

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16 pages, 4816 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Learning-Assisted Cactus-Inspired Osmosis-Enrichment Patch for Biosafety-Isolative Wearable Sweat Metabolism Assessment

by Yuwen Yan, Ting Xiao, Miaorong Lin, Wenyan Yue, Jihan Qu, Yonghuan Chen, Zhihao Zhang, Jianxin Meng, Dong Pan, Fengyu Li and Bingtian Su

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120790 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Sweat, which contains a rich array of biomarkers, serves as a vital biological fluid for non-invasive biosensing. Wearable sweat sensors have garnered significant interest owing to their portability and capacity for continuous monitoring. However, there are safety concerns regarding the direct contact of [...] Read more.

Sweat, which contains a rich array of biomarkers, serves as a vital biological fluid for non-invasive biosensing. Wearable sweat sensors have garnered significant interest owing to their portability and capacity for continuous monitoring. However, there are safety concerns regarding the direct contact of sweat sensors with the skin during the detection process. The chemical substances in the sensor patches may cause contamination of the epidermis when in contact with the skin, leading to skin allergic reactions. Sample collection and biosafety isolation are critical issues in wearable sweat detection. To address this, we develop a cactus-inspired biomimetic Janus membrane capable of unidirectionally transporting and concentrating sweat toward a designated detection zone. Through unidirectional transport from the hydrophobic layer to the hydrophilic layer of the Janus membrane, sweat droplets are enriched at the designated detection point of the conical hydrophilic pattern via Laplace pressure. The bionic osmosis-enrichment sensing patch effectively inhibits direct contact between indicators and skin, eliminating potential epidermal contamination. This achieved the effect of in situ perspiration collection under the premise of biosafety isolation. To rapidly and accurately analyze sweat biomarkers, we employ a deep learning (DL)-assisted fluorescence sensor for efficient and precise detection of biomarker concentrations. A dataset of 4500 fluorescence images are constructed and used to evaluate two DL and seven machine learning (ML) algorithms. The convolutional neural network (CNN) model could easily and accurately classify and quantitatively analyze the total concentration of the amino acid mixture, Ca²⁺ and Cl⁻, with 100% classification accuracy. The consistency between the detection results of actual sweat by the DL-assisted fluorescence method and fluorescence spectroscopy was 91.4–96.0%. This approach demonstrates high reliability in sweat collection and analysis, offering a practical tool for clinical health monitoring, early disease intervention, and diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices)

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34 pages, 4925 KB

Open AccessReview

Nanomaterial Engineered Biosensors and Stimulus–Responsive Platform for Emergency Monitoring and Intelligent Diagnosis

by Bo Fang, Yuanyuan Chen, Hui Jiang, Xiaohui Liu and Xuemei Wang

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120789 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Biosensing technology serves as a cornerstone in biomedical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, personalized medicine, and wearable devices, playing an indispensable role in precise detection and real–time monitoring. Compared with traditional sensing platforms, functional nanomaterials—by virtue of their ultra–large specific surface area, exceptional optoelectronic properties, [...] Read more.

Biosensing technology serves as a cornerstone in biomedical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, personalized medicine, and wearable devices, playing an indispensable role in precise detection and real–time monitoring. Compared with traditional sensing platforms, functional nanomaterials—by virtue of their ultra–large specific surface area, exceptional optoelectronic properties, and superior catalytic activity—significantly enhance the sensitivity, selectivity, and response speed of biosensors. This has enabled ultrasensitive, rapid, and even in situ detection of disease biomarkers, pollutants, and pathogens. This review summarizes recent advances in five key categories of functional nanomaterials—metallic, semiconductor, carbon–based, two–dimensional, and stimulus–responsive materials—for advanced biosensing applications. It elucidates the structure–property relationships governing sensing performance, such as the surface plasmon resonance of gold nanoparticles and the high carrier mobility of graphene, and analyzes the core mechanisms behind optical sensing, electrochemical sensing, and emerging multimodal sensing strategies. With a focus on medical diagnostics, wearable health monitoring, and environmental and food safety surveillance, the review highlights the application value of functional nanomaterials across diverse scenarios. Current research is progressively moving beyond single–performance optimization toward intelligent design, multifunctional integration, and real–world deployment, though challenges related to industrial application remain. Finally, the review outlines existing issues in the development of functional nanomaterial–based biosensors and offers perspectives on the integration of nanomaterials with cutting–edge technologies and the construction of novel sensing systems. This work aims to provide insights for the rational design of functional nanomaterials and the cross–disciplinary translation of biosensing technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors for Biomedical Detection)

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20 pages, 3539 KB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Monitoring of NIH/3T3 Cell Growth and Drug Reaction Using Impedance Biosensors and Comparison with Biological Assays

by Seok-kyu Kim, Gayoung Lee, Yeeun Kim, Dahyun Kang and Moongyu Jang

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120788 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Impedance biosensors are manufactured on glass slides using a semiconductor process to monitor cell growth and cell–drug reactions in real time, and the results are compared with biological assay results to confirm the validity of impedance measurement method. Approximately 10,000 cells per well [...] Read more.

Impedance biosensors are manufactured on glass slides using a semiconductor process to monitor cell growth and cell–drug reactions in real time, and the results are compared with biological assay results to confirm the validity of impedance measurement method. Approximately 10,000 cells per well were cultured for 48 h, after which 6.67 μg/mL puromycin was injected to observe apoptosis over the following 48 h. A frequency sweep from 1 kHz to 1 MHz was performed to determine the optimal frequency range, identifying 367–440 kHz as the most sensitive for detecting impedance changes. Impedance was measured every 10 min for 96 h. Capacitance gradually increased during cell proliferation, while after drug administration, a transient increase occurred within 9 h, followed by a rapid decline, indicating cell death within 24 h. The sensor utilized Electrical Cell–substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) to detect real-time changes in cell status without the need for staining or destruction. Comparison with conventional biological assays such as MTS and FACS confirmed that the impedance biosensor provided higher sensitivity and quantitative accuracy in monitoring both cell proliferation and apoptosis. This study demonstrates that the developed biosensor enables label-free, non-invasive, and continuous monitoring of cellular behaviors with acceptable coincidence with 3 different biological assay results. Impedance biosensor presents a promising alternative to conventional biological assays and offers potential applications in drug screening, cytotoxicity evaluation, and real-time biological monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biosensors for Disease Screening, Monitoring, Diagnosis and Treatment)

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16 pages, 2773 KB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Performance and Versatile Fluorometer for Chlorophyll a Monitoring

by Tingkai Zhang, Yee Lyn Sim, Jianchao Luo and Shuming Ye

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120787 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Chlorophyll a (Chl a) monitoring is vital for aquatic ecosystem assessment but is challenged by low signals and interference. Addressing this, we introduced balanced maximum entropy m-sequence modulation for Chl a fluorescence detection, developing a novel high-sensitivity sensor offered in configurations for both [...] Read more.

Chlorophyll a (Chl a) monitoring is vital for aquatic ecosystem assessment but is challenged by low signals and interference. Addressing this, we introduced balanced maximum entropy m-sequence modulation for Chl a fluorescence detection, developing a novel high-sensitivity sensor offered in configurations for both portable and deep-sea applications. The sensor achieved outstanding limits of detection (LOD) of 4.17 ng/L (fluorescein sodium, FS) and 4.82 ng/L (spinach-extracted Chl a), significantly surpassing commercial instruments. It also features a wide dynamic range (0–500 μg/L FS, R² = 0.9983), excellent long-term stability with negligible drift, measured system response T90 < 24 s, and low power consumption (40 mA working/0.5 mA standby). Critically, a near 1:1 fluorescence response gain between FS and extracted Chl a under the sensor’s specific configuration was experimentally demonstrated, validating FS as a high-precision proxy standard and simplifying future calibration. Field experiments in West Lake confirmed the sensor’s ability to accurately track spatial variations consistent with the standard spectrophotometric method, achieving highly consistent quantitative results (within 3% relative error) at half sampling locations. In summary, the sensor developed in this study, due to its outstanding performance, promises to provide a reliable and efficient new tool for high-precision portable and deep-sea in situ chl a monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Portable and Wearable Sensing Systems for Biochemical Monitoring—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1185 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Mid and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Predict Creatinine, Urea and Albumin in Serum Samples as Biomarkers of Renal Function

by Diogo Serrano, Paulo Zoio, Luís P. Fonseca and Cecília R. C. Calado

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120786 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

It is relevant to develop new technologies to enable the intensive monitoring of kidney function in a minimally invasive, rapid, and economic way. With this goal, the current work compared infrared spectra in the mid- (MIR) and near-infrared (NIR) regions to predict the [...] Read more.

It is relevant to develop new technologies to enable the intensive monitoring of kidney function in a minimally invasive, rapid, and economic way. With this goal, the current work compared infrared spectra in the mid- (MIR) and near-infrared (NIR) regions to predict the biomarkers of kidney function, i.e., serum creatinine, urea, and albumin. After the evaluation of diverse spectra pre-processing methods and spectral regions, it was possible to develop, in either spectral region, good to excellent regression models to predict these three biomarkers, with determination coefficients (R²) of over 0.9 and relatively low root mean squared error (RMSE). The two techniques are complementary, since the MIR spectroscopic platform presents the advantage of enabling high-throughput analysis, as it includes the sample analysis based on a micro-plate with 96 wells, only requiring a simple dehydration step before spectra acquisition, while the NIR spectroscopic platform enables the direct analysis of the serum solutions in real time. Therefore, both platforms present complementary characteristics with a high potential to enable reagent-free and frequent monitoring of kidney function and incorporation into point-of-care diagnostic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biosensors for Disease Screening, Monitoring, Diagnosis and Treatment)

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32 pages, 9289 KB

Open AccessReview

Wearable Electrochemical Biosensors for Monitoring and Management of Chronic Wounds

by Lingxia Zuo, Yinbing Liu, Jianrong Zhang, Linlin Wang and Jun-Jie Zhu

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120785 (registering DOI) - 1 Dec 2025

Chronic wounds constitute a major global public health challenge, characterized by a high risk of infection, prolonged healing times, and frequent recurrence. Conventional wound assessment methods, which primarily rely on visual clinical inspection and laboratory-based analyses, are limited by inherent subjectivity, delayed feedback, [...] Read more.

Chronic wounds constitute a major global public health challenge, characterized by a high risk of infection, prolonged healing times, and frequent recurrence. Conventional wound assessment methods, which primarily rely on visual clinical inspection and laboratory-based analyses, are limited by inherent subjectivity, delayed feedback, and a lack of capacity for real-time monitoring of the dynamic biochemical changes at the wound site. Significantly, recent advancements in flexible electronics, nanomaterials, and energy harvesting technologies have boosted the rapid development of wearable electrochemical biosensors. These devices have emerged as a transformative platform for the continuous, non-invasive analysis of critical biomarkers within the wound microenvironment, including pH, temperature, inflammatory cytokines, metabolites, and pathogen-derived molecules. This review critically examines the latest progress in wearable electrochemical biosensors for wound monitoring and management. Key discussions include (1) the special requirements for sensor design, targeting the chronic wound’s pathological characteristics; (2) cutting-edge development in self-powered systems, multimodal sensor integration, closed-loop theranostics, and artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted decision-making; and (3) a critical appraisal of challenges in accuracy, stability, biocompatibility, energy management, and clinical translation. Finally, the review explores future trends, such as biodegradable sensors, multi-parameter fusion algorithms, and remote intelligent management systems, with the aim of establishing a foundational framework and providing technical guidance for developing next-generation intelligent wound care solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors and Systems for Continuous Health Monitoring)

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17 pages, 3187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of Phosphorylated Tau-217 Protein in Alzheimer’s Disease Using Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor (CNT-FET) Biosensor

by Jiao Wang, Keyu Yao, Jiahua Li, Duo Wai-Chi Wong and James Chung-Wai Cheung

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120784 - 27 Nov 2025

Early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains challenging due to the extremely low concentration of relevant biomarkers and the limited sensitivity of conventional detection techniques. In this study, we present a carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNT-FET) immunosensor for label-free detection of phosphorylated tau [...] Read more.

Early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains challenging due to the extremely low concentration of relevant biomarkers and the limited sensitivity of conventional detection techniques. In this study, we present a carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNT-FET) immunosensor for label-free detection of phosphorylated tau at threonine 217 (p-tau217). The device employs a Y₂O₃/HfO₂ dielectric layer and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to improve biofunctionalization, with anti-p-tau217 antibodies immobilized on the CNT channels. In phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), the sensor exhibited a linear response over a concentration range of 3 fM to 30 pM (R² = 0.973) and achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.66 fM. The device demonstrated high selectivity, with a normalized signal response (NSR) for p-tau217 that was 5–6 times higher than for human serum albumin (HSA) and p-tau231, even at 1000-fold higher concentrations of these interferents. The sensor exhibited reproducibility with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4.8% (n = 9) and storage stability with only a 10% decrease in signal after 7 days at 4 °C. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the net positive charge and structural flexibility of the p-tau217 peptide led to a reduction in drain current upon binding, consistent with electrostatic gating effects in p-type CNT-FETs. Current limitations include the absence of standardized p-tau217 reference materials. Future work will focus on validation with clinical samples. This CNT-FET platform enables rapid, minimally invasive detection of p-tau217 and holds strong potential for integration into clinical workflows to facilitate early AD diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biosensors for Disease Screening, Monitoring, Diagnosis, and Treatment—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 3049 KB

Open AccessReview

Progress in Electrode Modifiers for Nitrite Electrochemical Sensing Applications

by Mohammad Aslam, Saood Ali, Khaled Hamdy, Danishuddin, Khursheed Ahmad and Rohit Kumar Singh Gautam

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120783 - 27 Nov 2025

It is well known that nitrite is widely used in industrial and agricultural sectors as a preservative, corrosion inhibitor, and intermediate in chemical synthesis; consequently, nitrite residues are often present in food, water, and the environment as a result of meat curing, fertilizer [...] Read more.

It is well known that nitrite is widely used in industrial and agricultural sectors as a preservative, corrosion inhibitor, and intermediate in chemical synthesis; consequently, nitrite residues are often present in food, water, and the environment as a result of meat curing, fertilizer use, and wastewater discharge. Despite having several applications, nitrite exerts toxic effects on human beings and aquatic life. Therefore, the monitoring of nitrite is of particular significance to avoid negative impacts on human health, the environment, and aquatic life. Previously, the electrochemical method has been extensively used for the development of nitrite sensors using various advanced electrode materials. Additionally, zinc oxide (ZnO), cerium oxide (CeO₂), titanium dioxide (TiO₂), copper oxide (CuO), iron oxides, nickel oxide (NiO), polymers, MXenes, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphitic carbon nitride (gCN), metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and other composites have been utilized as electrocatalysts for the fabrication of nitrite electrochemical sensors. This review article provides an overview of the construction of nitrite sensors using advanced electrode materials. The electrochemical activities of the reported nitrite sensors are discussed. Furthermore, limitations and future perspectives regarding the determination of nitrite are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Biosensing at the Frontier: Materials, Mechanisms, and Applications)

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32 pages, 6343 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Evaluation of Hollow Microneedles-Mediated Drug Delivery for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

by Zhibo Liu, Xiaotong Li, Suhang Liu, Yijing Cai, Xingyuan Xu, Siqi Gao, Chuanjie Yao, Linge Wang, Xi Xie, Yanbin Cai, Lelun Jiang, Jing Liu, Mingqiang Li, Yan Li, Xinshuo Huang and Huijiuan Chen

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120782 - 27 Nov 2025

Microneedle array-based drug delivery offers a minimally invasive and safe approach for breaching the skin barrier, enabling localized and targeted treatment—an advantage particularly valuable in chronic condition management, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA presents a multifaceted pathophysiology, often necessitating long-term pharmacological management. [...] Read more.

Microneedle array-based drug delivery offers a minimally invasive and safe approach for breaching the skin barrier, enabling localized and targeted treatment—an advantage particularly valuable in chronic condition management, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA presents a multifaceted pathophysiology, often necessitating long-term pharmacological management. However, conventional oral administration may lead to systemic drug distribution, increasing the likelihood of adverse effects, and ultimately undermining therapeutic efficacy. In this study, a hollow microneedle array was employed for effective delivery of Tofacitinib and the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC). A comprehensive evaluation was conducted across multiple levels, in which inflammation and cartilage degradation were assessed histologically using hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and Safranin O–Fast Green staining. Radiologically, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was employed to visualize bone structure alterations. On the molecular level, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to quantify inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers. Furthermore, differentially expressed genes and enriched signaling pathways were identified through transcriptomic profiling pre- and post-treatment. And the potential regulatory targets and mechanistic insights into the therapeutic response were elucidated through correlation analyses between gene expression profiles and pathological indicators. This study provides a mechanistic and computational basis for precision targeted therapy, validates the efficacy and safety of microneedle delivery in a rheumatoid arthritis (RA) model, and demonstrates its potential application in local drug delivery strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors and Systems for Continuous Health Monitoring)

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13 pages, 1398 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antibody-Based Biolayer Interferometry Platform for Rapid Detection of Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin

by Somphot Saoin, Sawitree Nangola, Kannaporn Intachai, Eakkapote Prompunt, Chiraphat Kloypan, Trairak Pisitkun and Chatikorn Boonkrai

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120781 - 27 Nov 2025

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has emerged as a critical biomarker for the early diagnosis of acute kidney injury (AKI). The development of novel detection platforms that combine rapid analysis with high sensitivity is essential for improving clinical outcomes. In this study, we established [...] Read more.

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has emerged as a critical biomarker for the early diagnosis of acute kidney injury (AKI). The development of novel detection platforms that combine rapid analysis with high sensitivity is essential for improving clinical outcomes. In this study, we established an antibody-based detection system for NGAL using biolayer interferometry (BLI), a label-free optical biosensing technique that monitors real-time interference patterns generated by white light reflected from biomolecular binding events on a biosensor surface. A panel of six anti-NGAL monoclonal antibodies was generated and characterized for its binding properties, identifying candidates with high specificity for NGAL. For robust sensor functionalization, selected monoclonal antibodies were biotinylated and immobilized onto streptavidin-coated biosensor tips, establishing a stable and efficient detection interface. The optimized BLI platform demonstrated a limit of detection (LOD) of 46.1 ng/mL with wild dynamic range of 19 to 40,000 ng/mL. The platform’s accuracy was validated using human serum samples, with spike-and-recovery experiments yielding recovery rates of 96.6–104.6%. This demonstrates the capability to accurately quantify NGAL under physiologically relevant conditions with minimal matrix interference. Furthermore, the real-time kinetic measurements enabled rapid analysis, with the entire assay completed in less than half an hour. These findings establish a proof-of-concept for a BLI-based biosensor for NGAL detection, demonstrating sensitivity and specificity that show potential for clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunosensors: Design and Applications)

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23 pages, 8446 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bacterial lux-Biosensors for Detecting Specific Cell Responses to Membrane Damage

by Vladimir A. Plyuta, Evgeny Y. Gnuchikh, Anastasiia A. Gorbunova, Veronika D. Udovichenko, Kristina A. Sinyakova, Daria E. Sidorova, Olga A. Koksharova, Sergey V. Bazhenov and Olga E. Melkina

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120780 - 26 Nov 2025

Whole-cell biosensors represent one of the tools used for assessing the effects of various agents on living cells. Here we have constructed and tested whole-cell lux-biosensors to detect membrane damage in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria using the stress-inducible promoter of the [...] Read more.

Whole-cell biosensors represent one of the tools used for assessing the effects of various agents on living cells. Here we have constructed and tested whole-cell lux-biosensors to detect membrane damage in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria using the stress-inducible promoter of the pspA gene from Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis fused to the lux genes from Photorhabdus luminescens. These biosensors increase their luminescence in response to treatment with a number of known membrane-damaging compounds, such as ethanol, Triton X-100, polymyxin B, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and melittin. E. coli- and B. subtilis-based biosensors demonstrated differences in response to the action of the same membrane-damaging agent. Thus, ethanol and polymyxin B specifically induced the pspA promoter in both lux-biosensors, but the induction amplitude was higher in the E. coli. Triton X-100 and melittin specifically induced the pspA promoter exclusively in B. subtilis cells, while DMSO induced it only in E. coli cells. This indicates a difference in the stress response of the Psp system to membrane-damaging agents in E. coli and B. subtilis cells. Thus, we demonstrated the functionality and efficiency of the constructed lux-biosensors and, using them, showed that some of the tested compounds are able to specifically activate Psp stress response systems in case of membrane damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biosensor: From Design to Applications—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 1138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ultra-Sensitive Detection of Mercury by Using Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors Based on Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

by Chao Lu, Qiuxiang Lv, Yuanwei Lin and Li Gao

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120779 - 26 Nov 2025

In recent years, the amount of mercury discharged by human activities has continued to increase. Most of the mercury in surface water settles into the sediment, where it can be directly or indirectly transformed into mercury ion (Hg²⁺) compounds (such as [...] Read more.

In recent years, the amount of mercury discharged by human activities has continued to increase. Most of the mercury in surface water settles into the sediment, where it can be directly or indirectly transformed into mercury ion (Hg²⁺) compounds (such as dimethylmercury) under the action of microorganisms. Hg²⁺ display high toxicity and bioaccumulation in food, such as fish and rice, and thus the contamination of mercury ion is a serious concern for human health. Practical Hg²⁺ detection methods are usually limited by the sensitivity and selectivity of the used methods, such as colorimetric determination and fluorescence biosensor based on the solution phase. Therefore, it is urgent to develop Hg²⁺ detection methods in the practical environment with high sensitivity and selectivity. DNA is low-cost, relatively stable, and has been used for different fields. In this study, DNA for Hg²⁺detection was absorbed on the surface of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) by using 1,5-diaminonaphthalene (DAN) based on field-effect transistor (FET) biosensors. The interaction between DNA and Hg²⁺ can be directly converted into electrical signals based on the SWNTs biosensors. The experimental results showed that the limit of detection (LOD) of Hg²⁺ without the phase-locked amplifier was about 42.6 pM. The function of the phase-locked amplifier is to achieve fast detection of the biosensor with strong anti-noise ability. Intriguingly, the sensitivity of the biosensor combined with a phase-locked amplifier to detect Hg²⁺ was further improved to be 5.14 pM compared with some current methods of biosensors. Furthermore, this biosensor has an excellent selectivity and practical detection in tap water, which demonstrates its high performance and low cost in practical application in Hg²⁺ detection. These results show this method for Hg²⁺ detection using SWNTs biosensors with a phase-locked amplifier is promising. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nano-Biosensors and Their Applications for In Vivo/Vitro Diagnosis—3rd Edition)

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32 pages, 6586 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress of Biosensors in the Detection of Pesticide Residues and Heavy Metals in Tea Leaves

by Pin Li, Miaopeng Chen, Tianle Yao, Long Wu, Shanran Wang, Yu Han, Ying Song and Jia Yin

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120778 - 26 Nov 2025

Tea, a worldwide prevalent beverage, is continually contaminated by pesticide residues and heavy metals, presenting considerable health concerns to consumers. Nonetheless, effective monitoring is limited by conventional detection techniques—such as gas chromatography (GC) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)—which, despite their high [...] Read more.

Tea, a worldwide prevalent beverage, is continually contaminated by pesticide residues and heavy metals, presenting considerable health concerns to consumers. Nonetheless, effective monitoring is limited by conventional detection techniques—such as gas chromatography (GC) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)—which, despite their high precision, necessitate intricate pretreatment, incur substantial operational expenses, and are inadequate for swift on-site analysis. Biosensors have emerged as a viable option, addressing this gap with their exceptional sensitivity, rapid response, and ease of operation.This review rigorously evaluates recent advancements in biosensing technologies for the detection of pesticide residues and heavy metals in tea, emphasizing the mechanisms, analytical performance, and practical applicability of prominent platforms such as fluorescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), colorimetric, and electrochemical biosensors. Electrochemical and fluorescent biosensors provide the highest promise for portable, on-site use owing to their enhanced sensitivity, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility to intricate tea matrices. The paper further emphasizes upcoming techniques such multi-component detection, microfluidic integration, and AI-enhanced data processing. Biosensors provide significant potential to revolutionize tea safety monitoring, with future advancements dependent on the synergistic incorporation of sophisticated nanomaterials, intelligent microdevices, and real-time analytics across the whole “tea garden-to-cup” supply chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioassays and Biosensors for Rapid Detection and Analysis (2nd Edition))

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23 pages, 921 KB

Open AccessReview

Nano-Engineered Sensor Systems for Disease Diagnostics: Advances in Smart Healthcare Applications

by Tianjun Ma, Jianhai Sun, Ning Xue, Jamal N. A. Hassan and Adeel Abbas

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120777 - 26 Nov 2025

Nano-engineered sensor systems represent a paradigm shift in disease diagnostics, offering unprecedented capabilities for precision medicine. This review methodically evaluates these advanced platforms, consolidating recent advancements across four critical clinical domains: diabetes monitoring, cancer detection, infectious disease diagnostics and cardiac/genetic health. We demonstrate [...] Read more.

Nano-engineered sensor systems represent a paradigm shift in disease diagnostics, offering unprecedented capabilities for precision medicine. This review methodically evaluates these advanced platforms, consolidating recent advancements across four critical clinical domains: diabetes monitoring, cancer detection, infectious disease diagnostics and cardiac/genetic health. We demonstrate how the unique properties of nanomaterials, such as graphene, quantum dots and plasmonic nanoparticles, are being harnessed to achieve remarkable gains in analytical sensitivity, selectivity and real-time monitoring. Specific breakthroughs include graphene-based sensors attaining clinically significant limits for continuous glucose monitoring, quantum dot bioconjugates enabling ultrasensitive imaging of cancer biomarkers and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) probes facilitating early tumor identification. Furthermore, nanosensors exhibit exceptional precision in detecting viral antigens and genetic mutations, underscoring their robust translational potential. Collectively, these developments signal a clear trajectory toward integrated, intelligent healthcare ecosystems. However, for these promising technologies to transition into accessible and cost-effective diagnostic solutions, persistent challenges in scalability, manufacturing reproducibility and long-term biocompatibility must be addressed through continued interdisciplinary innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Biosensing Technologies for Single Cell Analysis)

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12 pages, 2487 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aptamer-Based Gold Nanoparticle Lateral Flow Assay for Rapid Detection of Cardiac Troponin I

by Jing Zhang, Jiayi Pang and Cheng Cui

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120776 - 26 Nov 2025

Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is a critical biomarker for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but conventional detection methods are often time-consuming and require specialized laboratory equipment. To meet the need for rapid and feasible detection, there is an urgent demand for [...] Read more.

Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is a critical biomarker for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but conventional detection methods are often time-consuming and require specialized laboratory equipment. To meet the need for rapid and feasible detection, there is an urgent demand for methods that are fast, specific, and easy to use. In this study, two aptamers (Tro4 and Tro6), which specifically bind to different epitopes of cTnI, were employed to construct a dual-aptamer sandwich system on a lateral flow assay (LFA) strip. The test strip can deliver results within 10 min and shows a detection limit of 11.70 ng·mL⁻¹. It also exhibited excellent stability after storage at room temperature for up to four months. The assay demonstrated high analytical accuracy, as evidenced by recovery rates from spiked serum samples ranging from 95.11% to 103.17%. These results suggest that the proposed aptamer-based LFA is highly suitable for rapid screening of cTnI, especially in point-of-care settings and resource-limited environments. From a diagnostic perspective, this method holds great promise for improving the timely detection and management of AMI and other myocardial injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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16 pages, 1634 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in the Detection of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Dairy Products

by Anna Maria Maurelli, Lucia Catucci, Michelangelo Pascale, Sabato D’Auria and Maria Staiano

Biosensors 2025, 15(12), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15120775 - 26 Nov 2025

There is an increasing demand to design user-friendly specific assays for the detection of analytes of interest for healthcare, environment, and agrifood. Modern biotechnology has approached this problem by using proteins, enzymes, or RNA/DNA fragments (aptamers) as biological recognition elements for biosensors/assays. The [...] Read more.

There is an increasing demand to design user-friendly specific assays for the detection of analytes of interest for healthcare, environment, and agrifood. Modern biotechnology has approached this problem by using proteins, enzymes, or RNA/DNA fragments (aptamers) as biological recognition elements for biosensors/assays. The idea is to exploit the extremely wide range of selective affinities sculpted into the various proteins or aptamers by biological evolution. The number of compounds specifically recognized by different proteins and aptamers is very large and ranges from small molecules to macromolecules. The advantages of using proteins and aptamers as molecular recognition elements (MRE) for assays/biosensors are many, and involve relatively low costs in design and synthesis, water solubility, and finally high specificity. Many of the analytes of interest in the food control industry are relatively small. In this case, aptamers and antibodies are widely used as specific MREs in designing advanced biosensors. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most frequently found aflatoxin in contaminated food samples, and is one of the most potent natural compounds in terms of genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the hydroxylated metabolite of AFB1 and is usually found in milk and milk products as a carry-over of AFB1 in animals that have ingested contaminated feed. AFM1 is also found in human milk, and has been shown to be hepatotoxic and carcinogenic. Here, we present recent advances in assays and biosensors based on the use of antibodies and aptamers as MREs that have been developed for monitoring the presence of AFM1 in milk and dairy products. The limitations and advantages of aptamer- and antibody-based assays/biosensors are discussed, as well as future research perspectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Biosensors and Biosensing)

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