Soil Systems

In soils, it is key to not simply determine the behavior of the major elements but also understand the fate of trace and ultra-trace elements that can often have disproportionate effects on these complex systems. Soils, including agricultural soils, constitute a reservoir of nanoparticles and natural colloids of multiple origins. Nonetheless, only limited information is available on the concentrations and fate of nanoparticles in soils, due largely to the difficulty of distinguishing anthropogenically generated particles from the complex soil matrices in which they are found. Bulk measurements are often unable to quantify the key contributions of trace pollutants (i.e., needle in a haystack); however, single particle techniques have recently become available for studying complex agricultural systems, including soils. For example, the characterization of engineered nanoparticles or incidentally generated particulate pollutants within a natural soil or sediment is now possible using techniques such as single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS). Nonetheless, in order to exploit the single particle techniques, it is first necessary to representatively sample the soils. The approach presented here has been designed to help better understand the impact of incidental and engineered nanoparticles on agricultural soils. In this study, we examine two approaches for extracting colloidal particles (CP) from soils in order to facilitate their characterization by single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry using a sector field- (SP-ICP-SF-MS) and time-of-flight- (SP-ICP-ToF-MS) based instruments. A novel sampling methodology consisting of an ultrasound-assisted continuous-flow extraction (USCFE) was developed and compared to a commonly used batch extraction procedure. Metal containing colloidal particles (M–CP) were quantified and characterized following their extraction in ultrapure water and tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP). At least five successive extraction cycles of 18 h each were required to optimally extract Si–CP (ca. 6 × 10¹⁵ kg⁻¹) using the batch extraction approach, whereas similarly high numbers of CP could be extracted by USCFE in about 3 h. The combined use of continuous flow, ultrasound and TSPP improved the sampling of colloidal particles and nanoparticles from an agricultural soil. Due to its higher sensitivity, SP-ICP-SF-MS was used to measure the smallest detectable M–CP in the soil extracts. SP-ICP-ToF-MS was used to determine the multi-elemental composition of the extracted colloidal particles. Full article

The issue of formulating scientifically sound standards for mercury (Hg) content in Arctic soils is becoming increasingly pertinent in view of the rising human impact and climate change, which serve to augment the mobility of Hg compounds and their involvement in biogeochemical processes. In the absence of uniform criteria for regulating Hg concentrations, it is particularly important to determine its geochemical baseline values and the factors that determine the spatial and vertical distribution of the element in the soil profile. The study conducted a comprehensive investigation of Hg content and patterns of its distribution in various types of tundra soils in the European North-East of Russia. The mass fraction of total Hg was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry, and the spatial features of accumulation were analysed using geoinformation technologies. The distribution of Hg in the soils of the tundra zone was found to be distinctly mosaic in nature, determined by the combined influence of organic matter, granulometric composition, and hydrothermal conditions. It has been established that the complex influence of the physicochemical properties of soils determines the spatial heterogeneity of Hg distribution in the soils of the tundra zone. The most effective Hg accumulators are peat and gley horizons enriched with organic matter and physical clay fraction, while in Podzols, vertical migration of Hg is observed in the presence of a leaching water regime. In order to standardise geochemical baseline Hg values, a 95% upper confidence limit (UCL_95%) is proposed. This approach enables the consideration of natural background fluctuations and the exclusion of extreme values. The results obtained provide a scientific basis for the establishment of standards for Hg content in background soils of the Arctic. Full article

In the context of climate change, alterations to the physico-chemical properties of soils, particularly in Mediterranean regions, are a growing source of preoccupation. This study analyzes the ecological plasticity and biochemical adaptability of Thymus saturejoides to changes in soil physico-chemical properties in four contrasting environments in Morocco’s western High Atlas (TM: Tidili msfioua, SF: Sti fadma, TA: Taouss, TN: Tisi ntast). It highlights the influence of edaphic characteristics on the physiology and metabolic composition of the species, revealing marked soil heterogeneity between sites. The results for the physico-chemical characteristics of the soil revealed marked heterogeneity between sites. Tisi ntast and Taouss soils had the highest values in terms of electrical conductivity (TN: 0.25 dS/m, TA: 0.18 dS/m), available phosphorus (TN: 18.58 ppm and TA: 26.06 ppm) and total nitrogen (TN: 0.27% and TA: 0.14%), associated with a silty texture, suggesting higher fertility. Conversely, the soil at the TM site was characterized by low total nitrogen content (0.09%), a high C/N ratio (24.4) and a sandy-silty texture, indicating more constraining conditions for plant growth. From a physiological standpoint, plants from the TA site had the lowest chlorophyll levels (17.10 mg g⁻¹FW), while those from the TN site showed the highest levels (31.08 mg g⁻¹FW), accompanied by increased protein content and reduced polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase. In contrast, TM plants showed significant accumulation of total soluble sugars (30 mg g⁻¹FW), proline (22.53 µmol g⁻¹FW), hydrogen peroxide (1.33 nmol g⁻¹FW) and malondialdehyde (62.97 nmol g⁻¹FW), reflecting strong activation of oxidative stress responses. On the other hand, plants from the TA site displayed significantly lower levels of these stress markers compared to other sites, suggesting greater physiological resilience. These results highlight the pivotal role of interactions between edaphic and environmental conditions in modulating plant physiological and biochemical responses, shedding light on the ecological adaptation mechanisms of plant species to the contrasting ecosystems of the Western High Atlas. Full article

Marine fog is a key non-rainfall water source that sustains microbial activity and transports dissolved nutrients inland, influencing early soil development in hyperarid ecosystems. However, the mechanisms through which sustained fog inputs drive soil surface modification and biocrust formation remain poorly understood. This study evaluated the effects of long-term fog augmentation on soil surface development, biocrust dynamics, and associated microbial communities in the Atacama Desert. We implemented a four-year fog addition field experiment with three sampling times (T0, T24, T48) to assess changes in soil physicochemical properties, biocrust composition, and the integrated multi-diversity of archaea, bacteria, fungi and protist. Sustained fog input transformed bare soils into biological soil crusts, particularly lichen- and moss-dominated stages. This transition was accompanied by increases in soil nitrogen, variations in organic matter accumulation, a shift from alkaline to near-neutral pH, and improvements in soil stability and water retention. Multi-diversity increased over time and was positively associated with ecosystem variables linked to water availability, structural stabilization, and decomposition. These functions, integrated into an ecosystem multifunctionality index, also increased under prolonged fog input, revealing a positive relationship between multifunctionality and multi-diversity. Overall, the results demonstrate that sustained fog input strongly enhances early soil surface development and biocrust establishment, highlighting the ecological importance of marine fog in shaping biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in hyperarid landscapes. Full article

Soil structure is one of the key soil water-physical properties that determine the water–air regime and ultimately affect soil fertility. This study aimed to test different machine learning (ML) methods in combination with environmental variables (soil and climate) and remote sensing data derived from Landsat 8 for prediction of key structure parameters of topsoil (0–25 cm) in semi-arid areas (Trans-Ural steppe zone, Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia). The all studied soil types (Chernozems (n = 24), Solonchaks (n = 9)) and Solonetzes (n = 12)) characterized by “excellent” aggregate state (the average structural coefficient (Ks) was 6.52, 11.23 and 5.70) and “good” resistance of aggregates to destruction by water (soil aggregate stability coefficient (Ksas)—0.67, 0.65 and 0.70, respectively). The soils had a high proportion of agronomically valuable aggregates (0.25–10 mm, mesoaggregates (MEA)), and a low proportion of blocky/lumpy (>10 mm, macroaggregates (MAA)) and fine/dusty (<0.25 mm, microaggregates (MIA)) ones. In particular, the average share of MIA, MEA, and MAA in Chernozem was 7.63, 83.20, and 11.73%, and in Solonchak, 4.24, 87.91, and 9.74%, respectively. After wet sifting, the water-resistant macroaggregates (WSMAA) were not identified (they were destroyed by water) in all studied soils; the proportion of water-stable mesoaggregates (WSMEA) in Chernozems was 65.92 and microaggregates (WSMIA)—39.67; Solonchaks—74.95 and 22.54; Solonetz soil—66.77 and 33.22%; respectively. Under the ML framework, the best model was achieved for Ksas predictions (R² = 0.50 and RMSE 0.17), where spectral indices (NDWI, EVI, SAVI, and NDVI) were the main predictors. Other ML techniques explained 22-30% variance of the remaining properties. The findings of this study can be valuable in further endeavors for soil water-physical mapping and accelerate the adoption of measures for land management/reclamation planning for landscapes with similar (arid and semi-arid) natural climatic conditions. Full article

This study aimed to quantify and assess the spatial distribution of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K in the soils of the Espora Hydroelectric Power Plant (Espora HPP) and Queixada Small Hydroelectric Power Plant (Queixada SHPP) watershed (model hydraulic development areas) and their relationship with the geological, chemical, physical, and biological aspects of the soil. The study areas are located in the Corrente River drainage basin, in the southwestern portion of the state of Goiás, Brazil. Radionuclides were quantified using a PGIS-2 portable gamma spectrometer, with measurements taken at 21 sampling points. Soil samples were collected from the surface layer (0–20 cm) for particle-size and chemical analyses. The results indicated that the average radionuclide contents in the soils were 64.49 Bq/kg for ⁴⁰K, 45.44 Bq/kg for ²³⁸U, and 4.53 Bq/kg for ²³²Th. When comparing these values with the global average established by UNSCEAR, it was observed that ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K concentrations were below the global reference, whereas ²³⁸U concentration exceeded the world average of 33 Bq/kg. Particle-size characterization revealed significant variability in soil texture, with sand content ranging from 51.46 to 90.91%, clay content from 7.45 to 30.64%, and silt content from 1.64 to 17.90%. Organic matter content had an average of 10.09 g/kg, while soil pH ranged from 4.67 to 6.54. The results of this study have demonstrated the relevance of integrating radiometric and geochemical data for assessing environmental safety in hydroelectric development areas. The approach adopted can support monitoring programs and decision-making processes related to soil management and land-use planning in regions influenced by hydraulic infrastructures. Full article

In arid regions, irrigation is essential for sustaining crop production, but irrigation water often contains high levels of salts that may reduce yields. This study aimed to evaluate crop responses to irrigation water with salinity levels exceeding 4 g/L (≈6.25 dS/m). A large-scale field survey was conducted across several Tunisian governorates, covering a wide range of crops and production systems. Irrigation water salinity and corresponding crop yields were recorded and analyzed to determine tolerance patterns under real farming conditions. Results indicate that, even under high salinity conditions, several cropssuch as carrot (Daucus carota), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and tomato (Solanum lycpersicum), can maintain high yields, highlighting their potential for saline irrigation in arid regions. These findings provide valuable insights for irrigation management, crop selection, and the development of sustainable agricultural practices in arid environments. Full article

Accurate prediction of soil texture is essential for effective soil management, precision agriculture, and hydrological modeling. This study proposes a novel, data-driven approach for estimating soil texture without the need for laboratory-based analysis. High-frequency in situ soil moisture measurements from EnviroSCAN (Sentek Technologies, Stepney, Australia) sensors and satellite-derived vegetation indices (NDVI) from Sentinel-2 were collected across 25 sites in Hungary. Temporal soil moisture dynamics were encoded using a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural network, designed to capture soil-specific hydrological response behavior from time-series data. The resulting latent embeddings were subsequently used within an ordinal regression framework to predict ordered soil texture classes, explicitly enforcing physical consistency between classes. Model performance was evaluated using leave-one-soil-out cross-validation, achieving an overall classification accuracy of 0.54 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.50, indicating predominantly adjacent-class errors. The proposed approach demonstrates that soil texture can be inferred from dynamic environmental responses alone, offering a transferable alternative to fraction-based regression models and supporting scalable sensor calibration and digital soil mapping in data-scarce regions. Full article

In flooded soils, the concentrations of exchangeable Mn²⁺ and, especially, Fe²⁺ can be high and must be considered when determining the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil under flooded conditions. However, these reduced forms of Mn and Fe are oxidized and precipitated during the extraction process used in traditional CEC methods. This procedure underestimates the exchangeable portion of these cations and, consequently, the CEC value of the flooded soil. We introduce a pH-gradient-based model to predict ECEC and exchangeable Fe²⁺ in flooded soils, circumventing oxidation artifacts inherent in conventional methods. The objective of this study is to propose an alternative to estimate the exchangeable Fe²⁺ and the effective CEC (ECEC) of flooded soils. To achieve this goal, 21 surface samples (0–20 cm) of soil from rice fields were collected and distributed in the cultivation regions of southern Brazil. The soils were flooded for 50 days. The soil solution was collected on the first day and after 50 days of flooding and pH, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn were determined. In these samples, exchangeable cations (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Mn, Al and H + Al) were determined to calculate ECEC and CEC at pH 7 of unflooded soil and after 50 days of flooding. There was a wide range of variation in the exchangeable cation contents among the soil samples. The K contents ranged from 0.12 to 0.54 cmol_c kg⁻¹, the Na contents from 0.00 to 1.18 cmol_c kg⁻¹, the Ca contents from 0.48 to 37.31 cmol_c kg⁻¹, the Mg contents from 0.10 to 15.53 cmol_c kg⁻¹, the Mn contents from 0.01 to 0.36 cmol_c kg⁻¹, the Al contents from 0.10 to 1.74 cmol_c kg⁻¹ and the H + Al contents from 2.01 to 8.42 cmol_c kg⁻¹. The results were used to develop models to predict ECEC and exchangeable Fe content after 50 days of flooding. Estimating the ECEC after flooding using the pH gradient before and after flooding yielded values closer to CEC pH 7.0, correcting for the possible underestimation of the ECEC during flooding. The amount of exchangeable Fe estimated was higher than the exchangeable Fe determined, correcting the possible underestimation of these quantities determined during flooding. It is concluded that the estimations of ECEC after flooding through the equation ${ECEC}_{after}=ECEC+\left({pH}_{sol.after}-{pH}_{sol.before}\right)\times {\displaystyle \frac{({CEC}_{pH7}-ECEC)}{(7-{pH}_{sol.before})}}$, where pH_sol.before is pre-flooding soil pH, pH_sol.after is after flooding pH, ECEC_after is effective CEC after flooding and the exchangeable Fe²⁺ after flooding through the equation ${Fe}_{exc.after.estimated}={ECEC}_{after}-\left(Ca+Mg+K+Na+Mn\right)$ where Fe_{exc.after.estimated} is estimated exchangeable Fe²⁺ after flooding corrected the problem of underestimating the values of these variables by analytical methods, demonstrating its viability for use in flood-prone soils. Full article

Freshwater scarcity in arid regions is driving increased use of saline irrigation, yet salinity severely degrades soil structure and suppresses enzymatic function. To address this critical challenge for sustainable soil management, this study systematically evaluated magnetized saline water (MSW) across three salinity levels (1, 3, and 6 g L⁻¹) and four magnetic field strengths (0, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 T), confirming the magnetic field intensity (C) × salinity (S) interaction. The comprehensive analysis integrated data on aggregate stability, key ion concentrations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻), and major enzyme activities. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized to quantify the underlying mechanisms, demonstrating that structural improvement is primarily driven by strong indirect pathways, mediated by optimized ion dynamics and increased enzyme-mediated organic matter turnover. The moderate-salinity (3 g L⁻¹), moderate-magnetic-field (0.4 T) regime emerged as the optimal balanced strategy for overall soil health. These findings offer a scalable approach, guiding future field-scale research toward long-term agricultural sustainability. Full article

Application of CFA-treated biosolids (NVS) offers multiple benefits to agricultural soils, including fertilizer replacement, soil rehabilitation, and disinfection. It also poses a heavy metal(loid)s threat to the agro-environment. NVS (and CFA to some extent) was tested in lysimeter and field trials, using soils differing in physicochemical properties and a large selection of crops. Consistently, As, Pb, and Cd concentrations in leachate were at or below detection limit, and these and other heavy metal(loid)s (and P) were within the permitted range in plant tissue. Foliage Mo (occasionally also Se, P) concentrations often increased significantly, especially in crops (legumes, potatoes) grown on marginal soils, which also displayed significantly higher yields. CFA and NVS reduced lettuce and legumes foliage Mn (and occasionally Zn) concentrations, which remained, however, adequate. NVS (214 and 642 mT ha⁻¹), digested sewage sludge (ADS) and its compost (24 and 72 mT ha⁻¹), temporarily increased the DTPA-extractability of some elements (NVS: B, Cr; ADS: Cu, Ni, Zn; Compost: Zn) 10–30-fold. The extractabilities of Fe and P increased by up to six times. These increases vanished soon after additive application, supporting the hypothesis of ‘self-attenuation’ by applied biosolids. Our data indicate that long-term application of NVS (and CFA) to calcareous soils poses no heavy metal(loid)s-related threat to the agro-environment. Full article

This study is one of the first comprehensive assessments of soil carbon dynamics on the Black Sea coast of Russia, focusing on the role of soils in the terrestrial carbon cycle and the greenhouse gas balance of sub-Mediterranean ecosystems. Our integrated approach combined soil classification with the analysis of the distribution of organic and inorganic carbon, as well as the measurement of microbial biomass and respiration. Soil respiration components, including substrate-induced respiration (SIR) and basal respiration (BR), as well as greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄)) dynamics, were evaluated using a combination of laboratory and field measurements. Our results revealed significant differences between natural Rendzic Leptosols and terraced Skeletic Rendzic Leptosols (Technic and Transportic types). The latter contained higher organic carbon stocks (up to 25 kg m⁻²) associated with buried humus horizons, whereas the former were dominated by inorganic carbon accumulation. Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) ranged from 113 to 1119 µg C g⁻¹ of soil and decreased with depth. Basal respiration averaged 0.39 ± 0.30 µg C–CO₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹. CO₂ emissions were strongly correlated with soil temperature (r = 0.65, p < 0.05) and negatively correlated with soil moisture, reflecting the predominant influence of abiotic factors. Seasonal chamber observations confirmed that these soils consistently function as CH₄ sinks, with negative CH₄ fluxes recorded across all seasons. Thus, Rendzic Leptosols on the Black Sea coast serve as significant CO₂ sources and stable CH₄ sinks simultaneously, and anthropogenic terracing enhances their potential for organic carbon sequestration. These findings refine our understanding of the carbon balance in sub-Mediterranean forest soils and highlight their dual role in greenhouse gas dynamics under changing climate conditions. Full article

Managing phosphorus (P) in acidic paddy soils is crucial for sustaining rice yields. However, the effects of combined humic acid (HA) and flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FG), a by-product of coal-fired power plants, on P forms remain poorly understood. This study examined P forms using a sequential extraction procedure and XANES spectroscopy following the application of HA, FG, and HA + FG. HA increased organic labile P, while FG and HA + FG promoted HCl-extractable Pi and humic Po, respectively. XANES data revealed that P associated with aluminum (Al) (hydr)oxides was dominant in acidic paddy soils. Brushite (CaHPO₄·2(H₂O)) accounted for 25% and 19% of total P in the FG- and HA + FG-treated soil, respectively. Iron (Fe)-bound P was absent in control and FG-treated soils but was present as strengite (FePO₄·2H₂O) in HA- and HA + FG-treated soils (23% and 30% of the total P, respectively). Inositol hexakisphosphate (IHP), a non-labile Po, was in HA- and HA + FG-treated soil (12% and 31% of the total P, respectively). Archerite (KH₂PO₄) was 40% and 20% of the total P in HA- and HA + FG-treated soil, respectively. HA alone is an effective soil amendment that enhances P cycling and availability by increasing organic P mineralization, boosting rice yield in acidic paddy soil. Full article

Long-term exposure of plastics to the environment causes them to disintegrate, resulting in the formation of micro/nanoplastics as well as the release of additives and chemicals into the soil. The micro/nanoplastics are able to readily migrate into the soil, destabilize the soil microbiota, and finally enter crop plants. Endocytosis, apoplastic transport, root adsorption, transpiration pull, stomatal entry, and crack-entry mode are well-known pathways by which microplastics enter into plants. Roots of vegetable crops were able to transfer 0.2 µm–1.0 µm of microplastics through root adsorption and by transpiration pull to the xylem and then further transported them to the plant tissues through apoplastic pathways. Beads of 1000 nm size were also engulfed by BY-2 protoplast cells through endocytosis. Micro and nanoplastics that enter crops affected the physiological and biochemical activities of the plants. Aquaporins were needed to aid the symplastic pathway which made the symplastic pathway difficult for MPs/NPs transport. Microplastics block seed capsules and roots of seedlings, thereby negatively affecting the uptake and efficient use of nutrients supplied. Photosynthesis of plants was affected due to the reduction in chlorophyll contents. Exposing soils to MPs/NPs drastically affected the pH, EC, and bulk density of the soil. This review focused on bridging the knowledge gap with understanding how microplastics prevent nutrient uptake and nutrient use efficiency in plants. This understanding is essential for assessing the broader ecological impacts of plastic contamination and for developing effective mitigation strategies. Further research is needed on microorganisms capable of degrading plastics, as well as on developing analytical methods for detecting plastics in soil and plant tissues. Also, further research on how to replace plastic mulching and still provide the same benefits as plastic mulch is needed. Full article

Steep olive orchards in northwest Syria are experiencing severe land degradation as a result of unsustainable uphill–downhill tillage, which accelerates erosion and reduces productivity. To address this problem, three tillage systems, no-till natural vegetation strips (NVSs), contour tillage, and uphill–downhill tillage, were evaluated at two research sites, Yakhour and Tel-Hadya, NW Syria. The adoption of no-till NVSs significantly increased soil organic matter (SOM) at both sites, outperforming uphill–downhill tillage. While contour tillage resulted in lower SOM levels than NVSs, it still performed better than the conventional uphill–downhill practice. Contour soil flux (CSF) was lower in Yakhour, where mule-drawn tillage on steep slopes (31–35%) was practiced, compared to higher CSF values in Tel-Hadya, where tractor tillage was applied on gentler slopes (11–13%), which highlights the influence of slope steepness on soil fluxes. Over four years, net soil flux (NSF) indicated greater soil loss under tractor tillage, confirming that mule-drawn tillage is less disruptive. Olive trees with no-till NVSs benefited from protected root systems, improved soil structure through SOM accumulation, reduced erosion risk, and improved surface runoff buffering, which resulted in increased water infiltration and soil water retention. This study was carried out using a participatory technology development (PTD) framework, which guided the entire research process, from diagnosing problems to co-designing, field testing, and refining soil conservation practices. In Yakhour, farmers actively identified the challenges of degradation. They collaboratively chose no-till natural vegetation strips (NVSs) and contour tillage as key interventions, valuing NVSs for their ability to conserve moisture, suppress weeds and pests, and increase olive productivity. The farmer–scientist co-learning network positioned PTD not only as an outreach tool but also as a core research method, enabling locally relevant and scalable strategies to restore soil functions and combat land degradation in northwest Syria’s hilly olive orchards. Full article

Soil conservation technologies are widely studied for their effects on soil organic carbon (SOC) preservation, yet their impact on the composition of soil organic matter (SOM) remains underinvestigated. This study evaluated the effects of two non-inversion tillage systems, MP and NT, on agro-physical and chemical properties and SOM composition (including water-extractable matter) in Haplic Chernozem Pachic. After 12 years, non-inversion tillage showed no significant differences in SOC, WEOC, and soil structure condition compared to MP. Only NT treatment distinctly enhanced the coefficient of soil structuring (K_str) and mean diameter of water-stable aggregates (MWD_WSA), by 1.5 and 2 times, respectively. Differences in SOM composition were clearly pronounced between treatments in the 0–10 cm layer. Non-inversion tillage favored microbial-derived stable SOM, whereas NT enriched SOM with fresh plant material. Our findings revealed that non-inversion tillage shifts the composition of SOM toward recalcitrant components even more than MP due to limited fresh OM input and enhanced mineralization of unprotected SOM during tillage. This poses carbon loss risks. Periodic moldboard plowing may be a way to improve carbon retention in non-inversion tillage, as it allows plant residues to be incorporated into the soil profile and replenish organic matter. Full article

The increasing presence of microplastics (MPs) in terrestrial ecosystems, particularly when combined with organic pollutants and heavy metals, presents a considerable environmental challenge. This review examines the intricate interactions between MPs, co-contaminants (both organic and inorganic), and plants involved in phytoremediation processes. A literature search was performed across the databases Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, covering the timeframe from 2015 to 2025. The studies selected specifically addressed the synergistic and antagonistic effects of microplastics in conjunction with heavy metals or organic pollutants (such as PAHs and pesticides) within plant–soil systems. The findings reveal that MPs influence pollutant mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity through adsorption and desorption mechanisms, leading to varied implications for plant growth, microbial communities, and contaminant uptake. Depending on the physicochemical characteristics of MPs and co-pollutants, the effects can range from increased phytotoxicity to diminished contaminant accumulation in plants. Additionally, physiological and molecular disruptions, including oxidative stress, hormonal imbalances, and impaired enzymatic activity, were frequently noted in co-contamination scenarios. Recent developments, such as the creation of genetically modified hyperaccumulator plants and the use of nanotechnology and microbial consortia, demonstrate potential to enhance phytoremediation efficiency in complex polluted soils. This review underscores the pressing need for integrated, multidisciplinary strategies to overcome the limitations of existing phytoremediation methods in co-contaminated environments. Future research should focus on standardized methodologies, a mechanistic understanding, and the safe implementation of emerging biotechnologies for sustainable soil remediation. Full article

Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils poses serious threats to food safety, ecosystem integrity, and public health. This study investigates the concentrations, ecological risks, and human health impacts of nine heavy metals Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, As, and V in homestead agricultural soils collected from two depths, surface (0–20 cm) and subsurface (21–50 cm), across industrial and non-industrial regions of Bangladesh, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results revealed that surface soils from industrial areas exhibited the highest metal concentrations in order of Mn > Zn > Cr > Pb > V > Ni > Cu > As > Co. However, maximum As levels were detected in non-industrial areas, suggesting combined influences of local geology, intensive pesticide application, and prolonged irrigation with As-contaminated groundwater. Elevated concentrations in surface soils indicate recent contamination with limited downward migration. Multivariate statistical analyses indicated that industrial and urban activities are the major sources of contamination, whereas Mn remains primarily geogenic, controlled by natural soil forming processes. Contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI) analyses identified Pb and As as the principal pollutants, with hotspots in Nairadi, Majhipara (Savar), Gazipur sadar, and Chorkhai (Mymensingh). Ecological risk (ER) assessment highlighted As and Pb as the dominant environmental stressors, though overall risk remained low. Human health risk analysis showed that ingestion is the primary exposure pathway, with children being more susceptible than adults. Although the hazard index (HI) values were within the acceptable safety limits, the estimated carcinogenic risks for As and Cr exceeded the USEPA thresholds, indicating potential long term health concerns. Therefore, the cumulative carcinogenic risk (CCR) results demonstrate that As is the primary driver of lifetime carcinogenic risk in homestead soils, followed by Cr, while contributions from other metals are minimal. These findings emphasize the urgent need for continuous monitoring, improved industrial waste management, and targeted mitigation strategies to ensure safe food production, a cleaner environment, and better public health. Full article

Soil salinity imposes a critical constraint on plant productivity, highlighting the need for sustainable biological strategies to enhance stress tolerance. This study assessed the effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by ten plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) isolated from the rhizosphere of Euphorbia antisyphilitica on the growth of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings exposed to 0, 50, and 100 mM NaCl. A divided Petri dish system was used to quantify biomass, root architecture, proline accumulation, sodium content, and chlorophyll concentration. Three strains—Siccibacter colletis CASEcto12, Enterobacter quasihormaechei NFbEcto18, and Bacillus wiedmannii NFbEndo12—significantly enhanced seedling development under saline and non-saline conditions (p ≤ 0.05). At 50 mM NaCl, S. colletis CASEcto12 increased primary root length from 40.25 to 64.81 mm and fresh weight from 45.05 to 133.33 mg, while E. quasihormaechei NFbEcto18 elevated lateral root number from 10 to 24, compared to the uninoculated control. Under 100 mM NaCl, E. quasihormaechei NFbEcto18 increased proline accumulation (0.564–1.378 mmol g⁻¹ FW) and reduced Na⁺ content (0.146–0.084 mmol g⁻¹ FW), indicating improved osmotic and ionic regulation. VOC profiling using SPME-GC-MS revealed aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols as predominant classes. Overall, these findings demonstrate the potential of candelilla-associated PGPR VOCs as promising biostimulants for enhancing plant performance in salt-affected soils. Full article