Agronomy

20 pages, 4657 KB

Open AccessArticle

Responses of Rice Photosynthetic Carboxylation Capacity to Drought–Flood Abrupt Alternation: Implications for Yield and Water Use Efficiency

by Yong Liu, Yan Zhou, Sheng Liu, Yongxin Liao, Tiesong Hu and Wei Yin

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2573; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112573 (registering DOI) - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Investigating how drought and flooding stresses interact during drought–flood abrupt alternation events and their impact on rice photosynthetic carboxylation capacity (

V_{c m a x}

) is critical for improving crop growth and yield models under environmental stress conditions. However, there is [...] Read more.

Investigating how drought and flooding stresses interact during drought–flood abrupt alternation events and their impact on rice photosynthetic carboxylation capacity (

V_{c m a x}

) is critical for improving crop growth and yield models under environmental stress conditions. However, there is limited research on the specific role of these combined stresses on

V_{c m a x}

in rice. This study aims to address this gap by examining the effects of drought and flooding on rice

V_{c m a x}

. Using data from drought–flood experiments conducted in 2017 and 2018, we calculated

V_{c m a x}

by combining observed gas exchange parameters with photosynthetic biochemical models. The results revealed that

V_{c m a x}

damage caused by drought and flooding stresses was eventually repaired. Notably,

V_{c m a x}

recovered more quickly when mild drought preceded flooding stress. In contrast, severe and moderate drought treatments showed synergistic effects, where the preceding drought and subsequent flooding exacerbated the damage to

V_{c m a x}

. However, the pre-mild drought stress antagonistically mitigated the damage to

V_{c m a x}

of rice induced by flooding stress, showing an antagonistic effect. Additionally, rice increased intrinsic water use efficiency (

{W U E}_{i}

;

A_{n} / g_{s}

) by increasing investment in

V_{c m a x}

after drought and flooding stress, but rice yield was not improved. The preceding drought is probably beneficial for yield of rice experiencing subsequent flooding stress at relatively low

V_{c m a x}

, while subsequent flooding stress exacerbated the reduction in yield of rice experiencing preceding drought stress. This research enhances our understanding of how the interaction between drought and flooding affects rice’s photosynthetic capacity and emphasizes that appropriate drought and flooding management may have potential optimizing effects on rice yield and water use, and provides an important theoretical basis and practical guidance for paddy water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Innovative Strategies for Enhancing Plant Tolerance to Abiotic and Biotic Stresses and Ensuring Food Safety in Changing Climates)

34 pages, 18125 KB

Open AccessArticle

Crushed, Squeezed, or Pressed? How Extraction Methods Influence Sap Analysis

by Javier Santa Cruz, Diego Calbucheo, Samuel Valdebenito, Camila Cáceres, Priscila Castillo, Marcelo Aguilar, Ignacia Hernández, Hernán Allendes, Kooichi Vidal and Patricia Peñaloza

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112572 (registering DOI) - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Sap analysis provides a fast and promising approach to diagnosing plant nutritional status, yet methodological gaps remain a crucial obstacle to widespread adoption. Understanding how different extraction methods influence sap composition is key to improving the consistency and diagnostic reliability of this technique. [...] Read more.

Sap analysis provides a fast and promising approach to diagnosing plant nutritional status, yet methodological gaps remain a crucial obstacle to widespread adoption. Understanding how different extraction methods influence sap composition is key to improving the consistency and diagnostic reliability of this technique. Therefore, five methods were compared based on a range of chemical and physical parameters of broccoli petiole sap. Multiple statistical approaches were used to evaluate method effects on individual parameters and their inter-relationships. Extraction method significantly influenced chemical profiles—altering means, variability and distributional shapes—whereas physical attributes varied less across methods. Relationships among traits were observed; however, the consistency of patterns varied depending on the method. Overall, these results suggest that refining method selection could enhance both diagnostic reliability and the depth of interpretive analysis. This calls for rethinking current sap analysis practices, raising awareness of methodological variability and encouraging the development of robust, standardized approaches for reliable and comparable sap-based diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Nutrition Diagnosis and Efficient Production)

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24 pages, 6226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Melatonin Improves Drought Tolerance in Zinnia elegans Through Osmotic Adjustment and Stomatal Regulation

by Ester dos Santos Coêlho, João Everthon da Silva Ribeiro, Elania Freire da Silva, John Victor Lucas Lima, Ingrid Justino Gomes, Pablo Henrique de Almeida Oliveira, Antonio Gideilson Correia da Silva, Bruno Caio Chaves Fernandes, Ana Paula Rodrigues, Lindomar Maria da Silveira and Aurélio Paes Barros Júnior

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2571; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112571 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Water stress is the main abiotic factor that limits the development and commercial quality of ornamental plants, such as Zinnia elegans. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of exogenous melatonin (MEL) to attenuate the deleterious effects of water deficit by modulating [...] Read more.

Water stress is the main abiotic factor that limits the development and commercial quality of ornamental plants, such as Zinnia elegans. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of exogenous melatonin (MEL) to attenuate the deleterious effects of water deficit by modulating stomatal physiological, biochemical and structural parameters. Z. elegans plants were subjected to four water regimes (80% FC, 20% FC, early stress and late stress) with (1.0 mM) and without MEL application. Severe water stress (20% FC) drastically reduced the rate of CO₂ assimilation (A) by 43.81% and stomatal conductance (gs) by 68.96%. However, the application of MEL significantly mitigated this damage, resulting in an increase in A of 26.99% gs of 43.75%, and relative water content of 28% in plants under severe stress compared with those in untreated stressed plants. The mechanism of action of MEL involves the modulation of stomatal motion and, as suggested, the promotion of osmotic fit and the protection of membrane integrity and photochemical efficiency. Exogenous melatonin acts as an effective bioregulator, improving the tolerance of Z. elegans to water deficit and sustaining its physiological performance and ornamental potential under stress conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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34 pages, 10807 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Inoculation Differentially Affected the Performance of Field-Grown Young Monastrell Grapevines Under Semiarid Conditions, Depending on the Rootstock

by Pascual Romero, Pablo Botía, Elisa I. Morote, Asunción Morte and Josefa M. Navarro

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112570 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

A trial was conducted from 2017 to 2023 in a 0.2 ha irrigated vineyard located in a semiarid area of southeastern Spain, using field-grown young vines (0–6 years old) of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Monastrell grafted onto three rootstocks: 140Ru, 161-49C, and 110R. [...] Read more.

A trial was conducted from 2017 to 2023 in a 0.2 ha irrigated vineyard located in a semiarid area of southeastern Spain, using field-grown young vines (0–6 years old) of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Monastrell grafted onto three rootstocks: 140Ru, 161-49C, and 110R. The main objective was to evaluate the effect of early co-inoculation in the field using commercial microbial inoculants containing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and a mycorrhizal helper bacterium (MHB) on young vine performance. We assessed the impact of microbial inoculation and its interaction with the rootstock on soil environment, plant water relations, leaf gas exchange, plant nutrition, growth, yield, and berry quality. Mycorrhizal colonization rates in root samples showed similar values in inoculated and non-inoculated vines across all of the rootstocks; however, inoculated vines grafted onto 140Ru showed significantly higher concentrations of total glomalin in the soil compared to their non-inoculated counterparts. Microbial inoculation altered the soil environment, leading to increased oxygen diffusion rate (161-49C), organic matter decomposition rate (140Ru), soil CO₂ flux (110R, 140Ru), and soil H₂O flux (110R) values in the rhizosphere of inoculated vines. Additionally, inoculated vines grafted onto 140Ru and 161-49C exhibited improved vegetative and reproductive development, enhancing productive water use efficiency (WUE_yield), whereas inoculated vines on 110R showed poorer soil–plant water relations, growth, yield, and WUE_yield compared to non-inoculated vines. Microbial inoculation also led to a significant decrease in must phenolic content, particularly in 140Ru, unlike 110R and 161-49C. These findings indicate that early microbial inoculation had a rootstock-dependent impact on the performance of young grapevines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant–Microbiota Interactions Under Abiotic Stress)

31 pages, 2460 KB

Open AccessReview

UAV-Based Spectral and Thermal Indices in Precision Viticulture: A Review of NDVI, NDRE, SAVI, GNDVI, and CWSI

by Adrián Vera-Esmeraldas, Sebastián Pizarro-Oteíza, Mariela Labbé, Francisco Rojo and Fernando Salazar

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2569; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112569 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with multispectral sensors are transforming precision viticulture by enabling detailed monitoring of vineyard variability. Vegetation indices such as NDVI, NDRE, GNDVI, and SAVI are widely applied to estimate vine vigor, canopy structure, and water status. Beyond agronomic traits, UAV-derived [...] Read more.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with multispectral sensors are transforming precision viticulture by enabling detailed monitoring of vineyard variability. Vegetation indices such as NDVI, NDRE, GNDVI, and SAVI are widely applied to estimate vine vigor, canopy structure, and water status. Beyond agronomic traits, UAV-derived indices can inform grape composition, including sugar content (°Brix), total phenolics, anthocyanins, titratable acidity, berry weight, and yield variables measurable in the field or laboratory to validate spectral predictions. Strengths of UAV approaches include high spatial resolution, rapid data acquisition, and flexibility across vineyard blocks, while limitations involve index saturation in dense canopies (e.g., Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon), environmental sensitivity, and calibration requirements across varieties and phenological cycles. Integrating UAV data with ground-based measurements (leaf sampling, yield mapping, proximal or thermal sensors) improves model accuracy and stress detection. Abiotic stresses (water deficit, nutrient deficiency) can be distinguished from biotic factors (pest and fungal infections), supporting timely interventions. Compared to manned aircraft or satellite platforms, UAVs offer cost-effective, high-resolution imagery for precision vineyard management. Future directions include combining UAV indices with machine learning and data fusion to predict grape maturity and wine quality, enhancing decision-making in sustainable viticulture and precision enology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Smart Agriculture with Remote Sensing as the Core and Its Applications in Crops Field)

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23 pages, 3282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genotype-Specific Synergy Between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Olive Cultivars Enhances Drought Resilience in China’s Olive Belt

by Junlin Zhou, Yan Deng, Junfei Li, Zhou Xu, Bixia Wang, Xiao Xu and Chunyan Zhao

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2568; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112568 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

To address severe seasonal drought affecting over 60% of China’s olive-growing regions, this study evaluates whether arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance drought tolerance in elite olive cultivars (Arbequina and Koroneiki) under simulated arid conditions. A controlled pot experiment inoculated seedlings with two [...] Read more.

To address severe seasonal drought affecting over 60% of China’s olive-growing regions, this study evaluates whether arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance drought tolerance in elite olive cultivars (Arbequina and Koroneiki) under simulated arid conditions. A controlled pot experiment inoculated seedlings with two AMF strains (Rhizophagus intraradices [AMF1], Funneliformis mosseae [AMF2]) under full irrigation or a 32-day water deficit. Biomass, root colonization, photosynthesis, PSII efficiency, osmolytes, antioxidants, and lipid peroxidation were measured. Data were analyzed via two-way ANOVA, Pearson’s correlation, and principal component analysis (PCA). Under optimal hydration, both AMF strains colonized >60% of roots, significantly increasing Arbequina biomass by 25–35% (p < 0.05) and Koroneiki biomass. Drought reversed benefits in Arbequina but triggered resilience: AMF1 restored photosynthesis (18%), Fv/Fm (37%), and water potential (18%) (p < 0.05) while reducing lipid peroxidation (79%) (p < 0.01). In Koroneiki, AMF2 restored Ψw to 47% of pre-irrigation levels and increased root volume (137%), PSII efficiency (43%), osmolytes (100%), and carotenoids (28%) (p < 0.01). PCA ranked Arbequina–drought–AMF1 as the most resilient combination. Pairing AMF strains with specific cultivars offers a scalable, chemical-free strategy to stabilize olive productivity in southwest China’s aridifying climate, advancing climate-smart agriculture for drought-prone regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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18 pages, 2357 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Biochar and Humus Amendments and Early-Season Insect Netting on Soil Properties, Crop Yield, and Pest Management in Organic Vegetable Production in Maine

by Robert P. Larkin

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2567; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112567 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Effective implementation and optimization of organic amendments and other management practices is essential for sustainable organic vegetable production, yet needed information is lacking on the effects and benefits of different organic matter amendments and pest management approaches under Northeastern USA production conditions. The [...] Read more.

Effective implementation and optimization of organic amendments and other management practices is essential for sustainable organic vegetable production, yet needed information is lacking on the effects and benefits of different organic matter amendments and pest management approaches under Northeastern USA production conditions. The impacts of soil amendments of biochar or humus (soluble humate complex) in conjunction with compost, as well as the presence or absence of an early-season insect netting row cover (mesotunnels), were evaluated on soil chemical and biological properties, crop development and yield, and disease and pest issues in organic vegetable production, as represented by legume (green snap bean), cucurbit (green zucchini squash), and amaranth (garden beet) vegetable crops, in a three-year field trial in Maine. Composted cow manure and a commercial organic fertilizer alone were included as controls. All plots were either covered or not covered with a permeable insect netting row cover from the time of planting until flowering. All compost-based amendments increased soil pH; organic matter; microbial activity; crop yields; and K, Mg, and Ca content relative to a fertilizer-only treatment. Biochar amendments further increased soil pH, CEC, and Ca content above those of compost alone and also resulted in the overall highest yields of bean and zucchini but were not significantly greater than with compost amendment alone. Humus amendments did not improve soil characteristics, with some indications of potential reductions in emergence and yield. Insect netting substantially improved yield of zucchini (by 59%) and somewhat improved bean yield (by 11%), in addition to improving plant emergence and reducing insect leaf damage, but it did not reduce powdery mildew on zucchini or provide any significant benefits for beets. These results help define specific management practices to improve organic vegetable production and provide useful information and options for growers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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19 pages, 4489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Nutrient Variability Analysis of Typical Planting Patterns in Agricultural Reclamation Areas of the Southern Dianchi Lake Basin

by Zhuojun Miao, Junen Wu, Lei Zhao, Feng Cheng and Yuchen Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2566; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112566 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of typical planting patterns on soil nutrient accumulation and associated environmental impacts in agricultural reclamation areas of the southern Dianchi Lake Basin. Taking the cut flower cultivation area in Dahewei Village, Jinning District, Yunnan Province, as the research [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of typical planting patterns on soil nutrient accumulation and associated environmental impacts in agricultural reclamation areas of the southern Dianchi Lake Basin. Taking the cut flower cultivation area in Dahewei Village, Jinning District, Yunnan Province, as the research site, we compared soil physicochemical properties, nutrient contents, and their correlations with environmental factors under open-field and greenhouse cultivation, and analyzed the characteristics of soil fertility changes and non-point-source pollution risks in greenhouses. We found that greenhouse cultivation is associated with altered soil physicochemical properties, including smaller aggregate sizes, increased soil moisture content (from 30.15% to 32.20%), elevated pH values (from 7.11 to 7.23), and 79% higher electrical conductivity compared to open-field conditions (620.82 vs. 347.60 μS cm⁻¹, p < 0.01). Compared with open-field systems, greenhouse cultivation exhibited greater nutrient accumulation, particularly for total nitrogen (TN) and available potassium (AK) in the 0–10 cm topsoil layer, demonstrating pronounced surface enrichment. Additionally, greenhouse conditions showed weaker correlations between soil nutrients and meteorological factors but stronger inter-nutrient coupling. Enhanced soil moisture and temperature conditions were associated with reduced nutrient leaching but simultaneously increased surface nutrient enrichment and salinization risks. These findings provide quantitative evidence for precision fertilization strategies, optimized irrigation management, and targeted soil health interventions in intensive greenhouse systems. The results have practical applications for preventing surface nutrient accumulation and long-term salinization in protected agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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21 pages, 7401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Cooperative Harvesting Strategy for Dual-Arm Robots in Apple Picking

by Jinxing Niu, Qingyuan Yu, Mingbo Bi, Junlong Zhao and Tao Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2565; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112565 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

In the field of orchard harvesting, this study proposes a collaborative picking strategy for dual-arm robots, aiming to improve efficiency, reduce labor burden, and achieve precise automation. The strategy combines the Multi-Agent Proximal Policy Optimization (MAPPO) algorithm with the Multi-Objective Greedy Picking Strategy [...] Read more.

In the field of orchard harvesting, this study proposes a collaborative picking strategy for dual-arm robots, aiming to improve efficiency, reduce labor burden, and achieve precise automation. The strategy combines the Multi-Agent Proximal Policy Optimization (MAPPO) algorithm with the Multi-Objective Greedy Picking Strategy (MOGPS) algorithm. By centrally training the critic network and decentralizing the actor network, the robots can autonomously learn and precisely pick in a simulated environment. To address dynamic obstacle avoidance, a dynamic collision assessment strategy is proposed, and an improved MOGPS algorithm is used to consider the distribution of fruits and the complexity of the working environment, achieving adaptive path planning. Experimental results show that the MAPPO-MOGPS algorithm optimizes the picking path by 15.11%, with a picking success rate as high as 92.3% and an average picking error of only 0.014. Additionally, physical experiments in real-world settings demonstrate the algorithm’s practical effectiveness and generalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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21 pages, 15552 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Omics Dissection of Gene–Metabolite Networks Underlying Lenticel Spot Formation via Cell-Wall Deposition in Pear Peel

by Na Ma, Ziwen Xiao, Liqing Lu, Haiqi Zhang, Chunyan Liu, Yiliu Xu, Yongjie Qi and Zhenghui Gao

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2564; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112564 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

Lenticel spots (fruit dots) on pear peel strongly influence consumer preference and market price, yet the regulatory networks underlying their lignin/cellulose deposition remain elusive. Here, we integrated electron microscopy, metabolomics, and RNA-seq across three developmental stages (30, 40, and 60 d after full [...] Read more.

Lenticel spots (fruit dots) on pear peel strongly influence consumer preference and market price, yet the regulatory networks underlying their lignin/cellulose deposition remain elusive. Here, we integrated electron microscopy, metabolomics, and RNA-seq across three developmental stages (30, 40, and 60 d after full bloom, DAFB) in the pear cultivar ‘Dangshansuli’ (SL) and its bud-sport ‘Dangshanxisu’ (XS). XS exhibited fewer lenticel spots and lower lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose contents than SL, with the critical onset of lignin and cellulose accumulation detected between 40 and 60 DAFB. Metabolome-wide analysis detected five differentially accumulated lignin monomers, while transcriptome profiling revealed 79 differentially expressed genes (padj ≤ 0.05, |log₂FC| ≥ 1) enriched in phenylpropanoid and cellulose-synthase pathways. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) uncovered two modules (|r| > 0.8, p < 0.05) positively correlated with lignin and cellulose content, harboring 11 structural genes (4CL, F5H, CCR, COMT, PRX/POD and CESA isoforms) and five transcription-factor families (MYB, NAC, AP2/ERF, WRKY, bHLH). RT-qPCR validated the coordinated down-regulation of these genes in XS relative to SL. Our results decipher the gene–metabolite circuitry driving lenticel lignification in pear, providing molecular targets for breeding peel-perfect cultivars and for cultural practices that minimize superficial blemishes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fruit Tree Germplasm Innovation Driven by Molecular Breeding and Genomics)

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16 pages, 1008 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Proposal to Increase Soybean Seed Vigor: Collection Based on Pod Position

by Izabela Cristina de Oliveira, Dthenifer Cordeiro Santana, Ana Carina da Silva Cândido Seron, Charline Zaratin Alves, Renato Nunez Vaez, Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro and Paulo Eduardo Teodoro

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2563; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112563 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

The seed lots were evaluated based on their viability and vigor, which vary according to their origin and the locations where the seeds were produced. However, differences in vigor can be observed within a single seed lot, resulting from the deposition of photoassimilates. [...] Read more.

The seed lots were evaluated based on their viability and vigor, which vary according to their origin and the locations where the seeds were produced. However, differences in vigor can be observed within a single seed lot, resulting from the deposition of photoassimilates. In this context, the hypothesis of this study is that distinct locations on the plant may produce seeds with different physiological quality. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate how pod position influences the vigor of seeds from different soybean genotypes. Field experiments were conducted during the 2021/22 and 2022/23 crop seasons in Brazil. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replications and 32 soybean populations from the UFMS/CPCS Breeding Program. During the R4, R5, R6, and R7 reproductive stages of soybean, at the time of pod formation, the plants in each block were tagged with string to delimit the uppermost point at which pods had formed. Tagging was carried out as each stage change was verified, at approximately eight-day intervals. When analyzing how the pod position of the plant influences seed physiological variables, we found that position P1 was responsible for the best results for the variables evaluated, with the exception of genotypes G18 and G28. This result indicates that pods from the first position produce seeds with greater germination capacity and a higher ability to generate normal seedlings. However, the genotypes are still under development and, therefore, do not yet exhibit stability. Nevertheless, the results obtained highlight the relationship between the pod position of the plant and seed physiological variables. The position of the pods on the soybean plant influences the physiological quality of the seeds. In general, the P1 position, when the plants are in the R4 reproductive stage, with fully developed pods measuring 2 cm on one of the four upper nodes of the stem, is responsible for the best results in seed physiological quality tests for most of the soybean genotypes evaluated. These results indicate that pod position should be considered in breeding and seed production programs, since genotypes with greater physiological stability in the upper positions may be preferential in selection strategies. In the future, studies in different environments and evaluation of biochemical traits may confirm these patterns and contribute to the development of cultivars with higher seed quality and physiological uniformity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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18 pages, 2550 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Promote Rice Paddy Phosphorus Cycle by Altering Soil Phosphorus Turnover and Leaf Phosphorus Distribution

by Zhonghua Wen, Xu Yang, Xuanwei Zhou, Yongjia Shi, Haoyue Zheng and Jun Meng

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2562; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112562 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

Biochar and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) make significant contributions to improving soil and plant mineral nutrition, primarily phosphorus (P). However, the response of soil and leaf P fractions dynamics to biochar and AMF amendment in paddy ecosystems remains unclear. A pot experiment in [...] Read more.

Biochar and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) make significant contributions to improving soil and plant mineral nutrition, primarily phosphorus (P). However, the response of soil and leaf P fractions dynamics to biochar and AMF amendment in paddy ecosystems remains unclear. A pot experiment in greenhouse was conducted to study the effects of three biochars produced from rice husk (HBC), maize straw (MBC), and wood chips (WBC) and Rhizophagus irregularis on soil and leaf P fractions, soil chemical properties, and rice growth. The combination of biochar and AMF increased soil content of labile inorganic P (38.25%, 50.87% and 23.65%, respectively) and decreased that of labile organic P (52.31%, 61.12% and 44.60%, respectively) compared to the control. Similarly, HBC and MBC with AMF combination increased leaf contents of inorganic (7.29% and 8.81%, respectively) and nucleic acid (18.75% and 14.73%, respectively) P, which were strongly correlated with soil labile P fractions. Biochar and AMF amendment governed the transformation of soil P by altering total P, organic matter, and pH. Meanwhile, the distribution of leaf P was influenced by leaf total P content, soil organic matter, and electrical conductivity (EC). In addition, MBC and HBC increased the rice mycorrhizal colonization rate by 6.78% and 18.19%, respectively. The application of HBC and AMF increased leaves’ and stems’ biomass (28.57% and 26.67%, respectively), and three biochars and AMF also facilitated P accumulation in rice. Therefore, these results provide the first evidence for the interaction between biochar and AMF to alter P distribution among leaf fractions in paddy fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Microorganisms for Sustainable Agricultural Development)

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17 pages, 6748 KB

Open AccessArticle

Referenced Transcriptomics Identifies a Core Set of Cytochrome P450 Genes Driving Broad-Spectrum Insecticide Detoxification in Phthonandria atrilineata

by Delong Guan, Jing Song, Yue Qin, Lei Xin, Xiaodong Li and Shihao Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2561; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112561 - 5 Nov 2025

Abstract

Phthonandria atrilineata, also known as the mulberry looper, is a major defoliator of mulberry trees. This feeding behavior directly affects the growth of the trees and reduces the quality and yield of mulberry leaves for its use in sericulture. Despite its importance [...] Read more.

Phthonandria atrilineata, also known as the mulberry looper, is a major defoliator of mulberry trees. This feeding behavior directly affects the growth of the trees and reduces the quality and yield of mulberry leaves for its use in sericulture. Despite its importance the molecular basis of its resistance to insecticides remains poorly understood. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehensively characterize the cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) gene family in P. atrilineata and identify key effectors responsible for responses to diverse chemical stressors. We integrated genome-wide re-annotation, phylogenetic analysis, and comparative transcriptomics following exposure to five chemically distinct insecticides. We identified a high-confidence set of 70 P450 genes, dominated by the CYP6 and CYP4 families, whose expansion was driven by tandem gene duplication. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a powerful yet highly selective “elite-driven” response, wherein a small subset of P450s was strongly induced by multiple insecticides. Random Forest and Support Vector Machine (SVM) models converged with differential expression data to pinpoint a core trio of P450s as primary drivers of detoxification: two generalists, CYP6(09521) and CYP6(04876), responsive to all compounds, and one potent specialist, CYP4(04803), exhibiting massive induction to a specific subset of insecticides. Our findings uncover a complex, energy-efficient metabolic strategy in P. atrilineata and identify pivotal P450 genes for broad-spectrum detoxification. These genes represent high-priority targets for developing molecular diagnostic tools for resistance monitoring and informing scientifically guided insecticide rotation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agronomic Strategies for Managing Insecticide Resistance in Crop Pests)

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17 pages, 6244 KB

Open AccessArticle

A GWR Approach to Determine Factors Controlling Soil Se in Fujian Province

by Ying Wang, Junliang Cai, Jiufen Liu, Zhongfang Yang, Xiaofeng Zhao, Xiaohuang Liu, Ziqi Li and Jia Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2560; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112560 - 5 Nov 2025

Abstract

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for human health, which is crucial for antioxidant defense, immune function, and disease prevention. Se deficiency affects around 40 countries worldwide, with China being one of the most severely impacted. While previous research has explored factors [...] Read more.

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for human health, which is crucial for antioxidant defense, immune function, and disease prevention. Se deficiency affects around 40 countries worldwide, with China being one of the most severely impacted. While previous research has explored factors influencing soil Se content, such as the parent material, climate, and soil properties, the dominant controlling mechanisms across different spatial scales remain a subject of debate, especially in the Se-rich coastal regions of southeastern China. This study focuses on Fujian Province, using hotspot analysis and geographically weighted regression (GWR) to systematically examine the spatial distribution of soil Se and its key influencing factors. Hotspot analysis reveals multi-scale patterns in Se distribution: at the 1 km scale, Se hotspots are closely linked to metal minerals like sulfide and coal deposits; at the 2 km scale, Se-rich carbonate rocks and carbonaceous mudstones dominate; and, at the 10 km scale, Se accumulation is mainly controlled by organic matter and low-temperature conditions in high-altitude areas (≥1200 m). GWR analysis further clarifies the nonlinear relationships between soil Se and key environmental factors: organic matter strongly correlates with Se in coastal regions but weakly in land, indicating that this relationship is modulated by factors such as weathering intensity and clay content. The mobility of Se increases in alkaline soils (pH > 8.5), thus reducing its content; meanwhile, in acidic soils (pH < 4.5), its fixation is more complex. In acidic, low-aluminum settings, iron oxides adsorb Se effectively, whereas organic matter becomes the main carrier under alkaline conditions. Precipitation affects Se via atmospheric deposition and leaching, temperature promotes sulfide substitution through deposition but also accelerates the breakdown of organic matter, and altitude influences Se through hydrothermal variations. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the multi-factor mechanisms controlling soil Se in the Se-rich coastal areas of southeastern China at a regional scale, offering a scientific basis for the sustainable use of Se-enriched land resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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18 pages, 9035 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nanostructured Ge-Based Glass Coatings for Sustainable Greenhouse Production: Balancing Light Transmission, Energy Harvesting, and Crop Performance

by Božidar Benko, Krešimir Salamon, Ivana Periša, Sanja Fabek Uher, Sanja Radman, Nevena Opačić and Maja Mičetić

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2559; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112559 - 5 Nov 2025

Abstract

Greenhouse horticulture is an energy-intensive production system that requires innovative solutions to reduce energy demand without compromising crop yield or quality. Functional greenhouse covers are particularly promising, as they regulate solar radiation while integrating energy-harvesting technologies. In this study, six nanostructured glass coatings [...] Read more.

Greenhouse horticulture is an energy-intensive production system that requires innovative solutions to reduce energy demand without compromising crop yield or quality. Functional greenhouse covers are particularly promising, as they regulate solar radiation while integrating energy-harvesting technologies. In this study, six nanostructured glass coatings incorporating semiconductor-based quantum dots (QDs) and quantum wires (QWs) of Ge and TiN are developed using magnetron sputtering—an industrially scalable technique widely applied in smart window and energy-efficient glass manufacturing. The coatings’ optical properties are characterized in the laboratory, and their agronomic performance is evaluated in greenhouse trials with lamb’s lettuce (Valerianella locusta) and radish (Raphanus sativus). Plant growth, yield, and leaf color (CIELAB parameters) are analyzed in relation to spectral transmission and the daily light integral (DLI). Although uncoated horticultural glass achieves the highest yields, several Ge-QD coatings provide favorable compromises by selectively absorbing non-photosynthetically active radiation (non-PAR) while maintaining acceptable crop performance. These results demonstrate that nanostructured coatings can simultaneously sustain crop growth and enable solar energy conversion, offering a practical pathway toward energy-efficient and climate-smart greenhouse systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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21 pages, 1259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Organic Fertilization and Straw Return Affect Shajiang Black Soil (Vertisol) Nutrient Availability, Aggregate Stability, and Crop Yield with the Winter Wheat–Summer Maize Double-Cropping System in Northern China

by Jianrong Zhao, Yingying Tang, Yangfan Qu, Songling Chen, Fuwei Wang, Xiaoliang Li, Hongsheng Wu and Xian Tang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2558; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112558 - 5 Nov 2025

Abstract

Long-term fertilization affects soil nutrient levels and aggregate stability, eventually altering crop yield. However, their responses to organic fertilizer application and straw returning are still unclear, particularly as the contributions of soil nutrient levels and aggregate stability on crop yields remain poorly quantified. [...] Read more.

Long-term fertilization affects soil nutrient levels and aggregate stability, eventually altering crop yield. However, their responses to organic fertilizer application and straw returning are still unclear, particularly as the contributions of soil nutrient levels and aggregate stability on crop yields remain poorly quantified. Therefore, topsoil samples (0–20 cm) were collected from six fertilization treatments in a long-term (13-year) Shajiang black soil field experiment with no fertilization (CK), chemical fertilization (NPK), 50% NPK plus pig manure (50%NPKP), 50% NPK plus cattle manure (50%NPKC), 70% NPK plus pig manure with straw return (70%NPKPS), and 70% NPK plus cattle manure with straw return (70%NPKCS). We examined the characteristics of crop yield, soil nutrient levels, and soil aggregate stability parameters, including under different long-term fertilization treatments. The results show that long-term fertilization significantly influenced the distribution of soil nutrients and soil aggregates in Shajiang black soil. Compared to CK, organic fertilizers and straw returning significantly increased the soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) contents but decreased soil pH, respectively, indicating the best strategies for improving soil fertility. Compared to the CK and NPK treatments, long-term organic fertilization and straw returning significantly increased the mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) values and significantly decreased the fractal dimension (Dm) and mean weight-specific surface area (MWSSA) values, with the 70%NPKCS treatment showing the most pronounced effect of improving aggregate stability. A redundancy analysis revealed that SOM and TN exert significant effects on aggregate stability. Furthermore, a stepwise regression analysis showed that SOM and TN were positive factors affecting the yields of wheat and maize, while MWD and pH were negative factors affecting wheat yield, demonstrating that high crop yields are derived from soils with limited stability and high fertility. Thus, our findings indicate that the integrated application of cattle manure with straw returning was the most effective strategy to promote soil nutrient accumulation, improve aggregate stability, and enhance crop yield, albeit with the potential risk of soil acidification, which requires management in the Shajiang black soil (Vertisol) region of Northern China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Agrotechnical Factors and Farming Systems on Soil Properties and Plant Productivity—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 5992 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on a Prediction Model for Northern Cold Climate Millet Yield per Unit Area Based on IWOA-BP

by Dongming Zhang, Yifu Chen, Pengyao Ma, Song Wang, Shujuan Yi, Ziyang Huang and Bin Zhao

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2557; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112557 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

Millet yield per unit area in northern China’s drylands is constrained by climate, soil, and management factors, complicating forecasts under limited, nonlinear, heterogeneous data. In order to enhance the accuracy and stability of operational forecasting, this study utilised observational data from five locations [...] Read more.

Millet yield per unit area in northern China’s drylands is constrained by climate, soil, and management factors, complicating forecasts under limited, nonlinear, heterogeneous data. In order to enhance the accuracy and stability of operational forecasting, this study utilised observational data from five locations in southwestern Heilongjiang Province spanning 2014 to 2023. Eight ground-based hydrothermal and meteorological factors were used as inputs to build an improved BP neural network optimised by IWOA, with enhancements to both algorithm and workflow. Adaptive inertia weight and EOBL were introduced to balance global exploration and local exploitation, enabling better hyperparameter solutions. Results show that IWOA-BP significantly outperforms baseline BP and WOA-BP on an annual scale. The RMSE was 2.74, the R² was 0.94, the MAPE was 5.9, and the RPD was 4.16. The implementation of additional seasonal rolling forecasts for the 2024 validation period entailed the construction of cumulative information flows from January to August. Cross-regional validation in Fangzheng County produced error magnitudes consistent with the primary study area, thereby demonstrating the model’s reliable generalization ability across both temporal and spatial dimensions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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19 pages, 1348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ionomic Profile and Nutrient Use Efficiency in Sunflower Plants Treated with Plant-Derived Biostimulant Rich in Trigonelline

by María José Izquierdo-Ramos, Santiago Atero-Calvo, Iván Navarro-Morillo, Rafael Pérez-Millán and Begoña Blasco

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2556; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112556 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

In recent decades, the use of biostimulants has increased with the aim of creating an alternative to the use of chemical fertilizers and achieving sustainable agriculture. In this study, sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus L. cv. neoma) were grown under controlled conditions, [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the use of biostimulants has increased with the aim of creating an alternative to the use of chemical fertilizers and achieving sustainable agriculture. In this study, sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus L. cv. neoma) were grown under controlled conditions, and four trigonelline-rich extracts were applied as biostimulants through root and foliar applications. The plant growth parameters, nutrient concentrations, root metabolic activity, and nutrient use efficiency were evaluated. The results showed that the foliar application of extract 4 significantly improved the aboveground biomass and leaf area compared with the control treatments, with values of 44.30 g FW and 680.22 cm², respectively. Moreover, this extract enhanced nutrient accumulation. Meanwhile, foliar application of extract 3 improved macronutrient and micronutrient concentrations, as in the case of phosphorus, which increased by 74.2%, and iron, which increased by 107.3%. Root applications of extracts 3 and 4 increased apparent nutrient recovery, whereas foliar applications of extracts 3 and 4 improved internal nutrient use and productivity indices. Overall, the treatments showed no phytotoxicity and promoted growth, nutrient absorption, and nutrient use efficiency, with the best results observed in foliar treatments with high trigonelline content. These findings indicate that biostimulants with trigonelline-rich extracts could improve crop yield, reduce the use of fertilizer, and contribute to more sustainable agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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20 pages, 11824 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrological Control of SOC Dynamics via Particle Size Redistribution Along Elevation Gradients in the Water Level Fluctuation Zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir

by Xianglong Liu, Qiuhong Li, Desheng Hong, Hongyang Dong, Bin Yang and Xiaoguo Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2555; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112555 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

The water level fluctuation zone (WLFZ) of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) represents a distinctive ecotone with inverted hydrological regimes, where elevation gradients play a critical role in determining the spatial distribution and stability of soil organic carbon (SOC). The objective of this [...] Read more.

The water level fluctuation zone (WLFZ) of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) represents a distinctive ecotone with inverted hydrological regimes, where elevation gradients play a critical role in determining the spatial distribution and stability of soil organic carbon (SOC). The objective of this study was to test whether soil particle size mediates the effects of hydrological fluctuations on SOC dynamics across elevation gradients. In this study, soils from three elevation zones (155–165 m, 165–175 m, and non-flooded zones) were collected, and bulk soil and particle-size fractions (sand, silt, and clay) were incubated for 60 days to assess SOC mineralization. The results indicated that the SOC stock in the main stream was greater at middle elevations (3.94 ± 0.26 kg·m⁻²) than at high elevations (3.20 ± 0.18 kg·m⁻²), whereas the SOC stock in the tributary was greater at high elevations (3.39 ± 0.18 kg·m⁻²). Random forest and linear regression analyses revealed that total nitrogen (TN) and sand contents were the primary factors controlling SOC. Despite its lower SOC content, the sand fraction presented significantly higher turnover rates (102.14 ± 36.13 μg CO₂-C·g⁻¹C·h⁻¹) than the finer fractions, indicating lower carbon stability. These findings suggest that hydrological fluctuations regulate SOC by altering the soil particle-size composition across elevation gradients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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