Mushroom Spawn and Its Effects on Mushroom Growth and Development: A Systematic Review
Screening Almond Cultivars for Water Stress Tolerance Using Multiple Diagnostic Parameters
Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) in Agricultural Soils for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
A Standardized Framework for Cleaning Non-Normal Yield Data from Wheat and Barley Crops, and Validation Using Machine Learning Models for Satellite Imagery

Journal Description

Agronomy

Agronomy is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on agronomy and agroecology published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP) is affiliated with Agronomy and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Agronomy) / CiteScore - Q1 (Agronomy and Crop Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2026).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Agronomy include: Seeds, Agrochemicals, Grasses and Crops.
Journal Cluster of Agricultural Science: Agriculture, Agronomy, Horticulturae, Soil Systems, AgriEngineering, Crops, Seeds, Grasses, Agrochemicals and AI and Precision Agriculture.

Impact Factor: 4.1 (2025); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.4 (2025)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4395

Latest Articles

25 pages, 7269 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agricultural and Hydrogeochemical Controls on Nitrate and Sulfate in a Karst Surface Water–Groundwater System

by Haowen Liu, Longxinyue Qin, Ailin Zhan, Shuang Liu, Qiang Li, Lin Zhang, Cuishan Liu and Junliang Jin

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1281; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131281 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Agricultural karst watersheds are highly vulnerable to nutrient loss because strong surface water–groundwater (SW–GW) connectivity can rapidly transfer nitrogen and sulfur species from soils, agricultural activities, and human settlements into aquatic systems. However, the coupled behavior and contrasting controls of nitrate (NO₃⁻) and sulfate (SO₄²⁻) in such agroecosystems remain insufficiently understood, limiting effective nutrient and groundwater-quality management. In this study, a typical karst agricultural watershed in Southwest China was selected to investigate the sources, transformation processes, and transport pathways of NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻ under strong SW–GW interactions. During the rainy season, 44 groundwater and 40 surface water samples were collected for major hydrochemical and nitrate–sulfate stable isotope analyses. An integrated framework combining hydrochemical analysis, self-organizing maps (SOM), positive matrix factorization (PMF), and MixSIAR were used to identify dominant sources, quantify source contributions, and clarify controlling processes. The results showed that groundwater was mainly characterized by carbonate-controlled Ca-HCO₃ facies, whereas surface water exhibited higher mineralization and a shift toward Ca-SO₄ facies, indicating stronger external inputs and rapid hydrological responses. Nitrate was primarily controlled by external nitrogen inputs, with manure and sewage and soil nitrogen contributing 39–62% and 16–33%, respectively. Nitrate was also regulated by nitrification under oxic conditions, while denitrification was negligible. In contrast, sulfate was predominantly governed by geogenic processes, with sulfide oxidation contributing 63–83%, while other sources were minor. These contrasting controls resulted in distinct spatial and process behaviors: nitrate showed source-driven variability associated with agricultural and domestic inputs, whereas sulfate displayed process-driven accumulation mainly controlled by water–rock interactions. Strong SW–GW connectivity enhanced the transfer of anthropogenic nutrient signals, while subsurface mixing and buffering regulated their expression in groundwater and surface water. These findings demonstrate a clear decoupling between nitrate and sulfate controls in agricultural karst systems and provide a scientific basis for nutrient pollution control, groundwater protection, and sustainable agricultural water management in vulnerable karst regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Nutrient Dynamics in Agriculture: Cycling, Chemistry and Climate Resilience)

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18 pages, 6825 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bacillus velezensis BV3 Suppresses Leaf Spot Pathogens via Two Antifungal Metabolites and Promotes Maize Growth

by Mengjing Wu, Yuanlin Qi, Linlin Song, Peng Huang, Jie Zhang, Deyi Yu, Zhaohua Zeng and Jin-Ai Yao

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1280; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131280 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Southern corn leaf blight (SCLB), caused by Bipolaris maydis, poses a serious threat to maize production worldwide. In our previous study, Bacillus velezensis BV3 was isolated and demonstrated strong antagonistic activity against maize leaf spot pathogens and effective disease control in greenhouse experiments. In this study, we evaluated the plant growth-promoting effects of BV3 on two maize cultivars through root application in pot experiments, and investigated the underlying molecular mechanisms using transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Inoculation with BV3 significantly promoted maize growth. Moreover, BV3 treatment induced extensive transcriptional and metabolic reprogramming in maize. Transcriptomic analysis identified numerous differentially expressed genes (DEGs) mainly enriched in plant–pathogen interaction, plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling pathway, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways. Metabolomic analysis revealed substantial changes in metabolite accumulation, particularly in lipids, amino acids, sugars, organic acids, and polyphenols, with enriched pathways including secondary metabolite biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis. LC/MS and GC/MS analyses further revealed that BV3 produced diverse bioactive compounds. 2,4-DTBP and surfactin exhibited strong antifungal activities, particularly against B. maydis and Exserohilum turcicum. Overall, Bacillus sp. BV3 exhibits strong biocontrol efficacy against maize leaf spot pathogens and significant plant growth-promoting activity, highlighting its potential as an eco-friendly biocontrol agent for the management of southern corn leaf blight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Mechanisms Between Crops and Pathogens)

23 pages, 2656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trehalose-6-Phosphate Promotes Growth, Yield, and Recovery After Pre-Flowering Drought Stress in Adzuki Bean (Vigna angularis)

by Renfeng Xue, Zongji Jin, Jian Chen, Zhao Li, Dong Deng, Yang Zhao, Ming Feng, Tao Li, Yuning Huang, Chao Zhong and Weide Ge

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1279; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131279 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Trehalose-6-phosphate (T6P) is involved in the regulation of plant growth and stress-related responses; however, its potential role in post-drought recovery remains unclear in legume crops. This study evaluated whether foliar application of native T6P could improve growth, yield formation, and physiological recovery in adzuki bean after pre-flowering drought stress. We aimed to propose a model for the production and drought tolerance regulation in adzuki bean. A three-year field experiment was conducted by applying T6P at both the budding stage and the initial pod stage. The plant architecture, yield, photosynthetic characteristics, defensive enzyme activity, sugar metabolism and hormone changes were evaluated. The results indicated that T6P significantly increased root, stem and leaf parameters in adzuki bean it also increased all yield traits except for the main stem branches and sections during post-drought recovery. Indeed, the yield per block of 5μM and 10μM of T6P application during post-drought recovery increased by 20.66% and 31.60% on average compared to the control under well-watered conditions and by 47.68% and 60.20% under drought stress during the three experimental years. Foliar T6P treatment was associated with higher antioxidant enzyme activities and related gene expression, lower ROS accumulation and proline content, and changes in sugar- and hormone-related traits during post-drought recovery. Therefore, foliar application of T6P at the budding and initial pod stages improved growth, yield formation, and post-drought recovery in adzuki bean. The result provide a novel strategy for T6P application for coordinating the high production potential and crop resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Agronomic Traits and Performances Under Stress)

22 pages, 4318 KB

Open AccessArticle

YOLOv11-Pose-BEH: An Enhanced Multi-Scale Attention Network for Tea Bud Detection and Two-Dimensional Picking Point Localization

by Weihao Liu, Junjie He, Chun Wang, Miao Zhou, Chunyan Zhao, Tianyu Wu, Zhiyong Cao, Xinya Chen, Man Zou, Kai Peng, Shasha Feng and Baijuan Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1278; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131278 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

The terrain of tea gardens in Yunnan is complex, and the branches and leaves of tea trees are densely interlaced. Traditional manual picking methods are labor-intensive and inefficient, and can no longer meet the needs of modern tea industry development. To achieve automatic recognition of tea buds and leaves and accurate two-dimensional localization of picking points in complex natural environments, this study constructs a lightweight and high-precision tea bud and leaf detection and keypoint localization model, YOLOv11-pose-BEH, based on the YOLOv11-pose model. Based on the original network, this model introduces the BiFPN feature fusion module to achieve efficient bidirectional transmission of multi-scale information. The EMA (Efficient Multi-scale Attention) mechanism is integrated to form the C2PSA_EMA module, improving the effect of multi-scale feature extraction. HetConv is introduced to form the C3K2_HetConv module, enhancing the extraction of local texture and edge features. Compared with the baseline network, the improved YOLOv11-pose-BEH achieved significant improvements in both tea bud object detection and picking point localization. For the tea bud object detection task, the precision, recall, mAP0.5, and F1-score increased by 7.41, 6.39, 5.28, and 6.88 percentage points, respectively. For the picking point localization task, the precision, recall, mAP0.5, and F1-score increased by 5.86, 5.83, 4.83, and 5.85 percentage points, respectively. These results indicate that the proposed model can achieve more accurate and stable tea bud and leaf detection and two-dimensional picking point localization under complex backgrounds, providing efficient and reliable technical support for the visual perception of intelligent tea-picking robots in tea gardens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

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2 pages, 308 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Li et al. Effects of GmERF5-Responsive Effector on Soybean Symbiotic Nodulation. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1239

by Candong Li, Yuxin Jin, Weinan Tang, Xuemei Li, Chunyan Liu, Jinhui Wang, Xiaoxia Wu, Qingshan Chen, Feishi Luan and Dawei Xin

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1277; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131277 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

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14 pages, 4418 KB

Open AccessArticle

Overexpressing ZmXTH23 Improves Drought and Salt Tolerance in Nicotiana benthamiana

by Qianqian Mao, Fuchao Jiao, Junhua Li, Yuhe Pei, Qiuyue Xing, Jianghao Wang, Huijun Guo, Jun Li, Haoyang Li, Nicola Cannon, Xianmin Chang, Xiyun Song and Xinmei Guo

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1276; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131276 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Maize (Zea mays L.), a critical global food crop, suffers severe yield losses from drought and salt stresses. Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs) are cell wall-modifying enzymes regulating plant growth and abiotic stress responses, but the role of -ZmXTH23 in drought and salt tolerance remains unclear. Here, we heterologously expressed ZmXTH23 in Nicotiana benthamiana (N. benthamiana) and confirmed its extracellular localization. ZmXTH23-overexpressing (OE) lines showed significantly increased plant height, root length, and shoot fresh weight under normal conditions. Under 350 mM NaCl or drought stress, the OE lines exhibited enhanced tolerance, with less leaf wilting, higher biomass, and larger leaf area. Physiologically, the OE lines had higher peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and relative water content (RWC), but lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Additionally, OE seeds maintained ≥50% germination under 120 mM NaCl (WT: 0%) and nearly 100% under 200 mM mannitol. ZmXTH23 improves drought and salt tolerance in N. benthamiana by upregulating antioxidant enzymes and enhancing water retention, making it a promising candidate for maize stress-resistance breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Crop Molecular Breeding and Genetics—2nd Edition)

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36 pages, 29389 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of Variable-Stiffness Control for Robotic Arms and Prospects for Application in Agricultural Environments

by Jie Deng, Jizhan Liu, Wenjie Gao, Yong Jiang and Wei Wei

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1275; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131275 - 1 Jul 2026

Abstract

The integration of agricultural science, artificial intelligence, and robotics has accelerated the development of robotic arms, significantly enhancing their potential applications across various fields. In light of the unique characteristics of agricultural environments, this paper provides a comprehensive review of variable-stiffness control methods for robotic arms. A robotic arm with rigid–flexible switching capabilities can effectively address collision safety concerns in complex agricultural environments, offering promising research prospects. This paper outlines recent advancements in variable-stiffness control techniques, including passive control methods based on materials and flexible devices, active control methods based on algorithms, and hybrid methods that combine control algorithms with flexible devices. Additionally, it discusses the technical challenges and future opportunities regarding deploying variable-stiffness robotic arms in agricultural environments. The aim of this paper is to provide theoretical and technical insights to support the efficient and versatile development of agricultural robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics and Automation in Farming—2nd Edition)

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35 pages, 4458 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Fruit Tree Canopy Branch Feature Extraction and 3D Reconstruction Algorithms

by Yong Jiang, Jing Chen and Shengyi Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1274; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131274 - 1 Jul 2026

Abstract

Accurate perception and 3D reconstruction of fruit tree branch structures are fundamental to smart orchard development, with broad applications in intelligent harvesting, crop phenotyping, and precision management. However, the slender and highly branched morphology, multi-scale distribution, weak surface texture, and severe occlusion inherent to fruit tree branches pose substantial challenges to high-fidelity modeling. This paper systematically reviews advances in branch feature extraction and 3D reconstruction for fruit tree canopies. A structured literature search was conducted using the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, with search terms including “fruit tree branch”, “point cloud reconstruction”, “3D canopy modeling”, “branch feature extraction”, and “agricultural robotics”. Studies published between 2000 and 2025 were considered, with inclusion criteria requiring relevance to branch structure perception, reconstruction accuracy, or orchard application; non-peer-reviewed sources and studies lacking quantitative evaluation were excluded. We trace the evolution of feature extraction from classical 2D image processing and geometric fitting, through point cloud segmentation and skeleton extraction, to modern deep learning approaches and multimodal perception techniques. For 3D reconstruction, we compare active and passive sensing strategies alongside both explicit and implicit scene representation methods, discussing their respective strengths and applicable scenarios. A five-dimensional evaluation framework is also proposed, encompassing geometric accuracy, structural consistency, feature stability, computational efficiency, and generalization capability. Finally, we identify key bottlenecks in fine-grained structure recovery, occlusion handling, and cross-scene generalization, and highlight future directions in structural prior integration, multimodal collaborative modeling, and lightweight neural representations—offering a structured reference for advancing 3D perception research in smart orchards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

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20 pages, 914 KB

Open AccessArticle

Plant-Based Repellency Against Tribolium castaneum for Preserving Mesquite Pod Flour as Livestock Feed

by Itzel Celeste Romero-Soto, Irma Robles-Rodríguez, Lucero Aviles-Mejía, Rosa M. Camacho-Ruiz, Jorge A. Rodríguez, Ruben Espinosa-Salgado, Elba González-Aguayo, Cintya A. Segura-Trujillo and M. Angeles Camacho-Ruiz

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131273 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

In arid and semi-arid regions, mesquite (Prosopis laevigata) pods represent a strategic feed resource for low-input livestock systems; however, the utilization of mesquite pod flour is severely limited by insect infestation during storage. This study evaluated the repellent effectiveness of Ricinus communis leaves and stems as plant-based additives for preserving mesquite pod flour against storage insects, primarily Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Dose-dependent repellency was assessed in a three-chamber choice-test system at concentrations of 1, 5, 10, and 20% (w·w⁻¹), combining short-term laboratory assays with a 14-month storage experiment under ambient conditions representative of rural dryland systems. R. communis leaves exhibited a strong concentration-dependent repellent effect, consistently outperforming stem material. Logistic regression indicated that each 1% increase in leaf concentration increased the odds of insects remaining in the untreated substrate by 17%. Long-term storage assays showed that botanical additives altered insect population structure, while only R. communis leaf powder at 10% showed lower total insect abundance relative to the control. Proximate analysis revealed additional protein contribution from R. communis leaves, while ricin-like proteins remained at low concentrations in vegetative tissues. Overall, the results validate a traditional preservation practice and support the use of R. communis leaf biomass as a plant-based additive for protecting mesquite flour in dryland livestock systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Grassland Productivity and Sustainability—3rd Edition)

9 pages, 508 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Glyphosate Injury and Forage Bermudagrass Regrowth Using Canopeo

by Lucas F. Abreu, Misha R. Manuchehri, João A. Antonangelo, Carla L. Goad and Alexandre C. Rocateli

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1272; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131272 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Visual injury estimates are criticized for their subjective nature. Thus, a quantitative method might improve glyphosate injury assessment. This study aimed to develop a quantitative method to determine glyphosate injury on two bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] cultivars, ‘Greenfield’ and ‘Goodwell’, based on a Canopeo-based green canopy cover reduction (GCCR) method. The experimental design was a completely randomized factorial containing the two bermudagrass cultivars and five glyphosate rates (0.39, 0.53, 1.06, 1.54, and 3.08 kg a.i. ha⁻¹) plus a nontreated control. Visual green canopy cover and GCCR ratings were measured at 8, 16, and 24 days after glyphosate application (DAG). The commonly used visual rating and the Canopeo-based GCCR method correlated. Bland–Altman analysis showed that at low glyphosate rates (0.39 and 0.53 kg a.i. ha⁻¹), the GCCR method overestimated injury compared to visual ratings, while at higher rates (1.54 and 3.08 kg a.i. ha⁻¹), GCCR underestimated injury values by over 30% for Greenfield and 40% for Goodwell. Despite these inconsistencies, both methods yielded similar conclusions. Further research is needed to validate the Canopeo-based GCCR method for other weed species in addition to traditional visual ratings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Weed Science and Weed Management)

18 pages, 7981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis and Characterization of CYP450 Gene Family and Its Functional Analysis in Celery Seeds (Apium graveolens L.)

by Qian Qiu, Zhiwu Huang, Aisheng Xiong, Guofei Tan, Sucheng Ren, Daguo Gu, Hengyu Meng, Luzhao Pan, Weimin Zhu and Jun Yan

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1271; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131271 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

The Cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily plays an important role in the regulation of plant growth and development. However, the composition, evolutionary characteristics, and potential functions of CYPs in celery remain largely unexplored. Therefore, the objective of this study was to perform a genome-wide characterization of the Apium graveolens Cytochrome P450 (AgCYP) gene family and investigate its potential roles in seed development. In this study, a total of 227 AgCYPs were identified, and phylogenetic analysis classified them into six clades. Conserved motif and domain evaluations indicated that most AgCYP proteins possess conserved P450 domains. Chromosomal localization revealed an unequal distribution of AgCYPs across the 11 celery chromosomes. Duplicated AgCYP gene pairs were identified by synteny and Ka/Ks analyses, indicating that the duplicated AgCYPs have undergone strong purifying selection. Inter-genomic synteny analysis further reflects the closer relationship within Apiaceae. Analysis of cis-acting elements in the promoter regions identified an abundance of elements associated with light, hormone, and environmental stress. Moreover, AgCYPs showed stage-specific expression patterns and were correlated with monoterpene and phthalide accumulation during celery seed development, suggesting their potential functions in secondary metabolism in seed development. Treatment with exogenous auxin and its transport and biosynthesis inhibitors differentially induced distinct expression responses among AgCYPs, indicating their possible participation in auxin-related regulatory pathways. Moreover, candidate genes were selected. They exhibited diverse tissue-specific expression patterns and were potentially localized to the endoplasmic reticulum and interacted with some auxin-related proteins. In conclusion, this study provides the first comprehensive framework for understanding the functional diversification of AgCYPs in celery seeds, providing new insights into the evolutionary features and biological functions of the AgCYP gene family and establishing a foundation for future functional studies and molecular breeding applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

16 pages, 2607 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Competitive Interactions in Weed Communities Under Crop Rotation and Tillage

by Guillermo L. Calandrini, María Belén D’Amico, Beatriz Marrón, Guillermo R. Chantre and Jose L. Gonzalez-Andujar

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1270; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131270 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Understanding how weed species interact over long timescales is essential for predicting community dynamics and developing sustainable weed management strategies. This study analyzes the structure and stability of competitive interactions within a weed community composed of Descurainia sophia, Fumaria spp., Papaver rhoeas and Veronica hederifolia using a 20-year dataset from a long-term cereal–legume rotation experiment conducted under conventional and no-tillage systems in central Spain. Intra- and interspecific interactions were quantified using discrete-time, density-dependent population models based on Lotka–Volterra competition theory, and the extent to which crop phase and tillage system altered competitive relationships was evaluated. Results indicated that competitive structures remained stable as neither tillage nor crop phase modified the estimated coefficients. This suggests that management primarily affected population densities rather than the strength of the interactions. Competitive hierarchies were characterized by asymmetric effects among species, with Fumaria spp. exerting strong suppressive effects on weaker competitors. Overall, the findings support the prominent role of density-dependent regulation, particularly intraspecific competition, in shaping long-term weed community dynamics. These results provide a basis for more targeted weed management by helping to identify species that may require active control versus those that could be tolerated under specific conditions, potentially supporting reduced herbicide inputs and more sustainable agroecosystem management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Research on Weed Populations and Community Dynamics)

15 pages, 8535 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Non-Specific Lipid Transfer Protein Gene OsLTP10 Regulates Fatty Acid Metabolism and Grain Quality in Rice

by Taoli Liu, Hao Zhou, Qin Xie, Yunhua Zhu, Penghui Shen, Fanzi Chen, Zhoufei Luo, Haiou Li, Yanning Tan, Zhigang Huang, Ruozhong Wang, Yi Su, Qing Liu and Langtao Xiao

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1269; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131269 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

The non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTPs) are able to bind various hydrophobic compounds and facilitate the transport of fatty acids between intracellular membranes, and nsLTPs are found in rice endosperm and embryo during seed development. However, whether nsLTPs function as lipid carriers and thereby affect lipid metabolism in rice grains remains unclear. To elucidate whether nsLTPs influence fatty acid distribution in rice, we generated OsLTP10-OE (OsLTP10 overexpression) and OsLTP10-CR (OsLTP10 CRISPR/Cas9) lines. Phenotypic and metabolic analyses indicated that OsLTP10 expression is closely associated with fatty acid (FA) profiles and grain appearance. In general, total fatty acid content in the brown rice of OsLTP10-OE was higher than that in wildtype, but OsLTP10-CR was lower than wildtype. While FA accumulation was altered in both tissues, the endosperm (milled grain) was more severely affected than the bran, with individual FAs in the milled grains of OsLTP10-OE expanding by 31.87–52.00%. Additionally, key grain quality traits were substantially altered; OsLTP10-CR lines displayed a significantly enlarged white-belly chalkiness area alongside a 19.50% reduction in amylose content, whereas OsLTP10-OE lines showed decreased chalkiness and a 7.80% increase in amylose. Overall, the fatty acid content and composition, chalkiness, brown rice size, and amylose were influenced by OsLTP10. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of CRISPR–Cas in Evolving Agriculture and Plant Biotechnology)

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23 pages, 975 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Biochar as an Additive in Co-Composting: Impacts on Physicochemical Properties, Enzyme Activity, and Substrate Quality

by Gonzalo Carreño, Ricardo Marambio, Uri Aceituno-Valenzuela, Humberto Aponte, Marcela Calabi-Floody, Rodrigo Ivan Contreras-Soto, Claudia Rojas and Jorge Medina

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1268; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131268 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable alternatives to non-renewable growing media components, such as sphagnum peat, has driven interest in compost–biochar combinations as high-quality horticultural substrates. Nevertheless, the effects of incorporating biochar at the onset of co-composting on process dynamics and the quality of the resulting end-products remain poorly understood and insufficiently characterized. This study evaluated the influence of hardwood residue-derived biochar as an additive on the co-composting of corn stover and swine manure under greenhouse conditions over 94 days. Three treatments were established: a Control (C; without biochar), CB1 (10% v/v biochar), and CB2 (20% v/v biochar), each with three replicates. Physicochemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, water holding capacity, bulk density, particle size distribution, total organic carbon), enzyme activities (FDA hydrolysis, dehydrogenase, urease, arginine ammonification, acid phosphatase, arylsulfatase), compost stability (Solvita^® test), and phytotoxicity (germination index) were monitored throughout the process and at process completion. Results showed that biochar addition significantly influenced physicochemical and biological parameters in a dose-dependent manner. The CB2 treatment reduced electrical conductivity by 46% relative to the Control (1.87 vs. 3.45 mS/cm) and increased water-holding capacity by 32% (479 vs. 364%), while all treatments met the Chilean composting standard NCh 2880. Enzyme activities were generally higher in the Control and CB1 treatments, indicating that high biochar rates may limit microbial activity due to recalcitrant carbon inputs, yet a 20% biochar addition improved compost maturity and reduced phytotoxicity. These findings indicate that, within the tested range (10–20% v/v), biochar incorporation appears to enhance the quality, supporting its potential as a sustainable component in growing media formulations as an alternative to peat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Waste Management Through Composting: Benefits, New Insights and Challenges, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flight Dynamics of the True Armyworm (Mythimna unipuncta) in a Maize Agroecosystem in Southeast Romania

by Emil Georgescu, Maria Toader, Ioan Sebastian Brumă, Lidia Cană and Horhocea Daniela

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1267; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131267 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

True armyworm (Mythimna unipuncta) is a polyphagous pest that damages forage grasses, small grains, or maize crops. This pest is found in the Americas, Western Africa, Asia, and Europe. The true armyworm was detected in Romania a few decades ago, but no studies have examined its flight dynamics in crops. This paper presents five years of results from monitoring the flight dynamics of the true armyworm (Mythimna unipuncta) using pheromone traps, and two years of field assessments for larvae scouting at maize plants. The field site is in southeastern Romania, in Călărași County, at the National Agricultural Research and Development Institute in Fundulea, within a temperate continental climate. Five moths were captured in the traps in 2021; 18 moths were captured in 2022; 32 in 2023; 38 in 2024, and 22 moths were captured in 2025. In 2021, the true armyworm flight started on 21 September and ended on 27 October; in 2022, the flight started on 31 October and ended on 25 November; in 2023, the flight started on 23 October and ended on 22 November; in 2024 the flight started on 8 October and ended on 28 November; while in 2025 the flight started on 3 October and ended on 25 November. Results from maize plant assessments for true armyworm larval scouting indicate that no larvae were detected in the last twenty days of July during 2024 and 2025, August, and the first ten days of September. This is the first report in the Romanian literature concerning the constant presence of the true armyworm during autumn in the southeast of this country over the last five years. However, the pest population density in this country did not reach pest levels, but this situation could change in the future due to global warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Aspects as a Basis for Future Pest Integrated Management—2nd Edition)

28 pages, 1285 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Flowering Companion Plants on Black Bean Aphid (Aphis fabae Scop.) Abundance and Predatory Syrphid (Diptera, Syrphidae) Occurrence in Red Beetroot

by Maria Pobożniak, Urszula Waligóra and Elżbieta Wojciechowicz-Żytko

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1266; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131266 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the effect of phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia), dill (Anethum graveolens), and mustard (Sinapis alba) used as companion plants in red beetroot cultivation on the occurrence of Aphis fabae and predatory Syrphidae. Flowering plants were established along the edges of the beetroot crop. Aphid populations on beetroot were monitored, while syrphid larvae and pupae were collected from aphid colonies, and adult syrphids were sampled from flowers of the companion plants. The results show that beetroots grown without flowering companions had significantly higher aphid populations. The strongest aphid reduction occurred in red beetroot grown near phacelia, with aphid numbers 7.9–52.7 times lower than in control plots. Flowering strips increased the abundance of hoverfly larvae and pupae in aphid colonies, with the highest numbers recorded near dill. In total, 440 predatory syrphid larvae and pupae representing 11 species were collected from black bean aphid colonies on beetroots, whereas 3246 hoverfly adults from 46 species were observed on flowering plants, confirming their role in biological aphid control. In both cases, the eudominant group included E. balteatus, S. menthastri, and S. scripta. Dill flowers were the most attractive in terms of the number of captured syrphid specimens, whereas mustard showed the highest species diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pests and Diseases Management Reimagined: Biocontrol Approaches)

23 pages, 3499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Farmland Abandonment Reshapes Surface Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics in the Hilly Red Soil Region of South China

by Wei Song

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1265; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131265 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Farmland abandonment is a widespread land-use transition that may reshape surface soil organic carbon (SOC), yet its effects in the hilly red-soil region of South China remain insufficiently understood. Here, 30 m-resolution CLCD land-cover data, 90 m-resolution SOC data, and environmental variables were integrated with trajectory tracking, paired-sample comparison, temporal gradient analysis, geostatistics, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) to identify abandoned farmland and assess the SOC responses. The results showed that farmland abandonment rates fluctuated between 0.7% and 6.6% during 2000–2020, with abandonment hotspots progressively shifting toward the 2015–2020 period. Approximately 87% of abandoned farmland occurred in low-slope areas (0–15°). At the regional scale, farmland abandonment did not produce a consistent enhancement of surface SOC, with a negligible mean difference between abandoned and control farmland (−0.020 g/kg). This weak regional mean response masked contrasting local changes, with 43.76% of samples showing SOC gains and 46.59% showing SOC losses, indicating that spatial heterogeneity rather than the net regional effect is central to interpreting abandonment-induced SOC responses. Abandonment duration exhibited pronounced temporal gradient effects, with the strongest SOC accumulation occurring during the 5–10-year stage, followed by gradual stabilization. The GWR results indicated that abandonment duration was negatively associated with SOC change rates, whereas the annual mean NDVI showed a positive association, reflecting the combined effects of vegetation recovery, topographic conditions, and human activity intensity. These findings support spatially differentiated carbon accounting and abandoned-farmland management in subtropical hilly agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Degradation and Management Strategies: Contributing to Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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39 pages, 4802 KB

Open AccessArticle

Crop-Masked Vegetation Indices and TerraClimate for District-Level Wheat Yield Prediction in Kazakhstan: SAVI Advantage, Climate Dominance, and Temporal Transferability Limits

by Marua Alpysbay, Serik Nurakynov, Anvar Gapparov and Azamat Kaldybayev

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1264; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131264 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Accurate district-level wheat yield forecasting is critical for Kazakhstan, the world’s seventh-largest wheat exporter. Prior remote-sensing studies typically compute vegetation indices over entire administrative units without isolating cropland, diluting the crop-specific signal and biassing remote-sensing–climate comparisons. A 25-year (2000–2024) dataset was assembled for 149 Kazakh districts (n = 2378 district–year observations, ~390 features), integrating crop-masked Sentinel-2/Landsat-7 optical indices, Sentinel-1 SAR, TerraClimate, and station, soil, and terrain data, and a HistGradientBoosting model was evaluated under both spatial (GroupKFold) and temporal (expanding-window) cross-validation. Ten-metre cropland masking substantially improved index–yield correlations, especially early in the season, and SAVI consistently outperformed NDVI from June onward. The best configuration—crop-masked optical indices with TerraClimate—achieved R² = 0.646 (RMSE = 0.349 t/ha) under spatial cross-validation, whereas adding SAR yielded no significant gain. Pre-season winter-climate data (January–March) reached about 91% of full-year accuracy, enabling forecasts months before sowing. Critically, temporal cross-validation produced a markedly lower mean R² = 0.413, a predictability gap (ΔR² = 0.233) that provides a more representative estimate of operational forecast accuracy. Residuals showed no significant spatial autocorrelation. These results indicate that cropland masking and joint reporting of spatial and temporal cross-validation are valuable for yield prediction in semi-arid continental environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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19 pages, 8190 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Important Role of nosZII Clade N₂O Reducers in Reducing N₂O Emissions After Soil Rewetting in a Neutral Vegetable Soil

by Lei Yu, Qiumei Li, Yunxuan Han, Hui Cui, Yan Zhang, Dong Guo, Xia Gao and Xiaoya Xu

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1263; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131263 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Future climate models indicate an enhanced severity of regional drought and more frequent rewetting events, which may cause cascading impacts on the nitrogen cycle and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, and the underlying microbial mechanism remains largely unknown. Here we conducted an incubation study on the impact of different soil moisture statuses on N₂O producers and N₂O reducers following the application of different fertilizer types (urea and manure) on a neutral vegetable soil. The different soil moisture treatments included 100% field capacity, drought, and rewetting (50% to 100% field capacity). Results showed that the N₂O emissions significantly decreased under drought conditions. Only ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and fungal nirK were well adapted to drought stress in the control soil. Different fertilizers modulated the resilience of the functional guilds. Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), nirK-type denitrifying bacteria and nosZ clade (both I and II) showed significant resilience in both fertilized and non-fertilized soils in response to soil rewetting. Soil rewetting also changed the underlying microbial mechanisms of N₂O emissions. The results show a more significant negative relationship between N₂O emissions and nosZI clade at 100% field capacity, as well as nosZII clade after soil rewetting. We highlight the significant role of the nosZII clade following soil rewetting events, which might be one factor that led to relatively lower N₂O emissions compared to those at 100% field capacity. Our results provide new insights into developing mitigation strategies by fostering nosZII, which should be studied further in other cropland ecosystems or vegetable systems with frequent irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

22 pages, 6615 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Responses of Soil Thermal Conductivity, Microbial Carbon Use Efficiency, and Soil Organic Carbon to Feedstock-Specific Biochar Under Alternate Drying–Wetting Cycles

by Heng Wan, Gang Cao, Xiangyang Zhang, Ninghui Xie, Jinhui Ma, Yunfei Di, He Ye, Jingxiang Hou, Zhenhua Wei, Hailin Zhang, Fei Li, Mei Hong and Fulai Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(13), 1262; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16131262 - 30 Jun 2026

Abstract

Biochar can alter soil physical conditions, microbial carbon processing, and soil organic carbon (SOC) responses under fluctuating moisture, yet how these changes are coordinated remains insufficiently understood. We conducted a two-season greenhouse pot experiment to examine the initial (first-year) and residual (second-year) effects of wheat-straw biochar (WSB) and softwood biochar (SWB) under conventional deficit irrigation (CDI) and alternate drying–wetting cycles (DWC). Compared with unamended soil, biochar amendment improved water-dispersible microaggregate-size distribution, mean microaggregate size, and water-holding capacity, which contributed to reduced soil thermal conductivity (STC) by 6.0–14.2%. Biochar application also improved microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE) by 41.1–52.3%, with WSB generally showing stronger and more persistent effects than SWB. Relative to CDI, DWC increased soil respiration rate by 14.9–48.8% but decreased CUE by 7.4–10.2% and SOC by 3.0–10.3%, indicating a shift toward greater respiratory carbon loss under repeated moisture fluctuations. Biochar amendment increased SOC across both seasons, particularly under WSB, and partially alleviated the DWC-associated reductions in CUE and SOC. Correlation analyses showed that lower STC was associated with higher CUE and SOC, but these relationships should be interpreted as coordinated associations rather than direct evidence of a causal thermal-regulation mechanism. Principal component and random forest analyses further highlighted STC as a prominent variable associated with variation in CUE and SOC among the measured soil attributes. These findings indicate that biochar-mediated changes in soil physical conditions are closely associated with microbial CUE and SOC responses under drying–wetting cycles, wherein soil thermal properties may represent an important physical dimension of these carbon responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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