Agronomy

10 pages, 229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Irrigated Winter Malting Barley Cultivar Performance in Cold Desert and Cold Semiarid Environments

by Leonard M. Lauriault, Kevin Lombard, Gasper K. Martinez and Murali K. Darapuneni

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 695; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070695 (registering DOI) - 26 Mar 2026

Growers in the grain-producing continental cold desert and cold semiarid regions are interested in the local adaptation of winter malting barley (Hordeum vulgare) as a potential alternative crop to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). Variety selection for specific environments is [...] Read more.

Growers in the grain-producing continental cold desert and cold semiarid regions are interested in the local adaptation of winter malting barley (Hordeum vulgare) as a potential alternative crop to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). Variety selection for specific environments is a critical first step in producing high yields of winter malting barley at the same production costs. Twenty-two winter malting barley entries were planted under irrigation in randomized complete blocks at New Mexico State University’s Agricultural Science Center at Farmington (cold desert; 3 replicates) and Rex E. Kirksey Agricultural Science Center at Tucumcari (cold semiarid; 4 replicates) in September 2023 and harvested for grain in July 2024. All entries at Tucumcari were heavily grazed by wildlife over winter, which may have influenced grain production of some varieties, although there was no site × cultivar interaction for grain yield, which ranged from 2558 to 4157 kg ha⁻¹. Irrigation and N fertilization differences between sites likely influenced (p < 0.0001) grain yield and grain protein (4421 and 2172 kg grain yield ha⁻¹ at Farmington and Tucumcari, respectively; 109 and 93 g grain protein kg⁻¹ at Farmington and Tucumcari, respectively). Future research in cold desert and semiarid regions should evaluate cultivar differences regarding irrigation and nutrient management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

21 pages, 3335 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Combined Application of Nitrogen Fertilizer and Multiple Soil Amendments on Soil Properties and Bacterial Community Structure in Arid-Zone Jujube Orchards

by Yuxuan Wei, Yunqi Ma, Jinwei Sun, Haoyang Liu, Shuangquan Jing, Cuiyun Wu and Yuyang Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 694; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070694 - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) cultivation in arid regions of China faces severe soil constraints, including high alkalinity, low organic matter content, and poor water retention. Although soil amendments have demonstrated potential for improving soil quality, their combined effects on soil–plant–microbe interactions in [...] Read more.

Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) cultivation in arid regions of China faces severe soil constraints, including high alkalinity, low organic matter content, and poor water retention. Although soil amendments have demonstrated potential for improving soil quality, their combined effects on soil–plant–microbe interactions in desert agroecosystems remain poorly understood. This study conducted a three-year field experiment in a desert jujube orchard in southern Xinjiang, China, to evaluate six nitrogen fertilizer management strategies: urea alone (CK) or combined with biochar (NB), bentonite (NP), graphene (NS), biochar plus bentonite (NBP), or microbial inoculants (NW). Soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, bacterial community structure, and jujube yield were analyzed. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to elucidate the pathways linking soil amendments to crop productivity. Results showed that NBP was the most effective in improving soil physical structure, significantly reducing bulk density and enhancing water retention capacity compared to the control. The NBP treatment also enhanced soil organic matter (30% increase), available phosphorus (119% increase), and urease activity (44% increase), resulting in the highest jujube yield (7.14 kg per tree). Bacterial community analysis revealed that NBP significantly increased Shannon diversity and enriched Actinobacteriota and Proteobacteria. SEM analysis indicated that urease activity served as a significant mechanistic pathway linking soil organic matter improvements to enhanced crop productivity. These findings demonstrate that combined application of biochar and bentonite with nitrogen fertilizer represents an effective strategy for improving soil quality, enhancing microbial functionality, and increasing crop yield in desert jujube orchards, providing a practical and synergistic amendment combination for sustainable soil management and productivity enhancement in arid agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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21 pages, 3589 KB

Open AccessArticle

An MCDE-YOLOv11-Based Online Detection Method for Broken and Impurity Rates in Potato Combine Harvesting

by Yongfei Pan, Wenwen Guo, Jian Zhang, Minsheng Wu, Ang Zhao, Zhixi Deng and Ranbing Yang

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070693 - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

Potato is one of the most important food crops worldwide, playing a critical role in global food security and agricultural production. The broken and impurity rates are important indicators for evaluating the harvesting quality of potato combine harvesting operations. To address the difficulty [...] Read more.

Potato is one of the most important food crops worldwide, playing a critical role in global food security and agricultural production. The broken and impurity rates are important indicators for evaluating the harvesting quality of potato combine harvesting operations. To address the difficulty of achieving continuous and online detection using traditional methods, this study investigates an online monitoring approach for potato combine harvesting based on machine vision. Considering the characteristics of large material volume, severe overlap, and similar appearance features under field operating conditions, an online monitoring device suitable for potato combine harvesters was designed, along with a corresponding image acquisition and processing workflow. For the online monitoring device, an improved You Only Look Once version 11 (YOLOv11) detection model, was proposed to meet the requirements of multi-object detection in complex operating scenarios. The model incorporates Multi-Scale Depthwise Convolution (MSDConv), C2PSA_DCA (with Directional Context Attention, DCA), and Directional Selective Attention (DSA) modules, and introduces the Efficient Intersection over Union (EIoU) loss function to enhance recognition capability for broken potatoes and multiple types of impurity targets. While maintaining lightweight characteristics, the improved model demonstrates favorable detection accuracy. Field experiment results show that when the combine harvester operates at a forward speed of 3 km/h, the relative errors for broken and impurity rates are measured as 3.78% and 3.67%, respectively. Under extreme operating conditions with a speed of 4 km/h, the corresponding average relative errors rise to 8.30% and 8.72%, respectively. Overall, the online detection results exhibit satisfactory consistency with manual measurements, providing effective technical support for real-time monitoring of harvesting quality in potato combine harvesting operations. Future research will focus on expanding multi-scenario datasets under diverse soil and illumination conditions, as well as integrating detection results with adaptive control strategies to further enhance intelligent harvesting performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Imagery and Machine Vision)

18 pages, 5139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Topographic Controls of Soil Moisture on Dune Slopes in a Semi-Arid Sandy Region

by Wande Gao, Xingwang Zhang, Zhongqiang Jin, Xiuhua Liu and Changchun Shi

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070692 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

In arid and semi-arid agroecosystems, soil water availability is a critical regulator of coupled carbon–water (C–W) cycling, vegetation dynamics, and ecosystem resilience under environmental change. This research investigated the temporal evolution and spatial patterns of soil moisture across sand dune slopes within the [...] Read more.

In arid and semi-arid agroecosystems, soil water availability is a critical regulator of coupled carbon–water (C–W) cycling, vegetation dynamics, and ecosystem resilience under environmental change. This research investigated the temporal evolution and spatial patterns of soil moisture across sand dune slopes within the Mu Us Sandy Land. Data were collected via a combination of continuous high-frequency in situ monitoring spanning 20 months and manual sampling campaigns. We analyzed moisture levels at various depths and slope positions (windward vs. leeward) to understand their distribution and reaction to precipitation. Statistical analysis of all rainfall events that triggered measurable soil moisture responses showed that precipitation was the primary determinant of soil moisture fluctuations. Specifically, shallow soil (10 cm) reacts rapidly to rainfall events > 4.6 mm, whereas intermediate layers (20–50 cm) require > 8.6 mm. Conversely, deep soil moisture (>100 cm) remains stable, responding only to substantial storm events (>50 mm). Topography exerts a strong control over spatial variance; notably, slope toes consistently exhibit higher moisture than upper sections, particularly during wet seasons, indicating strong topographic control on moisture redistribution and possibly reflecting lateral subsurface transfer. Additionally, a nonlinear correlation was observed between mean moisture content and its variability, peaking under intermediate moisture conditions. The results provide a mechanistic basis for understanding agroecosystem responses to climate variability and offer valuable insights for adaptive land management, vegetation restoration, and hydrological modeling in water-limited regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Response of Agroecosystem Carbon–Water Cycling and Crop Spatial Patterns to Environmental Change: Mechanisms and Adaptive Management)

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17 pages, 771 KB

Open AccessArticle

Selectivity of Insecticides Used in the Management of Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) for Adults of Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

by Alessandro Bandeira Dalbianco, Diego Fernando Daniel, Dirceu Pratissoli, Daniel de Lima Alvarez, Nadja Nara Pereira da Silva, Daniel Mariano Santos, Santino Seabra Júnior and Regiane Cristina de Oliveira

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070691 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

The preservation of biological control agents in agroecosystems while simultaneously ensuring the use of insecticides with selective chemical profiles is crucial for sustainable pest management. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the selectivity of insecticides used in the management of Phthorimaea ( [...] Read more.

The preservation of biological control agents in agroecosystems while simultaneously ensuring the use of insecticides with selective chemical profiles is crucial for sustainable pest management. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the selectivity of insecticides used in the management of Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta in tomato crops during the adult stage of Trichogramma pretiosum. The selectivity tests were conducted according to the standards of the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control/West Palearctic Regional Section. The bioassay was used to assess the direct effects of treatments on T. pretiosum adults through tarsal contact. Specifically, 42 chemical and/or biological insecticides commonly applied in tomato cultivation were used to manage P. absoluta. The insecticides identified as selective (Class 1) for adult T. pretiosum under laboratory conditions were recommended for use in integrated pest management (IPM) programs in tomato crops. These included Hayate^®, Agree^®, Dipel^®, Xentari^®, Tarik^®, Bioexos^®, Verpavex^®, Spodovir^®, Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Tuta Vir^®, BioBrev^®, Diplomata^®, VirControl C.i^®, and VirControl S.F^®. Insecticides belonging to the following chemical groups were not selective, that is, they were harmful to T. pretiosum adults: avermectins, milbemycins, diacylhydrazines, oxadiazines, semicarbazones, spinosyns, diamides, chlorfenapyr, nereistoxin analogs, pyrethroids, carbamates, butenolides, isoxazoline, azadirachtin, quinolizidine alkaloids, METI, and benzoylureas. Therefore, these insecticides should be used with caution in IPM programs that target P. absoluta in tomato crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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17 pages, 2718 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deciphering Heavy Metal Sources in Intensive Agricultural Soils of the Yangtze–Huaihe Watershed: Insights from High-Resolution Sampling and the APCS-MLR Modeling

by Jingtao Wu, Manman Fan, Huan Zhang and Chao Gao

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070690 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

Identifying the specific sources of heavy metal accumulation in intensive agricultural landscapes is essential for ensuring soil sustainability and food security. In this study, we independently carried out a high-density regional geochemical survey and high-resolution field sampling in the Yangtze–Huaihe Watershed, Eastern China, [...] Read more.

Identifying the specific sources of heavy metal accumulation in intensive agricultural landscapes is essential for ensuring soil sustainability and food security. In this study, we independently carried out a high-density regional geochemical survey and high-resolution field sampling in the Yangtze–Huaihe Watershed, Eastern China, and used the original sample dataset to distinguish between geogenic backgrounds and anthropogenic enrichments. By employing the APCS-MLR model, four distinct pollution sources were quantitatively identified: natural pedogenesis, agricultural activities, traffic emissions, and industrial inputs. Results demonstrated that while most heavy metal concentrations remained below national safety thresholds, Cd and Hg exhibited significant topsoil enrichment, signaling potential ecological risks. Source apportionment revealed that natural sources primarily controlled As, Cr, Ni, and Pb, with the contribution ranging from 41% to 70%. In contrast, traffic emissions (e.g., tire wear and fuel combustion) emerged as the dominant source for Cd (68%), Zn (55%), and Cu (34%), while industrial activities accounted for a substantial 89% of Hg accumulation via atmospheric deposition. Notably, despite the region’s intensive cultivation, agricultural practices played a surprisingly minor role in heavy metal accumulation. These findings highlight that the accumulations from traffic and industry now account for approximately 50% of the total heavy metal load in the region. Our results underscore the critical importance of high-resolution spatial data for precise source identification and suggest that implementing vegetative buffer zones and stricter industrial emission controls are imperative to mitigate further soil degradation in similar agricultural watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Pollution and Prevention in Agricultural Soils)

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21 pages, 2444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genotype-Dependent Interactions Between Biostimulants and Defense Inducers in Durum Wheat: Implications for Sustainable Crop Management

by Eloïse Detcheverry, Bénédicte Fontez, Aurélie Ducasse, Nicolas Geffroy, Marie-Emmanuelle Saint-Macary, Claire Benezech, Patrice Loisel and Elsa Ballini

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070689 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

The intensive use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has raised environmental concerns. Sustainable alternatives, such as plant biostimulants and plant resistance inducers, offer promising solutions by enhancing growth, yield, and stress tolerance or by activating defense responses against pathogens. However, the physiological impacts [...] Read more.

The intensive use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has raised environmental concerns. Sustainable alternatives, such as plant biostimulants and plant resistance inducers, offer promising solutions by enhancing growth, yield, and stress tolerance or by activating defense responses against pathogens. However, the physiological impacts and combined effects of these products remain poorly understood, limiting evidence-based application strategies. Here, we evaluated the effects of a biostimulant and a plant defense inducer on durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum), a key cereal crop in the Mediterranean Basin. Using controlled experiments, we assessed plant growth, chlorophyll content, defense gene expression and resistance to Zymoseptoria tritici, while considering potential trade-offs between growth promotion and defense activation. As expected, our results indicate that the biostimulant improved photosynthetic performance (19 to 45%), whereas the plant resistance inducer enhanced protection against Z. tritici (25% reduction in pycnidia). However, the combination of these two treatments can induce moderated interaction effects influenced by the varietal genetic background. This study provides novel insights into the interactions between plant growth promotion and defense induction in durum wheat. Understanding these multifactorial effects (in particular genotype effect) enables the identification of optimal treatment strategies, supporting the development of sustainable crop management practices that reduce chemical inputs while maintaining productivity and resilience under biotic stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability: Trade-Off Between Pest Management and Environment)

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19 pages, 2746 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of White Rot Caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: Pathogenicity, Epidemiology and Management

by Zoltán András Boldizsár, Levente Vörös, Wogene Solomon Kabato, Gábor Kukorelli and Zoltán Molnár

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070688 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

White mold caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary continues to threaten yield and quality and remains a stubborn, sometimes unpredictable constraint in many cropping systems. The pathogen’s broad host range and its capacity to persist for years as sclerotia mean that fields [...] Read more.

White mold caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary continues to threaten yield and quality and remains a stubborn, sometimes unpredictable constraint in many cropping systems. The pathogen’s broad host range and its capacity to persist for years as sclerotia mean that fields can carry risk long after visible symptoms fade. Disease development is often driven by short windows of favorable temperature and moisture that promote germination and ascospore release and dispersal, while myceliogenic infection from soil-borne sclerotia can also initiate disease directly. Yet dependable control is still undermined by durable inoculum, limited stable host resistance, variable biocontrol performance, and shrinking chemical options together with fungicide resistance risk. Here we consolidate current understanding and ongoing uncertainties around sclerotial formation and germination cues, the environmental drivers that shape epidemic onset, and the processes governing host colonization, including the roles of cell wall-degrading enzymes, oxalic acid, and redox regulation, as well as the continuing debate over necrotrophic versus hemibiotrophic phases. Management is considered from a practical perspective, covering cultural risk reduction, forecasting-guided fungicide programmes supported by resistance-management principles, and biological control strategies targeting sclerotia. Across systems, the evidence points to the same lesson: single tactics rarely remain reliable under field variability, whereas integrated packages that reduce soil inoculum and align interventions with risk are more durable. Future priorities include resolving early infection events, improving prediction of carpogenic germination under changing climates, increasing the consistency of biocontrol, and accelerating resistance breeding supported by genomic resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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22 pages, 1286 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Environment Field Evaluation of Winter Rye Genetic Resources in Russia Reveals Promising Accessions for Improving Fusarium Head Blight Resistance

by Mira L. Ponomareva, Sergey N. Ponomarev, Gulnaz S. Mannapova, Irina O. Ivanova, Svetlana Y. Pavlova, Inna B. Chastukhina and Vladimir Y. Gorshkov

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070687 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most devastating diseases of cereal crops worldwide, causing yield losses and mycotoxin contamination. Traditionally associated with warm and humid climates, FHB has increasingly affected cooler and drier regions, including the Volga region of Russia—a major [...] Read more.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most devastating diseases of cereal crops worldwide, causing yield losses and mycotoxin contamination. Traditionally associated with warm and humid climates, FHB has increasingly affected cooler and drier regions, including the Volga region of Russia—a major grain-producing area once considered low-risk. In this three-year field study, we evaluated FHB resistance in 50 winter rye accessions under natural infection and artificially enriched infectious backgrounds using high-virulence Fusarium strains from the Volga region. Post-invasive resistance to FHB was generally weak across the tested germplasm. Nevertheless, considerable variability in FHB damage was observed among accessions. Accessions showing the lowest overall FHB severity were identified as promising donors for breeding programs. Specific resistance sources to individual Fusarium species were identified, notably Fusarium sporotrichioides—previously regarded as a weak pathogen but demonstrated here as a serious food safety threat. No significant positive correlation was found between FHB severity and mycotoxin levels, confirming these as partially independent traits; several accessions maintained low mycotoxin content despite severe symptoms. Our study highlights the necessity of multi-environment screening with local pathogen strains and endorses pyramiding approaches for durable FHB resistance in winter rye breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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20 pages, 3196 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preharvest GA₃ Treatment Enhances Postharvest Storability of ‘Brightwell’ Blueberry by Bolstering Antioxidant Defenses and Modulating Glycerolipid Metabolism

by Xinyue Ping, Xiaomin Wang, Xingru Wei, Hongxia Liu, Qilong Zeng, Yaqiong Wu and Wenlong Wu

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070686 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of the preharvest application of 0.2 g/L gibberellin A3 (GA₃) or 0.02 g/L forchlorfenuron (CPPU) at full bloom on postharvest storability and defense responses in ‘Brightwell’ blueberry. After ripening, berries were inoculated in vitro with a [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the effects of the preharvest application of 0.2 g/L gibberellin A3 (GA₃) or 0.02 g/L forchlorfenuron (CPPU) at full bloom on postharvest storability and defense responses in ‘Brightwell’ blueberry. After ripening, berries were inoculated in vitro with a defined mixture of postharvest fungal pathogens. Fruit quality attributes and physio-logical indices were monitored during storage, and LC-MS metabolomics was performed to characterize treatment-associated metabolic alterations.GA₃-treated fruit exhibited higher antioxidant capacity and a lower decay incidence than CPPU-treated and control fruit. Metabolomic profiling showed that GA₃ was associated with the accumulation of specific polyphenols, coinciding with enhanced resistance to postharvest pathogens. In parallel, GA₃ treatment modulated glycerolipid metabolism and mitigated membrane lipid peroxidation, as indicated by reduced malondialdehyde levels, while enhancing enzymatic (superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase) and non-enzymatic (poly-phenol) antioxidant defenses. Overall, these results suggest that preharvest GA₃ application can improve blueberry storability by coordinating redox homeostasis and lipid-related metabolic remodeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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20 pages, 2282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasting Effects of Plant Functional Traits, Functional Diversity and Abiotic Factors on Ecosystem Service Multifunctionality Across Inner Mongolian Steppe Types

by Hao Li, Xiao Guo, Mingle Li, Lu Liu, Liqin Meng, Ying Han, Jinghui Zhang, Bailing Miao, Chengzhen Jia, Zhiyong Li, Jiangtao Peng and Cunzhu Liang

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070685 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Plant functional traits, as indicators of community responses to disturbances, are key drivers of ecosystem service multifunctionality (ESMF). However, the relative contribution of these traits to ESMF across different steppe types remains unclear. Using data from 101 sampling sites across Inner Mongolia’s meadow [...] Read more.

Plant functional traits, as indicators of community responses to disturbances, are key drivers of ecosystem service multifunctionality (ESMF). However, the relative contribution of these traits to ESMF across different steppe types remains unclear. Using data from 101 sampling sites across Inner Mongolia’s meadow steppe (MS), typical steppe (TS), and desert steppe (DS), we examine the contributions and driving mechanisms of abiotic (climate and soil) and biotic factors (23 community-weighted mean functional traits and diversity indices) to ESMF across different steppe types. Our results show significant differences in ESMF across steppe types, with a decreasing trend from MS to TS to DS. Crucially, the driving factors of ESMF shift fundamentally across steppe types. In MS, ESMF is primarily driven by biotic factors (e.g., stem N:P ratio), whereas as aridity increases, abiotic factors (e.g., aridity and soil clay content) become more influential, ultimately dominating ESMF in DS. This shift from niche differentiation to environmental filtering as the dominant mechanism provides a crucial framework for predicting ecosystem service responses to global change. It highlights the importance of context-dependent grassland conservation strategies, advocating for location-specific management based on environmental gradients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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20 pages, 3634 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Monitoring Method for In-Flight Droplet Flow Rate Based on Laser Imaging

by Yue Zhong, Zhonghua Miao, Yanlei Liu, Chuangxin He, Yanlong Zhang, Fan Feng, Wei Zou, Changyuan Zhai and Zhichong Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070684 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Efficient plant protection requires precise monitoring of spray droplets, yet current in situ methods for measuring in-flight droplet flow are limited. This study proposed a laser imaging-based method to quantify spray intensity without physical contact or tracers. An optimal imaging angle was determined [...] Read more.

Efficient plant protection requires precise monitoring of spray droplets, yet current in situ methods for measuring in-flight droplet flow are limited. This study proposed a laser imaging-based method to quantify spray intensity without physical contact or tracers. An optimal imaging angle was determined via simulation by maximizing the linearity between the received optical feature and droplet volume density while satisfying geometric constraints. A compact acquisition device was then developed and tested with eight nozzle specifications under fixed pressure. Image processing algorithms—including cropping, RGB channel separation, and binarization—were employed to extract pixel area and cumulative intensity, with gravimetric measurements serving as the reference. Results showed that under optimized exposure and gain settings, features from the green and blue channels exhibited a strong linear correlation with flow rate (R² = 0.93–0.97). Based on these findings, this study demonstrates that in-flight droplet flow rate can be directly quantified from image features—a departure from conventional deposition-based approaches. The proposed method enables rapid, non-contact spray assessment using only a camera and laser module, offering a low-cost, simple-structured solution for spray system optimization and field monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Precision Pesticide Spraying Technology and Equipment)

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34 pages, 6848 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Regulation of Microbial Seed Coating on Alfalfa Growth and the Soil Microbial System

by Ying Zhang, Shanmu He, Xiaolei Yang, Aolei He, Bingpeng Shen, Changning Li and Tuo Yao

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070683 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Seed coating technology is regarded as one of the optimal strategies to promote sustainable agricultural development. It can effectively optimize the physical and physiological characteristics of seeds, improve germplasm quality, and enhance crop resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Saline–alkali soils, characterized by [...] Read more.

Seed coating technology is regarded as one of the optimal strategies to promote sustainable agricultural development. It can effectively optimize the physical and physiological characteristics of seeds, improve germplasm quality, and enhance crop resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Saline–alkali soils, characterized by high salinity and alkalinity, severely restrict plant growth and development. However, alfalfa, a high-quality leguminous forage, faces substantial challenges in large-scale popularization and cultivation in saline–alkali regions. At present, research on the application of microbial seed coating technology in alfalfa production under saline–alkali conditions remains insufficient, and relevant techniques and formulations still require optimization. Under field conditions, this study used a randomized complete block design with alfalfa as the research material. Different coating treatments combining plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), rhizobia, and extracellular polysaccharides (EPSs) were established to systematically investigate the effects of various coating formulations on alfalfa yield, nutritional quality, root system architecture, and rhizosphere soil properties. Meanwhile, high-throughput sequencing was employed to analyze shifts in rhizosphere soil microbial community structure. The results demonstrated that all microbial coating treatments exerted significant growth-promoting effects on alfalfa grown in saline–alkali soils, among which the T8 treatment (combined coating of rhizobia + PGPR + EPS) performed the best. This treatment not only significantly improved alfalfa yield and nutritional quality but also modified root system architecture and enhanced soil enzyme activities, soil nutrient contents, and soil physical structure, thereby creating a favorable growth environment for plants. Among the single microbial coating treatments, the combined coating of rhizobia and EPS outperformed other single treatments and exhibited favorable application potential. Sequencing results revealed that microbial seed coating treatments significantly increased the relative abundance of beneficial soil bacteria, decreased the abundance of harmful fungi, regulated rhizosphere microbial community structure, and consequently promoted improvements in alfalfa yield and quality by optimizing the plant growth microenvironment. The findings of this study provide important theoretical support for the popularization and application of microbial seed coating technology in crop cultivation in saline–alkali soils, offer a key reference for optimizing alfalfa-specific seed coating formulations for saline–alkali conditions, and are of great significance for promoting the efficient utilization of saline–alkali land resources and the development of ecological agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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19 pages, 6258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clogging Evolution and Structural Optimization of Drip Emitters Under Sediment-Laden Water

by Guowei Wang, Mengyang Wang, Yayang Feng, Mo Zhu, Shengliang Fan, Rui Li, Mengyun Xue and Qibiao Han

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070682 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Long-term operation of drip emitters under sediment-laden water conditions readily induces particle deposition and clogging, leading to discharge reduction and deterioration of irrigation uniformity. To clarify the temporal evolution and spatial distribution of clogging and to support structure-oriented anti-clogging improvement, three integrated drip [...] Read more.

Long-term operation of drip emitters under sediment-laden water conditions readily induces particle deposition and clogging, leading to discharge reduction and deterioration of irrigation uniformity. To clarify the temporal evolution and spatial distribution of clogging and to support structure-oriented anti-clogging improvement, three integrated drip tape emitters with different labyrinth-channel geometries were tested at sediment concentrations of 1, 2, and 3 g·L⁻¹ under a constant pressure of 100 kPa. The average relative discharge ratio (Dra) and Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient (CU) were continuously monitored, and cross-sectional observation and numerical simulation were combined to identify dominant deposition hotspot regions within the labyrinth channel. The results showed that increasing sediment concentration significantly accelerated clogging development and shortened operating lifetime. At 1 g·L⁻¹, the times required for the three emitter types to reach the clogging criterion of Dra < 75% were 120, 81, and 107 h, respectively, whereas at 3 g·L⁻¹ these values decreased to 39, 42, and 39 h. CU continuously declined with operating time and, in some treatments, responded earlier than Dra to system deterioration. Sediment deposition was mainly concentrated in the inlet section and bend regions, indicating that these locations were the dominant hotspots for clogging initiation and propagation. These findings demonstrate that clogging in drip emitters is jointly regulated by sediment load and labyrinth-channel geometry, and that hotspot-based structural optimization provides an effective basis for improving anti-clogging performance under sediment-laden water conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Precision Water and Fertilizer Management Technologies and Equipment for Sustainable Agriculture)

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19 pages, 692 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar Reduces Aminopyralid Residues and Phytotoxicity in Dairy Manure Compost

by Annesly Netthisinghe, Paul Woosley, William Strunk and Karamat Sistani

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070681 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Aminopyralid (2-pyridine carboxylic acid, 4-amino-3, and 6-dichloro-2-pyridine carboxylic acid) is an auxin herbicide widely used to control broad leaf weeds in pasture and hay fields. Aminopyralid compound in forage material can pass through livestock into manure. Composts derived from aminopyralid-contaminated manure can cause [...] Read more.

Aminopyralid (2-pyridine carboxylic acid, 4-amino-3, and 6-dichloro-2-pyridine carboxylic acid) is an auxin herbicide widely used to control broad leaf weeds in pasture and hay fields. Aminopyralid compound in forage material can pass through livestock into manure. Composts derived from aminopyralid-contaminated manure can cause phytotoxic effects in sensitive crop plants. Biochar has shown synergetic effects in composting and can immobilize organic pollutants that present in compost. This experiment examined the effects of incorporating 0%, 2%, 4%, and 10% (w/w) biochar for composting dairy manure containing 50 µg kg⁻¹ aminopyralid (wet base) in 140 L plastic rotary drum reactors. Residual aminopyralid concentration after 2, 6, and 12 m composting periods, phytotoxicity effects of compost on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) plants, and the key chemical characteristics of composts after 6 and 12 m curing were assessed in two runs. After 12 months of curing, the aminopyralid concentration in the 10% biochar treatment decreased by more than 90% and eliminated the phytotoxicity of the compost. Improved adsorption and immobilization by biochar accounted for over 57% of the reduction in the 10% BC treatment. Biochar addition slightly increased the C/N ratio and total N content significantly but did not markedly impact the N transformation. The results indicate that biochar incorporation can be used as an effective practical tool to enhance the agronomic biosafety of bovine compost originated from persistent auxin herbicide aminopyralid-contaminated dairy manure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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23 pages, 2761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Modelling of Soil Quality Index Using Regression–Kriging and Delineation of Nutrient Management Zones in High-Andean Quinoa Fields, Southern Peru

by Nestor Cuellar-Condori, Sharon Mejia, Robert Quiñones, Ruth Mercado, Ali Cristhian, Karla Chávez-Zea, Elvis Ccosi, Madeleiny Cahuide and Kenyi Quispe

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070680 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

The pronounced heterogeneity of high-Andean soils constitutes a critical constraint to the sustainable productivity of quinoa in southern Peru, where current yields (1.6 t ha⁻¹) remain well below potential (>5 t ha⁻¹). This study aimed to develop a spatially [...] Read more.

The pronounced heterogeneity of high-Andean soils constitutes a critical constraint to the sustainable productivity of quinoa in southern Peru, where current yields (1.6 t ha⁻¹) remain well below potential (>5 t ha⁻¹). This study aimed to develop a spatially predictive model of a weighted soil quality index (SQIw), the edaphic supply of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), and the agricultural gypsum requirement by integrating edaphoclimatic covariates through regression–kriging. A total of 198 quinoa-cultivated soil samples were analysed; a minimum data set (MDS) was defined using correlation and principal component analyses, and regression–kriging was applied to map SQIw and the variables of interest. The MDS comprised electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter (OM), available P, exchangeable Na, sand, clay, and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC); exchangeable Na (Wi = 0.160) and available P (Wi = 0.158) received the largest weights in the SQIw. SQIw values ranged from 0.22 to 0.84 and supported a five-class soil quality taxonomy; spatial modelling revealed a dominance of moderate-quality soils across the territory (85.21% of the agricultural area, 13,461.19 ha). The model achieved R² = 0.56, RMSE = 0.05, and MAE = 0.04 for SQIw. Most of the area (12,175.65 ha; 77%) exhibited an intermediate gypsum requirement (9.73–14.33 t ha⁻¹). Nitrogen and phosphorus showed the greatest territorial limitations, whereas potassium was largely non-limiting (84.82–570.17 kg ha⁻¹). These results indicate that sodicity and N–P deficiencies are the primary functional constraints; the generated maps enable prioritisation of gypsum amendments and targeted variable-rate fertilisation strategies to optimise the sustainability of quinoa production in the Altiplano. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Remote Sensing Agronomic Application for Mapping and Modeling Soil Properties)

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20 pages, 3073 KB

Open AccessArticle

YOLOv11-WFD: A Multimodal Grape Segmentation Framework with Wavelet Convolution, FasterNeXt, and Dynamic Upsampling for Intelligent Harvesting

by Pengyan Wang, Chengshuai Li and Linjing Wei

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070679 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Grapes are high-value crops, but expanding cultivation has made manual harvesting inefficient and costly due to labor shortages and weather constraints. Automated harvesting requires accurate and lightweight image segmentation to ensure reliable visual perception. Improving segmentation precision, robustness, and model compactness is thus [...] Read more.

Grapes are high-value crops, but expanding cultivation has made manual harvesting inefficient and costly due to labor shortages and weather constraints. Automated harvesting requires accurate and lightweight image segmentation to ensure reliable visual perception. Improving segmentation precision, robustness, and model compactness is thus critical for intelligent grape harvesting. To enhance segmentation robustness in complex orchard environments, this study introduces a multimodal fusion and multi-scale enhancement strategy and develops a lightweight instance segmentation network. Using a multimodal grape dataset containing RGB, near-infrared (NIR), and depth information, a multi-resolution training scheme based on an image-pyramid framework was constructed. Among the three YOLOv11-based fusion strategies, early fusion achieved the best performance. Accordingly, the lightweight model YOLOv11-WFD was designed by integrating FasterNeXt, DySample, and WaveletPool to strengthen feature extraction, adaptive sampling, and small-object perception. The model delivers high segmentation accuracy and strong deployment suitability for intelligent harvesting applications. Experimental results show that YOLOv11-WFD achieves a mAP@50:95 of 79.3% on the validation set with only 2.25 M parameters, demonstrating outstanding performance in both precision and compactness. Compared with YOLOv3-tiny, YOLOv5n, YOLOv8n, YOLOv10n, YOLOv11n, and YOLOv12n, YOLOv11-WFD improves mAP@50:95 by 25.4, 3.0, 2.7, 2.8, 2.0, and 3.1 percentage points, respectively, while reducing parameters by 80.4%, 7.8%, 23.5%, 10.7%, 20.8%, and 18.8%. Overall, YOLOv11-WFD achieves an excellent balance among accuracy, speed, and complexity, verifying the effectiveness of the multimodal fusion and lightweight integration strategy. It shows strong potential for practical applications and large-scale deployment in complex agricultural environments such as intelligent grape harvesting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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30 pages, 15628 KB

Open AccessArticle

HGV-YOLO: A Detection Method for Floating Seedlings and Missed Transplanting Based on the Morphological Characteristics of Rice Seedlings

by Chunying Liang, Yuheng Chen, Jun Hu and Zheng Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070678 (registering DOI) - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Transplanting status is a significant indicator for rice cultivation, and is essential for field management, food security and agricultural production. However, traditional characterization cannot detect the transplanting status in a timely and effective manner; manual seedling replanting is labor-intensive, has a high cost [...] Read more.

Transplanting status is a significant indicator for rice cultivation, and is essential for field management, food security and agricultural production. However, traditional characterization cannot detect the transplanting status in a timely and effective manner; manual seedling replanting is labor-intensive, has a high cost and is inefficient. This study proposed a detection method for floating seedlings and missed transplanting. The method employed a self-built improved YOLO, namely HGV-YOLO. We leverage a HorBlock module to achieve the splitting of the morphological features of rice seedlings in different dimensions of the backbone network of YOLOv8n, which enabled the network to further enhance the classification and recognition ability of rice seedlings. Furthermore, Grouped Spatial Convolution (GSConv) replaces convolution, and the VOV-GSCSP replaces the C2f modules, reducing the number of parameters and improving the model’s inference speed. To improve the model’s bounding box precision, the WIoU loss function was also incorporated. Finally, we use the least squares method to predict the center point of the rice seedlings. The experimental results indicate that HGV-YOLO achieves a precision of 93.7%, a recall of 83.1%, and an mAP@0.5 of 91.1%. Compared to YOLOv8n, HGV-YOLO reduces Params by 3.1% and GFLOPs by 1.2%, respectively, while improving mAP@0.5 by 2.3%. Compared to YOLOv3-tinyYOLOv5 and YOLOv6, HGV-YOLO achieves increases in mAP@0.5 of 4.6 %, 3.1%, and 2.8%, respectively. In summary, the HGV-YOLO model exhibits a strong performance and provides valuable insights for advancing the autonomous navigation of rice transplanting robotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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27 pages, 4919 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of Seed Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Harvesting Techniques and the Challenges of Harvesting Technologies for This Crop

by Florian Adamczyk, Dominika Sieracka and Maciej Zaborowicz

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070677 - 24 Mar 2026

Abstract

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) harvesting for grain represents a critical technological bottleneck in the modern supply chain, driven by a fundamental conflict between the plant’s resilient morphology and standard agricultural machinery. This review provides an analytical synthesis of harvesting methodologies, evaluating [...] Read more.

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) harvesting for grain represents a critical technological bottleneck in the modern supply chain, driven by a fundamental conflict between the plant’s resilient morphology and standard agricultural machinery. This review provides an analytical synthesis of harvesting methodologies, evaluating their performance against specific biological constraints such as extreme plant height (up to 4.5 m), high tensile fiber strength, and indeterminate ripening. Data synthesis reveals that hemp cutting is approximately 80 times more energy-intensive than for traditional forage crops, requiring an average maximum force of 243 N per stem. Comparative analysis demonstrates that while conventional whole-plant harvesting faces seed losses ranging from 26% to 46%, selective systems like specialized panicle mowers reduce these losses to nearly 2 kg·ha⁻¹ by targeting only the mature inflorescences. To ensure seed integrity and operational stability, the review identifies concrete technological priorities: the use of abrasion-resistant alloys for cutting edges, the implementation of non-binding shaft shielding (e.g., ABS piping), and a 40–50% reduction in threshing cylinder speeds compared to cereal settings. Future advancements must focus on specialized, high-clearance selective machinery and adaptive control systems to reconcile hemp’s unique physiology with industrial-scale efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Aspects of Medicinal, Aromatic and Spice Plants' Cultivation, Harvest, Processing and Conservation)

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