Agronomy

11 pages, 842 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Weather Conditions and Storage Duration on the Germination of Croatian Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Varieties

by Vedran Orkić, Sunčica Kujundžić, Sanja Grubišić Šestanj, Boris Ravnjak, Sonja Petrović, Sonja Vila, Andrijana Rebekić, Darko Kiš, Jurica Jović, Antun Jozinović, Drago Šubarić, Nicolae Marinel Horablaga, Emilian Onișan and Vlado Guberac

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2115; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092115 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Seed germination is a key determinant of wheat seed quality, strongly affected by genetic potential, weather conditions during production, and storage duration. Although numerous studies have investigated seed viability, little is known about how the interaction between annual climatic variability and storage length [...] Read more.

Seed germination is a key determinant of wheat seed quality, strongly affected by genetic potential, weather conditions during production, and storage duration. Although numerous studies have investigated seed viability, little is known about how the interaction between annual climatic variability and storage length affects long-term germination performance of winter wheat. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of weather conditions and storage period on germination energy and germination of 50 Croatian winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars released between 1947 and 2010. The experiment was conducted over five consecutive production years (2013/2014–2017/2018). Seeds of each cultivar were reproduced under standardized field conditions, harvested annually, and stored under identical controlled conditions (5 °C, 30–35% RH). Germination energy (first count, day 4) and total germination (final count, day 8) were evaluated according to ISTA protocols. The results revealed significant effects of both production year and cultivar on germination performance. Seeds produced in 2016/2017 exhibited the highest germination (96.21%), which was ~15% higher than the lowest rate observed in 2013/2014 (80.48%). Germination energy of 2013/2014 seeds was 23% lower compared to 2015/2016 and 2016/2017. Unexpectedly, seeds stored for only one year (2017/2018 production) showed lower germination (90.92%) than those stored for two (96.21%) or three years (95.01%), likely due to excessive rainfall (>100% above average) during seed maturation in 2018 that impaired seed quality. Several cultivars, including Una, Tonka, Žitarka, and Kuna, consistently maintained high germination rates (>94%) even after five years of storage, demonstrating strong physiological stability and long-term viability. These findings underline the combined importance of weather conditions during seed production and storage duration for seed longevity. In practical terms, cultivars with proven stability may be recommended for long-term storage and reliable field performance. Future research should extend germination assessment to additional vigor indices (e.g., germination synchrony, vigor index, abnormal seedlings) and explore genetic mechanisms underlying superior seed longevity in modern wheat breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

23 pages, 2102 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Effects of Exogenous Selenium and Silicon on Alleviating Cadmium Stress in Artemisia argyi

by Yaxin Yu, Yu Guo, Qianqian Yu, Mengting Wu and Wenfang Hao

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2114; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092114 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Selenium (Se) and silicon (Si) have been demonstrated to mitigate the adverse effects of cadmium (Cd) stress on the growth of various higher plants. However, the distinct mechanisms by which Se and Si, when applied to soil, alleviate the toxicity of Artemisia argyi [...] Read more.

Selenium (Se) and silicon (Si) have been demonstrated to mitigate the adverse effects of cadmium (Cd) stress on the growth of various higher plants. However, the distinct mechanisms by which Se and Si, when applied to soil, alleviate the toxicity of Artemisia argyi under Cd stress remain unclear. This study employed A. argyi as the experimental material and simulated a Cd stress environment in soil pot experiments by adding CdCl₂·2.5H₂O at concentrations of 4 mg kg⁻¹ and 10 mg kg⁻¹. Exogenous Se in the form of Na₂SeO₃ (2 mg kg⁻¹) or Si in the form of Na₂SiO₃ (20 mg kg⁻¹) was applied simultaneously. After 90 days of combined exposure, the study investigated the differential mechanisms by which Se and Si application influenced Cd uptake by roots, its translocation within aboveground and underground tissues, and the antioxidant system of A. argyi under two levels of Cd stress. The results indicate that under Cd stress conditions, the application of Se significantly promotes the growth of A. argyi. Under both Cd concentration treatments, the application of Se or Si alone markedly reduces the Cd content in the aboveground parts of A. argyi. This reduction may be attributed to alterations in the subcellular distribution of Cd, decreased Cd content in organelles, and increased Cd sequestration in cell walls and soluble components. Furthermore, the application of Se or Si in soil can enhance the content of osmoregulatory substances, chlorophyll, and plant chelating agents in A. argyi leaves while reducing the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly at high Cd concentrations. The findings suggest that the alleviation of Cd toxicity by exogenous Se is primarily due to its role in inhibiting Cd uptake and translocation to shoots, as well as strengthening Cd compartmentalization in root cell walls and enhancing the antioxidant defense system. In contrast, exogenous Si primarily mitigates Cd toxicity by restricting Cd translocation from underground to aboveground plant tissues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

16 pages, 1780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Irrigation Leaching Regime During the Cotton Growth Period Based on Multi-Model Integration and Fuzzy Borda Validation

by Hongyuan Huang, Yunling Jiang, Xi Liu, Wanqing Nie, Yuli Hu, Yang Yang, Shuangshuang Chu, Xintong Xu and Chao Xiao

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2113; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092113 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Efficient water management and soil salinity are major constraints on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production in southern Xinjiang. This study evaluated the impacts of three irrigation leaching regimes (W1: 75 mm + 80% ETc, W2: 150 mm + 80% crop evapotranspiration (ETc), [...] Read more.

Efficient water management and soil salinity are major constraints on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production in southern Xinjiang. This study evaluated the impacts of three irrigation leaching regimes (W1: 75 mm + 80% ETc, W2: 150 mm + 80% crop evapotranspiration (ETc), W3: 240 mm + 80% ETc) applied at different stages (seeding, budding, flowering), compared with a control of 450 mm spring irrigation (CK), on cotton growth, yield, quality, and water-use efficiency (WUE). The optimal leaching amount was found to range between 155–240 mm, with the W2C and W3C treatments performing the best. To integrate eight fiber indices, five growth parameters, yield, and WUE, comprehensive assessment models were established Four integrated evaluation models (Broda, Copeland, fuzzy Borda, and overall difference-based evaluation) exhibited strong consistency (Spearman coefficient > 0.98). Results from the fuzzy Borda model indicated optimal performance under treatments W2C and W3C. Additionally, a regression model suggested that cotton production was optimized when cumulative irrigation and rainfall reached approximately 326.3 mm, with leaching amounts applied during seeding, budding, and flowering stages. These findings provide practical guidelines for effective leaching practices to reduce soil salinity and to sustainably enhance cotton productivity in southern Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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12 pages, 2033 KB

Open AccessArticle

CRISPR/Cas9 Editing of the OsLOX3 Gene Enhances Rice Grain Weight and Seed Vigor

by Ping Yu, Jiadong Gao, Junting Jia, Deyao Meng, Zhangyan Dai, Mingsheng Zhong, Jun Liu and Xiangrong Tian

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2112; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092112 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Rice lipoxygenase 3 (OsLOX3) is a lipid hydroperoxidase found in rice embryos. Previous studies have reported that OsLOX3 is associated with seed quality and stress resistance, however, its relationship with grain shape and weight remains unknown. In this study, the first [...] Read more.

Rice lipoxygenase 3 (OsLOX3) is a lipid hydroperoxidase found in rice embryos. Previous studies have reported that OsLOX3 is associated with seed quality and stress resistance, however, its relationship with grain shape and weight remains unknown. In this study, the first exon of OsLOX3 gene was edited in the indica rice variety GDR998 using CRISPR/Cas9 technology. Two homozygous mutants, Oslox3-1 (single-base deletion) and Oslox3-2 (single-base insertion) were identified among eight positive mutant plants from the T2 generation. The agronomic evaluation of genotypic OsLOX3 mutants showed significant increase in grain length, grain length-to-width ratio, 1000-grain weight, plant height, panicle length, and yield per plant compared with the wild type GDR998. The number of effective panicles and total grains per panicle did not significantly change. Further germination tests of seeds after three years of natural aging revealed that, compared with the control GDR998, the germination percentages of the mutants Oslox3-1 and Oslox3-2 increased significantly by 41.1% and 45.6%, respectively. These findings indicate that the knockout of OsLOX3 simultaneously improve grain weight and seed vigor, providing valuable germplasm resources for rice breeding targeting high-yield, improved seed longevity and rice quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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12 pages, 1498 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Genome-Wide Association Study of Sugarcane Smut Resistance

by Xinglong Chen, Xuhui Li, Enping Cai, Xiaomin Feng, Junteng Fang, Jiayun Wu and Nannan Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2111; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092111 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Sugarcane smut, caused by Sporisorium scitamineum, is a globally prevalent disease that severely impacts sugarcane yield and quality. The most cost-effective and sustainable approach to disease control is breeding for smut-resistant varieties. In this study, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) [...] Read more.

Sugarcane smut, caused by Sporisorium scitamineum, is a globally prevalent disease that severely impacts sugarcane yield and quality. The most cost-effective and sustainable approach to disease control is breeding for smut-resistant varieties. In this study, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using a panel of core sugarcane parents and their derived lines to elucidate the genetic basis of smut resistance across seven different environments. We identified 68 new loci significantly associated with smut resistance across all the chromosomes. Based on functional annotations and genomic positions, 164 candidate genes were identified, many of which are related to enzymatic systems, resistance genes, transcription factors, and other pathways implicated in smut defense. Using resistance ratings and associated SNPs, we further selected ten elite parents and derivatives as potential donors for marker-assisted selection (MAS). This study provides a valuable reservoir of genetic resources for improving smut resistance in sugarcane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Pathogenicity of Fungi in Crops—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2309 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Assessing Agricultural Systems Using Emergy Analysis: A Bibliometric Review

by Joana Marinheiro, João Serra, Ana Fonseca and Cláudia S. C. Marques-dos-Santos

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2110; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092110 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Sustainable intensification requires metrics that are able to capture both economic performance and the often-hidden environmental inputs that support agriculture. Emergy analysis (EmA) meets this need by converting all inputs—free environmental flows and purchased goods/services—into a common unit (solar emjoules, sej). We conducted [...] Read more.

Sustainable intensification requires metrics that are able to capture both economic performance and the often-hidden environmental inputs that support agriculture. Emergy analysis (EmA) meets this need by converting all inputs—free environmental flows and purchased goods/services—into a common unit (solar emjoules, sej). We conducted a PRISMA-documented bibliometric review of EmA in agroecosystems (Web of Science + Scopus, 2000–2022) using Bibliometrix and synthesized farm-scale indicators (ELR, EYR, ESI, %R). Our results show output has grown but is concentrated in a few countries (China, Italy and Brazil) and journals, with farm-level assessments dominating over regional and national assessments. Across cases, mixed crop–livestock systems tend to show lower environmental loading (ELR) and higher sustainability (ESI) than crop-only or livestock-only systems. %R is generally modest, indicating continued reliance on non-renewables, with fertilizers (crops) and purchased feed (livestock) identified as recurrent drivers. Thematic mapping reveals well-developed niche clusters but no single motor theme, consistent with the presence of incongruous baselines, transformities and boundaries that limit comparability. We recommend adoption of the 12.1 × 10²⁴ sej yr⁻¹ baseline, transparent transformity reporting and multi-scale designs that link farm diagnostics to basin and national trajectories. Co-reporting with complementary sustainability assessment methods (such as LCA and carbon footprint), along with appropriate UEV resources, would increase its reputation among policymakers while preserving EmA’s systems perspective, converting dispersed case evidence into cumulative knowledge for circular, resilient agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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15 pages, 1266 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Dissection of Yield-Related Traits in a Set of Maize Recombinant Inbred Lines Under Multiple Environments

by Donglin Li, Weiwei Zeng, Zhongmin Han, Jiawei Shang, Tai An, Yuan Li, Yuan Xu, Fengyu Wang, Xiaochun Jin, Jinsheng Fan, Jianqian Qi, Rui Wang, Liang Li, Kaijian Fan, Dequan Sun and Yuncai Lu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2109; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092109 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Agronomic advancements have led to significant increases in maize yield per hectare in Northeast China, primarily through improved density tolerance. However, the genetic mechanism underlying grain yield responses to density stress remains poorly understood. Here, a population of 193 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) [...] Read more.

Agronomic advancements have led to significant increases in maize yield per hectare in Northeast China, primarily through improved density tolerance. However, the genetic mechanism underlying grain yield responses to density stress remains poorly understood. Here, a population of 193 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from the cross between ZM058 and PH1219 was employed to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) under two planting densities across three locations over two years. Six yield-related traits were investigated: ear tip-barrenness length (BEL), cob diameter (CD), ear diameter (ED), ear length (EL), kernel number per row (KNR), and kernel row number (KRN). These traits exhibited distinct and divergent responses to density stress, with the values of CD, ED, EL, KNR and KRN decreasing as planting density increased, except for BEL. A total of 81 QTLs were identified for these traits: 39 were unique to low planting density, 22 to high planting density, and 20 were shared across both conditions. Additionally, nine QTL clusters implicated in the development of multiple traits were detected. The results indicate that planting density significantly affects yield traits, primarily through the interaction of numerous minor QTLs with multiple effects. This insight enhances our understanding of the genetic basis of yield-related traits and provides valuable guidance for breeding high-density-tolerant varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Phenotype to Gene: A Holistic Approach to Improving Crop Agronomic Traits)

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26 pages, 3046 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution Patterns of Humus and Mineral Composition in Dark-Brown, Meadow, and Paddy Soils in Northeast China

by Donghui Dai, Haihang Sun, Yubao Huang, Jingwei Gao, Bowen Song, Haoyu Gao, Baoyi Lu and Shuai Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2108; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092108 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate vertical variations in dissolved organic matter (DOM) properties, humus (HS) composition, humic acid (HA) characteristics, and clay mineral dynamics, with a particular focus on the vertical distribution of HS components and mineral composition across Dark-brown, Meadow, and Paddy [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate vertical variations in dissolved organic matter (DOM) properties, humus (HS) composition, humic acid (HA) characteristics, and clay mineral dynamics, with a particular focus on the vertical distribution of HS components and mineral composition across Dark-brown, Meadow, and Paddy soil profiles. Results indicated that: (1) DOM in all three soil types was predominantly endogenous, primarily derived from microbial metabolism with minimal contributions from plant residues. (2) Vertical trends in DOM carbon content (C_DOM) were specific to soil type: in Dark-brown soil, C_DOM slightly increased from the Ap to Bt layer, followed by a sharp increase in the C layer; Meadow soil exhibited a significant decrease in C_DOM in the AB layer but remained relatively stable in other layers; Paddy soil showed a consistent decline in C_DOM with increasing depth. (3) HS and its fractions exhibited vertical variability: Paddy soil showed higher HS content in surface layers; carbon contents of water-soluble substances, HA, and humic-extracted acid (C_WSS, C_HA, and C_HE) decreased with depth in Dark-brown and Paddy soils, whereas they remained relatively stable in deeper layers of Meadow soil. (4) HA characteristics, including C/N ratio, functional groups, and aromaticity, were influenced by both depth and soil type: the Ap2 layer of Paddy soil effectively restricted the downward movement of organic matter; Fe³⁺ complexation played a key role in HA stabilization in Dark-brown soil; Meadow soil exhibited transitional HS properties. (5) Clay mineral assemblages were dominated by 2:1 type minerals (illite, smectite, illite–smectite interstratifications), showing distinct vertical weathering patterns: illite content decreased with depth due to hydrolysis, while proton-driven dissolution promoted kaolinite formation in surface layers, particularly in Dark-brown soil 2:1 minerals enhancing organic–mineral complexation in Meadow soil. The findings of this study provided a scientific basis for optimizing soil carbon pool management and offer insights into organic–mineral interactions that can enhance organic matter sequestration in agricultural soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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19 pages, 2267 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Base-Width-Based Annotation Box Ratios for Vine Trunk and Support Post Detection Performance in Agricultural Autonomous Navigation Environments

by Hong-Kun Lyu, Sanghun Yun and Seung Park

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2107; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092107 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

AI-driven agricultural automation increasingly demands efficient data generation methods for training deep learning models in autonomous robotic systems. Traditional bounding box annotation methods for agricultural objects present significant challenges including subjective boundary determination, inconsistent labeling across annotators, and physical strain from extensive mouse [...] Read more.

AI-driven agricultural automation increasingly demands efficient data generation methods for training deep learning models in autonomous robotic systems. Traditional bounding box annotation methods for agricultural objects present significant challenges including subjective boundary determination, inconsistent labeling across annotators, and physical strain from extensive mouse movements required for elongated objects. This study proposes a novel base-width standardized annotation method that utilizes the base width of a vine trunk and a support post as a reference parameter for automated bounding box generation. The method requires annotators to specify only the left and right endpoints of object bases, from which the system automatically generates standardized bounding boxes with predefined aspect ratios. Performance assessment utilized Precision, Recall, F1-score, and Average Precision metrics across vine trunks and support posts. The study reveals that vertically elongated rectangular bounding boxes outperform square configurations for agricultural object detection. The proposed method is expected to reduce time consumption from subjective boundary determination and minimize physical strain during bounding box annotation for AI-based autonomous navigation models in agricultural environments. This will ultimately enhance dataset consistency and improve the efficiency of artificial intelligence learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

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20 pages, 3049 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Weed Taxa Community in a Young Apple Orchard (‘King Roat Red Delicious’ Cultivar) Depending on the Presence of Living Mulch and the Application of Two Nitrogen Fertilization Rates

by Urszula Barbara Bałuszyńska and Maria Licznar-Małańczuk

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2106; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092106 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two nitrogen doses in combination with strong creeping fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra Gaudin) and Chewing’s red fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaudin) used as living mulches on [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two nitrogen doses in combination with strong creeping fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra Gaudin) and Chewing’s red fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaudin) used as living mulches on the weed community in an apple tree (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchard. The cover grasses were sown in the tree rows, and herbicide fallow served as the control. Grass living mulches effectively reduced the number and share of annual weed cover and limited the spread of perennial plants compared with herbicide fallow. Use of F. rubra L. subspecies did not favor the biodiversity of the orchard agroecosystem flora, due to the effective soil surface coverage by sod in the tree rows. Living mulch sod was characterized by lower variability in weed taxa compared with the abundant weed composition in the herbicide fallow, which also exhibited the highest number of weed taxa each year. Dominant species in the orchard across all treatments included Trifolium repens L. and Taraxacum spp. Doubling the nitrogen fertilization rate, while limiting the application area to the tree canopy, did not increase the perennial weed population in the living mulch sod. Both subspecies are useful as living mulch in a young apple orchard, but from the perspective of sod durability and weed control, strong creeping red fescue offers better prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weed Biology and Ecology: Importance to Integrated Weed Management)

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17 pages, 7370 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Biological Products in Managing Root Pathogens in Melons

by Allinny Luzia Alves Cavalcante, Andréia Mitsa Paiva Negreiros, Dariane Monteiro Viana, Sabrina Queiroz de Freitas, Márcio Thalison de Queiroz Souza, Moisés Bento Tavares, Sabir Khan, Inês Maria Mendes Sales and Rui Sales Júnior

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2105; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092105 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Biological control represents a sustainable alternative that can be used to reduce the impacts of soilborne diseases in melon cultivation, which are major constraints to productivity. This study evaluated the effectiveness of four biological products formulated with Bacillus and Trichoderma species in suppressing [...] Read more.

Biological control represents a sustainable alternative that can be used to reduce the impacts of soilborne diseases in melon cultivation, which are major constraints to productivity. This study evaluated the effectiveness of four biological products formulated with Bacillus and Trichoderma species in suppressing symptoms caused by root pathogens in melon crops, including Fusarium spp., Macrophomina phaseolina, Monosporascus cannonballus, and Rhizoctonia solani. Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to simulate successive crop cycles using two naturally infested soils (A and B). Bombardeiro/Lastro, Quality^®, TrichobiolMax, and TrichonemateMax were applied using two management strategies: (1) a tray application 8 days after sowing (DAS) + four pot applications at 7-day intervals, totaling five applications, and (2) a tray application 8 DAS + two pot applications at 14-day intervals, totaling three applications. The yellow melon cultivar ‘Goldex’ was used in the experiments. Forty-five days after transplanting, the treatments showed statistically significant differences compared to the positive control (naturally infested soil without products), both in disease incidence and severity and in plant growth parameters. In Soil A, three applications of Quality^® and TrichobiolMax resulted in 50% and 60% disease incidences, respectively. In Soil B, five applications of Lastro and TrichobiolMax led to 60% of plants showing disease symptoms. These products also reduced disease severity in both soils, and TrichonemateMax showed potential for nematode control. Additionally, these products resulted in a 21% reduction in the frequency of Fusarium spp. in Soil A. These findings are valuable for developing sustainable practices in melon cultivation, promoting more efficient and environmentally sound management of root diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Diagnosis and Biological Control of Crop Diseases)

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19 pages, 4569 KB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Combined Organic and Inorganic Fertilization Alters Soil Phosphorus Fractions and Peanut Uptake

by Keyao Zhou, Haoxiang Li, Xiao Li, Bingbing Zhou, Xuezeng Wei, Ying Wang, Ning Liu, Xue Li, Xiumei Zhan and Xiaori Han

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2104; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092104 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Organic amendments, such as straw, biochar, and animal manure, have been demonstrated to enhance soil phosphorus (P) availability effectively; however, the long-term impacts and underlying mechanisms require further study. Based on a long-term field experiment, this research systematically analyzed the effects of biochar [...] Read more.

Organic amendments, such as straw, biochar, and animal manure, have been demonstrated to enhance soil phosphorus (P) availability effectively; however, the long-term impacts and underlying mechanisms require further study. Based on a long-term field experiment, this research systematically analyzed the effects of biochar (BIO), biochar-based fertilizer (BF), straw-returning (CS), and pig manure compost (PMC) on soil phosphorus transformation and crop phosphorus uptake. Results showed that biochar significantly boosted soil available phosphorus (AP) by releasing soluble phosphorus, raising soil pH, reducing phosphorus fixation by iron and aluminum oxides, and enhancing soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) to promote phosphorus dissolution and transformation. Notably, biochar increased the proportion of NaOH-P, facilitating phosphorus accumulation in peanut grains and improving the phosphorus harvest index and utilization efficiency. Straw-returning primarily elevated soil AP by promoting organic phosphorus mineralization and inorganic phosphorus release; however, its acidification of the soil impaired phosphorus translocation to grains, resulting in lower phosphorus-use efficiency compared to biochar. Pig manure compost reduced soil phosphorus fixation and increased soil total organic carbon (TOC), thereby boosting phosphorus transformation. Despite enhancing phosphorus dry-matter production in plants, most phosphorus remained in stems and leaves, with limited translocation to grains, leading to lower phosphorus-use efficiency than biochar. In conclusion, biochar was most effective in enhancing soil phosphorus availability and crop phosphorus-use efficiency, highlighting its potential in sustainable soil fertility management and optimized crop production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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16 pages, 4261 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Plant Growth-Promoting Bacterial Isolate, Bacillus velezensis 41S2, Enhances Seed Protein, Isoflavone Accumulation, and Stress Resilience in Soybean Under Salt–Alkaline Soil Conditions

by Han Zheng, Shutian Hua, Zhe Li, Ziyan Wang, Donglin Zhao, Changliang Jing, Yiqiang Li, Chengsheng Zhang, Yanfen Zheng, Youqiang Wang and Mingguo Jiang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092103 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Salt–alkaline soil poses a significant challenge to soybean productivity. While plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) offer a sustainable strategy for stress mitigation, their field-level application remains underexplored. Here, a field experiment was conducted in the Yellow River Delta of Shandong, China, a typical salt–alkaline [...] Read more.

Salt–alkaline soil poses a significant challenge to soybean productivity. While plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) offer a sustainable strategy for stress mitigation, their field-level application remains underexplored. Here, a field experiment was conducted in the Yellow River Delta of Shandong, China, a typical salt–alkaline region. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of Bacillus velezensis 41S2 in enhancing soybean performance under salt–alkaline soil through integrated field trials and transcriptomic analysis. Inoculation with strain 41S2 significantly improved plant biomass, yield components, and seed yield under salt–alkaline soil, and notably increased seed protein and isoflavone contents. Physiological analyses revealed that strain 41S2 markedly reduced hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation, indicating alleviation of oxidative stress. Moreover, strain 41S2 modulated the levels of soluble sugars and amino acids, contributing to osmotic regulation and carbon–nitrogen (C-N) metabolic balance. Transcriptome profiling further indicated that strain 41S2 upregulated genes involved in antioxidant response, C–N metabolism, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, highlighting its role in coordinating multilayered stress response pathways. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of B. velezensis 41S2 as a multifunctional bioinoculant for improving salt tolerance and presents a promising tool for sustainable crop production and ecological restoration in salt–alkaline soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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16 pages, 327 KB

Open AccessReview

Desert Locust Management Is Plagued by Human-Based Impediments

by Allan T. Showler and Michel Lecoq

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2102; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092102 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

Technical aspects of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) management have markedly improved since the late 1980s. Examples include modernized electronic communication systems linking stakeholders, global positioning system precision for reporting and treatment of locust aggregations, ultra-low-volume insecticide formulations and application techniques that [...] Read more.

Technical aspects of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) management have markedly improved since the late 1980s. Examples include modernized electronic communication systems linking stakeholders, global positioning system precision for reporting and treatment of locust aggregations, ultra-low-volume insecticide formulations and application techniques that reduce both environmental impact and chemical use, and computerized integration of multidisciplinary data for monitoring and forecasting outbreaks, upsurges, and plagues. Despite the remote and rugged terrain where the species thrives, tools and vehicles for surveillance and control generally exist—although they are not always available when needed. As technical aspects of desert locust control continue to be surmounted, human-based factors remain substantial, underlying, multifaceted obstacles. Funding shortfalls are frequently cited but rarely analyzed in depth. This article focuses on these underlying human constraints, including rigid conceptual dogmas, diverse forms of insecurity, political interference, weak communication among stakeholders, decreasing donor interest, confusion between emergency response and development objectives, loss of institutional memory, inadequate staff training, and limited attention to dynamic, real-time developments. These human-based impediments are critical because they underlie systemic unpreparedness and hinder the transition toward more integrated, proactive, and sustainable locust management approaches. As such, they contribute to the onset, intensity, and prolonged duration of desert locust episodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locust and Grasshopper Management: Challenges and Innovations)

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20 pages, 3603 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Contour Antislope Terracing on Preferential Soil Flow in Sloping Cropland in the Alpine Valley Area of Southwest China

by Miaomiao Zhai, Yangyi Zhao, Keqin Wang, Jindong Xiang, Zhenchao Wang, Yaxin Pan and Sanjian Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2101; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092101 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study was conducted to reveal the response relationship between soil preferential flow characteristics and soil pore structure of sloping cropland under contour antislope step measures in the alpine canyon area of Southwest China. In the sub-watershed of Nantangjing, Yunlong County, the upper [...] Read more.

This study was conducted to reveal the response relationship between soil preferential flow characteristics and soil pore structure of sloping cropland under contour antislope step measures in the alpine canyon area of Southwest China. In the sub-watershed of Nantangjing, Yunlong County, the upper and lower slopes of primary sloping cultivated land (PSC) and contour reverse-slope terraced rectified land (CR) were used for the study, and a field staining tracer test was used to compare the differences in preferential flow morphology between different slopes with and without measures. The maximum infiltration depth of preferential flow under the contour reverse-slope terrace land preparation reached 21 cm. The stained area ratio tended to decrease with increasing soil depth. Compared to the original slope farmland, the stable infiltration rate under land preparation increased from 0.017 to 0.244 cm³·s⁻¹, and the maximum macroporosity increased by up to 17.00%. Furthermore, land preparation measures significantly enhanced the correlation between macropore quantity and preferential flow characteristics, with the highest correlation coefficient reaching 0.98. And the soil factors in total porosity, total nitrogen and organic matter were particularly influential on preferential flow. Contour antislope terracing promotes the formation and development of preferential soil flow by remodeling soil structure and optimizing pore network distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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17 pages, 1886 KB

Open AccessArticle

Early Detection of Wheat Fusarium Head Blight During the Incubation Period Using FTIR-PAS

by Gaoqiang Lv, Jiaqi Li, Didi Shan, Fei Liu, Hanping Mao and Weihong Sun

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2100; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092100 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

The apparent normalcy of wheat during the incubation period of Fusarium head blight (FHB) makes early diagnosis challenging. This study employed Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS) to conduct layer-by-layer scanning of wheat leaves during the disease outbreak stage and performed a differential [...] Read more.

The apparent normalcy of wheat during the incubation period of Fusarium head blight (FHB) makes early diagnosis challenging. This study employed Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS) to conduct layer-by-layer scanning of wheat leaves during the disease outbreak stage and performed a differential spectral analysis. Spectral information was collected from five sites (D0~D4) on diseased leaves at reducing distances from the lesion caused by the Fusarium graminearum pathogen. The results revealed that the disease caused an increase in spectral similarity between deeper and shallower layers. The spectra of leaves, after removing the D0 background, showed a correlation of 83.5% to that of the pathogen, and the similarity increased at sites closer to the lesion, suggesting that the original spectra captured a large amount of hidden information related to the pathogen. With the threshold for the absorption intensity ratio of R_1650/1050 for background-subtracted spectra set at 0.5, the optimal overall accuracy and F1-score were 86.0% and 0.89 for diagnosing outbreak-stage samples, respectively, while for incubation-period samples, they were 82.5% and 0.83. These results elucidate the mechanism of using FTIR-PAS to diagnose FHB during its incubation period, providing a theoretical and technical foundation for detecting disease information in other crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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19 pages, 4445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sink Strength Governs Yield Ceiling in High-Yield Cotton: Compensation Effects of Source–Sink Damage and Reproductive Stage Regulation

by Zhenwang Zhang, Kexin Li, Qinghua Liao, Zhijie Shi, Keke Yu, Junqi Zhu, Xiyu Jia, Guodong Chen, Sumei Wan, Shanwei Lou, Mingfeng Yang, Fangjun Li, Xiaoli Tian, Zhaohu Li and Mingwei Du

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2099; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092099 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

Under refined management, high-yield cotton fields are approaching their maximum output. However, how to break this yield upper limit, specifically the source–sink relationship is still inadequately researched. This experiment was conducted to explore the interaction mechanism between yield formation and source–sink parameters (photosynthesis, [...] Read more.

Under refined management, high-yield cotton fields are approaching their maximum output. However, how to break this yield upper limit, specifically the source–sink relationship is still inadequately researched. This experiment was conducted to explore the interaction mechanism between yield formation and source–sink parameters (photosynthesis, nitrogen content, canopy structure and dry matter accumulation and distribution). The treatments consisted of a no cutting source and sink treatment (CK), cutting 1/2 leaves per plant (1/2L) and cutting 1/2 bolls per plant (1/2B) at the initial flowering stage (IFS), the flower and boll stage (FABS), and the full boll stage (FBS). The results showed that 1/2L treatment minimized yield losses to 2.3–5.9% by enhancing photosynthetic compensation, with FBS-1/2L showing the smallest reduction (2.3–2.9%) due to higher leaf N content and SPAD values, whereas, the 1/2B treatments resulted in significant yield losses attributable to fewer bolls, especially the FBS-1/2B treatments, which reduced yields by 35.7–41.9%, with a compensatory rate of only 8.1–14.3%. It is noteworthy that the compensation rates of IFS-1/2B and FABS-1/2B could reach 26.7–32.3% and 18.7–23.8% of their yields due to the higher leaf N content. In a word, the source damage can be buffered by physiological compensation, while the sink loss leads to yield collapse due to the irreversibility of reproductive development. Thus, the core regulator of high-yield cotton fields was sink strength. Accordingly, optimizing the sink quality was performed through moderate boll thinning at the IFS, enhancing water and fertilizer supply at the FABS and strengthening sink organ protection at the FBS in order to realize a breakthrough in yield limit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Productivity and Management in Agricultural Systems)

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16 pages, 3581 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Flower Biology of Camellia luteoflora—A Species with an Extremely Small Population

by Fen Liu, Bangyou Liu, Weicheng Yang, YueHua Song, Sheng Liang, Hangdan Chen, Mengqing Zhou and Gaoyin Wu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2098; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092098 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study was to elucidate the reproductive strategy of Camellia luteoflora, an endangered evergreen endemic to karst ecosystems. We observed and recorded its flowering phenology and flower-visiting insects, observed pollen morphology, determined pollen viability, and assessed stigma receptivity. The [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to elucidate the reproductive strategy of Camellia luteoflora, an endangered evergreen endemic to karst ecosystems. We observed and recorded its flowering phenology and flower-visiting insects, observed pollen morphology, determined pollen viability, and assessed stigma receptivity. The results showed that the flowering period of C. luteoflora started from early September to late December, with the average flowering period of individual flowers being 10–12 days. The pollen morphology of C. luteoflora was subprolate and prolate, with three germinal apertures and the fossulate exine ornamentation. Pollen viability was the highest at the initial opening stage (80.30%). In the process of pollen in vitro, the order of influence on the germination rate and pollen tube length was temperature > sucrose > calcium chloride (CaCl₂) > boric acid (H₃BO₃). The best combination for the germination rate was 24 °C, 75 g/L sucrose, 0.2 g/L CaCl₂, 0.15 g/L H₃BO₃, while that for the pollen tube length was 24 °C, 100 g/L sucrose, 0.2 g/L CaCl₂, 0.25 g/L H₃BO₃. Stigma receptivity was the strongest at the full blooming stage. The pollen/ovule ratio (P/O) was 2240, suggesting a facultative outcrossing breeding system. The outcrossing index (OCI) was 4, suggesting that the exogamous breeding system is the cross-pollination type, partially self-compatible and insect pollinator-dependent. The flower-visiting insects included bees, weevils, and ants. In summary, C. luteoflora exhibits an extended flowering period, with a prolonged overlap of stable pollen viability and stigma receptivity, suggesting a potential strategy to cope with pollination uncertainty. However, field observations recorded only a few species of potential pollinators, while the occurrence frequency of non-pollinating insects was relatively high. It is thus hypothesized that this apparent lack of effective pollinators may act as a potential barrier to successful fertilization and natural regeneration, which might also be one of the factors contributing to its endangered status. Future studies, particularly pollinator exclusion and hand-pollination experiments, are critically needed to verify whether pollinator limitation is indeed a key factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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17 pages, 348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rotation Length and Defoliation Intensity Effects on Dry Matter Production and Botanical Composition in Perennial ryegrass–White clover and Multispecies Pastures

by Luis F. Piña, Verónica M. Merino, María Jesús Navarro, Claudia Mella F., Cristian Lucero, Gabriel Seguel, Alejandro Acuña and Tomás Schwenke

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2097; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092097 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

Temperate grazing systems require advanced management strategies to simultaneously enhance both productivity and resilience. Multispecies pasture (MSS) mixtures offer a promising alternative to conventional Lolium perenne-Trifolium repens (LP-TR) systems by leveraging niche complementarity through diverse and deeper rooting profiles that enhance [...] Read more.

Temperate grazing systems require advanced management strategies to simultaneously enhance both productivity and resilience. Multispecies pasture (MSS) mixtures offer a promising alternative to conventional Lolium perenne-Trifolium repens (LP-TR) systems by leveraging niche complementarity through diverse and deeper rooting profiles that enhance drought tolerance and optimize nutrient acquisition from heterogeneous soil layers. In a field study, we compared LP-TR pastures with three functionally distinct MSS pastures subjected to varying rotation lengths (RL) and defoliation intensities (DIs). Seasonal and annual dry matter (DM) yield and botanical composition were assessed. MSS consistently outperformed LP-TR in total DM production, especially under shorter RL, which had a more pronounced effect on annual and spring biomass than DI. An 8 cm defoliation height generally enhances DM accumulation across systems. Species interactions significantly influenced botanical composition, with Plantago lanceolata contributing to greater pasture stability under environmental stress, accounting for 24–61% of total herbage DM. Furthermore, RL and DI interactions affected species prevalence, underscoring the need for adaptive, species-specific management strategies. These findings demonstrate that integrating strategic species selection with tailored defoliation practices in MSS mixtures can substantially enhance pasture productivity, compositional stability, and long-term sustainability of temperate grazing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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