Agrochemicals

In Mexico, pecan (Caria illinoienensis Wangenh K. Koch) cultivation is considered a primary agricultural activity of great importance, particularly in the state of Chihuahua. Due to the region’s climatic conditions, the soils used for this crop present several limitations that may restrict their agricultural use, as they often exhibit low or null fertility, classifying them as marginal soils. However, these soils can be rehabilitated through appropriate management practices. Among the main recovery strategies are the application of mineral and organic amendments and the use of plant-growth-promoting microorganisms, all of which are considered environmentally friendly alternatives. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the types of mineral and organic amendments suitable for the recovery of marginal soils in the agronomic management of pecan cultivation. This study was conducted in the San Cristóbal pecan orchard, located in the municipality of Jiménez, Chihuahua, using a 5⁶ factorial design, reduced to 25 treatments through the Taguchi L25 method. Statistical analysis was performed using response surface methodology, and the evaluated parameters included basic, physical, fertility, and cation-exchange properties of the soil. The results showed that zeolite (19.30 t ha⁻¹) and calcium carbonate (12.70 t ha⁻¹) were amendments that produced the greatest effect on the evaluated parameters. The use of these amendments can significantly complement annual fertilization programs, contributing to meeting the crop’s nutritional demands under a sustainable management approach for pecan production. Full article

Silicate rocks represent alternative K sources when finely ground, reducing production costs and dependence on imported fertilizers. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of potassium (K) dose, application timing, and fertilizer sources on the concentrations and accumulation of K, silicon (Si), and sodium (Na) in maize diagnostic leaves, straw, and grains under a no-tillage system in Savanna. The soil was classified as Typic Haplustox (Oxisol). The experiment followed a randomized block design in a 2 × 4 × 3 factorial scheme, with two application times (30 days before sowing soybean and at sowing soybean), four K₂O rates (0, 40, 80, and 120 kg ha⁻¹), and three sources (KCl, Potasil, and Ekosil). K fertilization was applied by broadcasting without incorporation, before the preceding crop. Potasil provided a higher foliar Si concentration, and Si accumulation in grain and straw increased with the increment of K fertilization using the Potasil. Early fertilization promoted greater K accumulation in maize straw. For grain K accumulation, moderate K₂O doses favor greater accumulation, with Ekosil and Potasil showing superior results compared to KCl. There was less sodium accumulation in the grains with Ekosil compared to KCl. Agronomic efficiency is maximized at 40 kg ha⁻¹ of K₂O, with Ekosil showing the best performance for maize crop. These findings indicate that alternative K sources, applied at optimized rates, improve crop nutrition and promote sustainability in soybean–maize crop rotation. Full article

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Asteraceae), commonly known as bitter leaf, is a tropical shrub that may potentially serve as a biopesticide against the Colorado potato beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a key pest of potatoes. The beetle’s behavioral response to the methanolic leaf extract of V. amygdalina was evaluated in this study. Using no-choice, dual-choice, and wind-tunnel assays under laboratory conditions, we evaluated responses of larvae and adults to potato leaf discs treated with V. amygdalina extract in a randomized complete block design, measuring feeding behavior, leaf damage levels, and remaining leaf area. The results showed that V. amygdalina had no biocidal effects against the beetle, as no mortality was incurred. However, dose-linked antifeedant effects were evident in both no-choice and dual-choice arenas. Vernonia amygdalina minimized leaf-area loss most effectively at the highest concentration, especially against the larvae. The extract showed no olfactory repellency but acted as an antifeedant, possibly through contact or taste (gustatory) receptors. The consistent behavioral avoidance at higher concentrations suggests that V. amygdalina acts as a form of deterrent against the Colorado potato beetle. Full article

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are extensively used in modern agriculture to modify plant developmental processes, enhance productivity, and improve crop quality under increasingly variable environmental conditions. While their agronomic benefits are well established, growing attention has been directed toward understanding their broader environmental implications. In this current review, we analyze recent research published over the last five years to evaluate the environmental behavior and ecological impacts of widely used natural and synthetic plant growth regulators. Particular emphasis is placed on their persistence and mobility in soil and water, their interactions with soil microbial communities, and their effects on non-target terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Recent advances in analytical detection and ecotoxicological assessment have revealed that several PGRs, despite being applied at low doses, may exhibit prolonged environmental residence and subtle biological effects, particularly following repeated applications. Alterations in soil enzyme activity, shifts in microbial community structure, and growth disturbances in non-target plants and aquatic primary producers have been increasingly reported. The review also discusses emerging strategies aimed at reducing environmental risks, including precision application technologies, the development of biodegradable regulators, and improved regulatory frameworks. Overall, these findings highlight the need for integrated risk assessment approaches and long-term field studies to support the sustainable use of plant growth regulators in agroecosystems. Full article

Farmers worldwide use agrochemicals and biological inputs to fertilize fields, manage pests and diseases, and promote plant growth. However, there is still limited field-based evidence on the extent to which biological inputs function as substitutes, incremental complements, or alternatives to agrochemicals in key farming practices. This study presents preliminary results on the use of synthetic and biological inputs for the most common practices employed by large soybean farmers in central Brazil. We combined literature review, regulatory data on registered biological products, and in-person interviews with farmers and market experts. Our results show that, in most practices, biological products are adopted alongside the continued use of synthetic inputs, in some cases reducing the frequency or dosage of chemical applications. Inoculants based on nitrogen-fixing bacteria already substitute mineral nitrogen fertilization in soybean, while biosolubilizers and plant activators are used incrementally to enhance the efficiency of chemical fertilizers. Bioinsecticides and biofungicides are predominantly employed as alternatives within spray programs, especially in preventive or early interventions, thereby reducing the number of conventional pesticide sprays. Bionematicides emerge as the main biological tools used as substitutes for synthetic nematicides in preventive treatments, whereas biological herbicides are not yet available on the market. Field evidence presented in this study showed that farmers adopt biological products in diverse ways, including as substitutes, incremental, or alternatives to chemical products, depending on the technologies available. These findings provide a more nuanced understanding than the common views that, on one hand, biological inputs simply complement rather than substitute chemical products, and on the other, that biological solutions can fully substitute synthetic products. As environmental and economic implications, we conclude that biological inputs can underpin trajectories towards more regenerative management in large-scale soybean systems, even when synthetic inputs remain part of the production matrix. Full article

Zinc (Zn) is a mineral that plays a vital role in the growth and development processes of different plants. Although it is required in small quantities, its presence is essential in a crop. In recent years, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have garnered significant interest in agriculture due to their unique physical and chemical properties. As a result, they can be used as alternative fertilizers to help crops experiencing mineral deficiency, stress, or fungal problems. These nanomaterials can be obtained through various synthesis methods, including sol–gel, chemical precipitation, microemulsion, and green synthesis, among others. This enables managing their size, shape, and internal arrangement, establishing their ultimate characteristics and feasible uses. In this review, we will present some of the most commonly used synthesis methods for obtaining ZnO NPs, the frequently used characterization techniques, as well as some of the positive and toxic effects caused by their application in crops. Full article

Florpyrauxifen-benzyl (FPB) is an auxin-mimic herbicide that controls selected grasses, sedges, and broadleaves in rice cropping systems. Field experiments were conducted in 2023 and 2024 to characterize the effects of FPB on crop safety and weed control when applied alone or in combination with other herbicides, and to assess whether FPB can provide season-long, effective weed management. Base treatments of benzobicyclon (BBC)/halosulfuron-methyl (HSM), clomazone (CLM), or thiobencarb (TBC) were applied on the day of seeding (DOS) or within the 2-leaf stage (LS) rice and followed by foliar treatments of FPB alone or in a mixture with bispyribac-sodium (BPS), penoxsulam (PNX)/cyhalofop-butyl (CHB), or propanil (PPL). Additionally, FPB was applied alone with no prior base treatment, in combination with a mixture partner, and as a sequential treatment, 14 days apart, with the first application made to 4- to 5-LS rice; in contrast, the second application was made to mid-tillering rice. The FPB applied alone or in sequential application showed results for more than 98% of watergrasses and 100% of ricefield bulrush, smallflower umbrella sedge, ducksalad, redstems, and all other broadleaves control at 56 days after treatment (DAT). When applied after the base treatments, the weed control increased to 100% for all weed species at 14 DAT. The sequential application of FPB achieved the highest yields of 7683 kg ha⁻¹ in 2023 and 11,249 kg ha⁻¹ in 2024, resulting in 3.6- and 6.4-fold increases in rice yield over the nontreated control. Owing to its excellent sedge and broadleaf weed control and good activity on troublesome grasses, such as barnyardgrass, FPB could be an essential part of the weed management programs in rice production systems. Full article

The foliar pathogens of wheat, particularly Zymoseptoria tritici and Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, represent a significant threat to yield. We used a SEIR (Susceptible–Exposed–Infected–Removed) model to quantify epidemic dynamics based on different fungicide application strategies, focusing on the daily dynamic growth rate r(t) (net infection increase) and the removal rate γ(t) (loss infectious tissue) after BBCH 37. In Scenario A (treatment of seed with Systiva^®), the r(t) of Z. tritici was positive only during the early phase of the epidemic, followed by progressive suppression over time, while the r(t) for P. tritici-repentis remained negative throughout. Scenario B (seed treatment combined with foliar propiconazole) resulted in uniformly negative r(t) values for both pathogens, indicating stronger and sustained suppression. These findings highlight the practical utility of epidemic growth rate modeling for evaluating fungicide strategies and support integrated seed + foliar applications as a robust approach to disease management in wheat. Full article

Field-evolved resistance of Helicoverpa zea to crops expressing Cry insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is widespread across the United States. To comparatively evaluate physiological factors associated with Bt susceptibility, we analyzed two laboratory strains (Benzon and SIMRU) and one field colony obtained from a commercial corn field near Pickens, Arkansas. Biochemical assays of larval midgut extracts showed that Pickens exhibited significantly altered activities of chymotrypsin-like proteases, aminopeptidase N (APN), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) compared with the SIMRU or Benzon colonies, with differences varying by larval instar. In contrast, trypsin-like protease activities did not differ significantly among the three colonies. Gene expression analyses of ten serine protease genes and seven candidate Cry receptor genes (including cadherin, ATP-binding cassette family C2, ALP, and four APN genes) revealed significant transcriptional differences in the Pickens relative to the lab colonies. Collectively, these results suggest that chymotrypsin-like proteases may play an important role in the activation of Cry toxins in H. zea. Altered chymotrypsin and APN activities, together with differential gene expressions in the Pickens population, likely contribute to reduced Bt susceptibility. The biochemical and molecular differences provide insight into potential physiological factors underlying reduced Bt susceptibility and may inform future Bt resistance monitoring and management strategies. Full article

Drosophila suzukii (Diptera) is a polyphagous fly responsible for a huge loss in production of thin-skinned berries, usually controlled with low-selective synthetic pesticides, which can be toxic for biodiversity and human health. Biorational control of D. suzukii is challenging, despite many known lethal compounds, since most experiments happen in laboratory conditions, and agroecosystems include complex biotic and abiotic variables. Nanoencapsulation rises as an efficient alternative for optimizing pesticide development by protecting active ingredients and increasing selectivity. This review aimed to gather recent (over the last 5 years) research about plant-derived insecticides with the potential to control D. suzukii, examining their toxicity mechanisms and exposure methods, and to identify research gaps and perspectives, especially for nanoproducts. These efforts resulted in the selection of 31 articles, evaluating lethality and behavioral modulation caused by plant-based compounds, which exerted mainly attraction, repellency, and oviposition deterrence. Most studies were carried out under laboratory conditions, mostly testing plants from the Lamiaceae and Asteraceae botanical families, indicating essential oils as potential short-life pesticides against every life stage of D. suzukii, although their physicochemical instability limits field application. There are few studies addressing nano-pesticides for controlling D. suzukii, and these data contribute to botanical prospection for pesticide compounds and point to the development of plant-based nano-pesticides for controlling D. suzukii as a research gap with potential to enable field trials. Full article

The fungicide Imazalil (IMZ) is widely used to maintain the freshness of fruits and vegetables after harvest. Despite its widespread use, the neurotoxic effects of IMZ remain poorly studied. Thus, in this work, we aimed to investigate the effects of subacute IMZ exposure on memory and learning, as well as on cholinesterase (ChE) activity, in orally exposed rats. To do so, Wistar rats were exposed to doses corresponding to 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 of the LD50 of IMZ. Each dose was divided into four equal parts and administered once daily for four consecutive days, while behavioral performance was assessed using the Barnes Maze. On day 5, we measured ChE activity in the hippocampus and serum. The enzymatic activity assays demonstrated a dose-dependent decrease in both cholinesterase activities at 1/4 LD50 of IMZ. In addition, rats in the control group exhibited a typical learning curve in the Barnes maze, characterized by reduced latency and fewer attempts to locate the escape box from the first session (S1) to the final session (S4). The typical learning curve was prevented by a 1/4 LD50 treatment. Additionally, this dose prevented an increase in spatial navigation strategy use, observed in the control group (S1 vs. S4). To our knowledge, these results proved that IMZ inhibits in vivo the activity of both brain and serum ChEs, and exhibits evidence of learning and memory impairments, suggesting that IMZ has neurotoxic effects in rats, probably mediated by alterations in the cholinergic system. Full article

Maize is vital for food systems and rural livelihoods in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Continuous cultivation depletes soil nutrients, reducing maize production. Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers provide nutrients rapidly, but their cost and sustainability concerns have prompted interest in alternatives. Biological amendments improve nutrient uptake and soil structure and boost crop resistance, potentially cutting mineral fertilizer use. The present study aims to investigate the direct and residual effects of biological amendments (BAs) on maize productivity in the Eastern DRC, both when applied alone or combined with inorganic fertilizer, with trials conducted in the Kabare, Kalehe, and Ruzizi Plain regions from October 2022 to June 2024. Two trials across four seasons gathered data using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with nine treatments and three replicates: Control, without fertilizer application; farmer practice; inorganic fertilizer (NPK 17-17-17 and urea); BA_1: Lactobacillus; BA_2: fish serum; BA_3: black soldier fly (BSF) compost; BA_1 + inorganic fertilizer; BA_2 + inorganic fertilizer; and BA_3 + inorganic fertilizer. The results identified three categories: integrated organic and inorganic fertilizers, single applications, and inconsistent uses. The best outcomes emerged from treatments combining Lactobacillus, fish serum, and BSF compost with inorganic fertilizer, positively impacting maize yield parameters. The study confirms that combining biological amendments and mineral fertilizers significantly (p < 0.001) enhances maize productivity in the Eastern DRC. Performance differences across locations emphasize the influence of local soil characteristics and targeted nutrient strategies. Full article

This study provides a comprehensive long-term assessment of dithiocarbamate (DTC) fungicide residues in foods consumed in Brazil, analyzing nearly two decades of official monitoring data from the Pesticide Residue Analysis Program (PARA/ANVISA) from 2001 to 2023. By integrating fragmented annual reports into a single temporal framework, this study offers a novel evaluation of detection frequencies, residue levels, and regulatory compliance over time. Of the 21,274 samples analyzed, 23.90% contained residues of these fungicides. Papaya showed the highest detection frequency (92.59%) in 2005, while apple showed the highest average percentage of detections (51.68%). Lettuce showed the highest residual levels (10.05 mg kg⁻¹) in samples from the 2017–2018 cycle, despite the lack of authorization for the use of these products in this crop. Strawberries and carrots showed concentrations above the maximum residue limit (MRL), with excesses. Residues of unauthorized pesticides were also detected in crops such as guava, pineapple, and sweet potato. Temporal correlations between detections and residues indicated significant variations among the foods evaluated, with potatoes, strawberries, and lettuce showing the highest residual levels. An overall declining trend in detections and residue concentrations was observed throughout the analyzed period, potentially reflecting improvements in regulatory oversight, agricultural practices, and analytical sensitivity over time. From a public health perspective, the persistence of elevated residues and unauthorized uses highlights the need for continuous surveillance, strengthened enforcement, and risk communication strategies to ensure food safety and consumer protection. Full article

The one health approach recognizes the interconnection between human, animal, and environmental health, emphasizing that human health should never be threatened in the pursuit of agricultural productivity. Indeed, within agricultural systems, this approach is particularly relevant, as the overuse of chemical inputs and the mismanagement of organic wastes can directly threaten human health. Overuse of chemical inputs can result in various health disturbances and contribute to the development of acute or chronic human diseases. Likewise, organic wastes constitute potential human health risks due to the presence of pathogens in these wastes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Despite increasing research, many studies often lack integrated risk assessments of agrochemicals and organic waste within a “One Health” framework, leaving gaps in practical guidance for safe agricultural management. This review was conducted to address these gaps and answer the following questions: What are the human health risks associated with agrochemicals and mismanaged organic wastes? How can composting/compost mitigate these risks and support sustainable agricultural production? It examines the role of composting in managing organic wastes, producing high-quality compost, and reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals and pathogens. Furthermore, it outlines key characteristics of compost required to ensure safety for humans, plants, soil, and ecosystems. By integrating evidence on human health and crop productivity, this review provides insights for safe, sustainable agricultural practices within a unified One Health framework. Full article

Enzymes of the sulfur assimilation pathway represent promising candidates for selective herbicide development. This study investigated the effects of O-benzyl-serine (OBS), a newly identified inhibitor of O-acetylserine(thiol)-lyase (OAS-TL), on two C3 weed species, Ipomoea grandifolia and Euphorbia heterophylla. Plants were cultivated hydroponically for 12 days in the presence of OBS (0–500 µM). OBS inhibited root growth in both species in a dose-dependent manner, with I. grandifolia being more sensitive. OAS-TL activity decreased in the roots of I. grandifolia but increased in the leaves of E. heterophylla. Nutrient profiling revealed significant alterations in sulfur, magnesium, and calcium contents, associated with chlorosis and reduced root and leaf development. While photosynthetic performance appeared unaffected at the lowest OBS concentration tested (62.5 µM), higher doses drastically reduced leaf expansion, preventing further measurements. Given this marked decline in foliar development, it is reasonable to infer that the overall photosynthetic capacity of the plants was also negatively affected under severe OBS exposure. OBS also disrupted apical dominance, promoting lateral shoot formation. These findings demonstrate that OBS differentially affects sulfur metabolism and growth in a species- and organ-specific manner, supporting its potential as a prototype molecule for herbicides targeting novel biochemical pathways. Full article

The use of proteolytic enzymes in association with entomopathogenic fungi offers a promising alternative for improving the biological control of insect pests. This study evaluated the compatibility between Beauveria bassiana and papain and the effectiveness of their combined application in controlling Tenebrio molitor. Conidial viability in the presence of papain was monitored for 48 h and showed a reduction in germination from 100% to approximately 70%, without detrimental effects on fungal performance. Papain activity remained stable up to 12 h, declining afterward, indicating biochemical compatibility. Bioassays revealed significant differences among treatments (p < 0.01). In larvae, mortality ranged from 5.18 ± 0.19% in the control to 49.62 ± 2.00% with papain, 62.24 ± 0.58% with conidia, and 89.71 ± 1.06% in the combined treatment; papain and conidia alone did not differ statistically. In pupae, mortality reached 2.20 ± 0.00% in the control, 47.38 ± 0.69% with papain, 63.69 ± 0.69% with conidia, and 85.91 ± 0.84% with the combination, with all treatments differing significantly. Fungal reisolation confirmed typical B. bassiana development. Overall, the results show that papain does not compromise fungal viability and that its combination with B. bassiana enhances entomopathogenic activity, supporting its potential for integrated pest management. Full article

Uniform application of fertilizers and pesticides continues to dominate global agriculture despite significant spatial variability in soil and crop conditions. This mismatch results in avoidable yield gaps, excessive chemical waste, and environmental pressures, including nutrient leaching and greenhouse gas emissions. The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Remote Sensing (RS) has emerged as a transformative framework for diagnosing this variability and enabling site-specific, climate-responsive management. This systematic synthesis reviews evidence from 2000–2025 to assess how AI–RS technologies optimize agrochemical efficiency. A comprehensive search across Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar were used. Following rigorous screening and quality assessment, 142 studies were selected for detailed analysis. Data extraction focused on sensor platforms (Landsat-8/9, Sentinel-1/2, UAVs), AI approaches (Random Forests, CNNs, Physics-Informed Neural Networks), and operational outcomes. The synthesized data demonstrate that AI–RS systems can predict critical soil attributes, specifically salinity, moisture, and nutrient levels, with 80–97% accuracy in some cases, depending on spectral resolution and algorithm choice. Operational implementations of Variable-Rate Application (VRA) guided by these predictive maps resulted in fertilizer reductions of 15–30%, pesticide use reductions of 20–40%, and improvements in water-use efficiency of 25–40%. In fields with high soil heterogeneity, these precision strategies delivered yield gains of 8–15%. AI–RS technologies have matured from experimental methods into robust tools capable of shifting agrochemical science from reactive, uniform practices to predictive, precise strategies. However, widespread adoption is currently limited by challenges in data standardization, model transferability, and regulatory alignment. Future progress requires the development of interoperable data infrastructures, digital soil twins, and multi-sensor fusion pipelines to position these technologies as central pillars of sustainable agricultural intensification. Full article

This systematic review aimed to examine recent advances (2021–2025) in the conversion of agricultural biomass into biomaterials, biofertilizers, and bioproducts. Studies were included when addressing biomass types, pretreatment methods, conversion technologies, or resulting applications. Non-agricultural biomass, non-original research, and works outside the defined timeframe were excluded. Literature was identified in Scopus and Web of Science, complemented by Espacenet, Google Scholar, and institutional databases (USDA, FAO, IRRI, ABARES, UNICA, and CONAB, among others), totaling 108 documents referenced in this work. Risk of bias was minimized through predefined eligibility criteria and full-text assessment. Results were narratively synthesized, supported by figures and tables highlighting technological trends. Studies involving a wide range of agricultural biomasses (e.g., rice straw, corn stover, wheat straw, and sugarcane bagasse) were evaluated. Main outcomes included the development of bioplastics, biofoams, composites, hydrogels, bioceramics, biochar-based fertilizers, organic acids, enzymes, and green solvents. Evidence consistently indicated that pretreatment strongly influences conversion efficiency and that enzymatic and thermochemical routes show the highest potential for integrated biorefineries. Limitations included heterogeneity in biomass composition, variability in methodological quality, and scarcity of large-scale studies. Overall, findings underscore agricultural biomass as a strategic feedstock for circular bioeconomy models, with implications for sustainable materials, renewable energy, and low-carbon agriculture. Continued innovation, supportive policies, and improved logistics are essential for scaling biomass-based technologies. Full article

Organophosphate (OP) insecticide poisoning remains a significant world health issue. Despite attempts to reduce OP insecticide use in some countries, they continue to be used extensively in many regions, putting agricultural workers at risk of excess exposure. Furthermore, the high toxicity and ready availability of OP insecticides in agricultural settings have created an additional public health issue due to their use in attempted suicides. Tens of thousands of people are admitted to hospitals every year after intentional ingestion of OP insecticides. The standard treatment regimen for OP poisoning can prevent mortality, even in some severe cases, but these treatments do not protect the central nervous system (CNS) from excitotoxic damage, and therefore, additional neuroprotective treatments are needed. One promising treatment is the use of halogenated ether anesthetics, including isoflurane, a common anesthetic available in hospitals throughout the world. Isoflurane can be administered by inhalation using vaporizer equipment, or it can be injected intravenously as a lipid–water emulsion. In both cases, excellent neuroprotection has been observed in preclinical models, even when administered up to 1 h after the onset of OP insecticide poisoning. Prolonged administration was not necessary for neuroprotective efficacy, with administration times of only 5 min being sufficient. Including inhalational anesthetics as an adjunct to the standard treatment for OP poisoning could significantly reduce chronic morbidities, especially long-term CNS damage. Research is ongoing to bring this promising treatment to human trials. Full article