Plants

22 pages, 4681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Lodging Resistance and Grain Yield to EDAH and Different Fertilization Combinations in Maize (Zea mays L.)

by Yuru Wang, Yifei Wang, Chenyang Jiang, Yuwen Liang, Genji You, Jian Guo, Dalei Lu and Guanghao Li

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3707; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233707 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 800

Abstract

Stalk lodging is one of the major constraints limiting global maize yield. Chemical regulation and fertilization are essential agronomic practices that play critical roles in improving maize yield and lodging resistance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different fertilization methods on [...] Read more.

Stalk lodging is one of the major constraints limiting global maize yield. Chemical regulation and fertilization are essential agronomic practices that play critical roles in improving maize yield and lodging resistance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different fertilization methods on maize plant morphology, stem mechanical properties and chemical composition, and yield under spraying chemical regulator (EDAH, consist of 27% ethephon and 3% DA-6). The experiment was conducted from 2023 to 2025, using Jiangyu668 (JY668) and Jiangyu877 (JY877) with different plant heights. Three fertilization methods (no fertilization, N0; conventional fertilization, N15; and slow-release fertilization, SN15) were set up. Chemical regulation and fertilization methods had significant effects on plant morphology, stem mechanical properties and chemical composition, lodging rate, and grain yield. The combination of spraying EDAH and slow-release fertilization optimized ear position coefficient and gravity center, decreased stem–leaf angle, and increased leaf orientation value, which was beneficial for improving leaf photosynthetic capacity. EDAH and slow-release fertilization also increased the stem internode diameter and aerial root layers; enhanced bending resistance and puncture strength; and increased cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents and the lodging resistance index. These changes synergistically increased grain number and weight, ultimately increased maize yield, and decreased the lodging rate. CSN15 had highest yield and lowest lodging rate in different years and varieties. SN15 increased yield by 10.58% compared with N15, and CSN15 increased yield by 10.53% compared with CN15. JY877, as a medium- to high-stem maize variety, had better performance in plant morphology and yield than JY668 (dwarf maize variety) under EDAH and slow-release fertilization. These findings demonstrate that the strategy of combining chemical regulation and slow-release fertilization represents an optimal management approach for enhancing grain yield by optimizing plant morphology and improving stem mechanical properties and stem chemical composition in maize production. This strategy can increase agricultural productivity by enhancing yield and lodging resistance and provide significant environmental benefits and a scientific basis for agronomic practice recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrient Efficiency in Crop Production: Physiological Strategies to Enhance Yields)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1032 KB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Mechanisms of the Phytohormone–Heat Shock Protein Pathway in Regulating Plant Thermotolerance

by Jialiang Zhang, Yanchun Zhu, Fumin Ma, Xiao Zou, Qiuxia Lan, Xiaoran Zhou, Mengxia Li, Fei Zhou, Changxi Yin and Yongjun Lin

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3706; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233706 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1338

Abstract

Heat stress caused by global climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural production. Phytohormones, as critical signaling molecules, play pivotal roles in modulating plant responses to heat stress. This review systematically summarizes the molecular mechanisms by which eight phytohormones (auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, [...] Read more.

Heat stress caused by global climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural production. Phytohormones, as critical signaling molecules, play pivotal roles in modulating plant responses to heat stress. This review systematically summarizes the molecular mechanisms by which eight phytohormones (auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, abscisic acid, brassinosteroid, salicylic acid, and strigolactone) enhance plant thermotolerance through the regulation of heat shock protein (HSP) expression and function. Specifically, auxin enhances thermotolerance by inducing auxin signaling repressor (Aux/IAA) degradation to upregulate HSP transcription, facilitating the formation of the auxin receptor (TIR1)-HSP90 complex to stabilize TIR1, and forming the auxin exporter (PIN)-HSP22 complex to promote auxin transport. Cytokinin enhances thermotolerance by upregulating HSP transcription, with stronger effects in leaves than roots. Gibberellin, salicylic acid, and ethylene enhance thermotolerance primarily by activating heat shock factor (HSF) to induce HSP transcription. Abscisic acid and brassinosteroid improve thermotolerance by inducing HSP transcription and HSP phosphorylation, while strigolactone acts via D14-mediated upregulation of HSP transcription. These phytohormones collaboratively regulate HSPs, forming an intricate network to enhance plant thermotolerance. Deciphering these mechanisms provides a theoretical framework for developing heat-resistant crops and optimizing cultivation techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Roles of Phytohormones in Plant Growth, Development and Abiotic Stress Response)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 10006 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epimedium-Derived Multi-Antioxidant Carbon Dots Nanozymes for Mitigating Drought Stress of Ginseng Seedlings

by Yanghong Liu, Tong Wu, Jialong He, Chunyao Shang, Jiaheng Li, Yu Dong, Huiyuan Xie, Chen Xu, Yingping Wang and Kai Dong

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3705; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233705 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 991

Abstract

Drought stress induces oxidative damage that severely impairs the growth and development of ginseng seedlings. Although conventional antioxidants present a theoretical approach for mitigating such oxidative damage, their practical application is constrained by their inadequate stability. Herein, we developed multifunctional antioxidant carbon dots [...] Read more.

Drought stress induces oxidative damage that severely impairs the growth and development of ginseng seedlings. Although conventional antioxidants present a theoretical approach for mitigating such oxidative damage, their practical application is constrained by their inadequate stability. Herein, we developed multifunctional antioxidant carbon dots (CDs) synthesized from the medicinal herb Epimedium via a one-step hydrothermal method. The biomass-derived CDs exhibited efficient cascade nanozyme activities for mimicking both superoxide dismutase and catalase to achieve effective scavenging of multiple reactive oxygen species (ROS). Under drought stress, application of CDs to ginseng seedlings significantly mitigated oxidative damage through the modulation of the antioxidant enzyme system and improved osmotic regulation. Simultaneously, it could enhance photosynthetic efficiency and mitigate growth suppression caused by drought. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that CDs alleviated drought stress by triggering transcriptional reprogramming that activated genes related to antioxidant defense, photosynthetic efficiency, and stress signaling. Additionally, the CDs exhibited excellent biocompatibility and environmental safety. This work provides a novel and environmentally friendly strategy to enhance drought tolerance in medicinal plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Stress Responses in Plants—Second Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 804 KB

Open AccessArticle

Can We Increase the Drought Tolerance of Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) to Preserve Grassland Ecosystem Services? A Case Study with Three Bulgarian Varieties

by Aneliya Katova, Plamen Marinov-Serafimov, Irena Golubinova, Bogdan Nikolov and Slaveya Petrova

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3704; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233704 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 844

Abstract

Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) has various applications, including as a high-quality forage species for livestock feed; in seed mixtures used for revegetation of eroded or degraded areas as well as for lawns due to its resistance and rapid germination; for erosion control [...] Read more.

Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) has various applications, including as a high-quality forage species for livestock feed; in seed mixtures used for revegetation of eroded or degraded areas as well as for lawns due to its resistance and rapid germination; for erosion control on slopes and areas with excessive steepness; for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with potentially toxic elements due to its ability to accumulate metals in its tissues; and as a cover crop to improve soil conditions and control erosion. Accordingly, L. perenne provides several ecosystem services, primarily related to soil stability, agriculture, and recreation. Climate change poses challenges for L. perenne, particularly heat and drought stress, which can reduce its yield and alter its geographical distribution. Climate change also impacts the interactions between L. perenne and its environment, affecting aspects like phenology (e.g., flowering time), carbon fixation, and overall resilience. However, the species’ significant genetic and endophyte-related variability may allow for adaptation. The aim of the present study was to assess the drought tolerance of three Bulgarian varieties of L. perenne, namely Harmoniya (diploid), Tetrany, and Tetramis (tetraploids). We performed induced drought stress under laboratory conditions and monitored its effect on plants in the early stages of growth and development. A variety-specific response was found regarding the effect of different concentrations of sucrose on seed germination, primary root and stem elongation (cm), fresh biomass accumulation (g), as well as on seedling vigor index and plant development. Field experiments and yield elements were also used to assess drought susceptibility and sensitivity to stress in a real environment. The tetraploid perennial ryegrass varieties Tetrany and Tetramis showed better germination, growth, and development in laboratory tests and had higher and more stable field productivity under both optimal and stress conditions than the diploid variety Harmoniya. Ploidy was the factor that characterize them as drought-tolerant genotypes under water-limited conditions, and its potential could be used in future breeding programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Spike Length Gene and Development of KASP Markers in Wheat

by Tiantian Jiang, Lingpeng Meng, Chao Ji, Zehui Wang, Huiwen Cao, Ruoxi Sun, Ke Xu, Xianghai Meng, Xueju Yang and Yong Zhao

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3703; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233703 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 822

Abstract

Spike length is a critical trait influencing the yield potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). However, there has been limited research on spike-length-related genes in wheat. Moreover, the scarcity of stable markers for spike-related traits has restricted marker-assisted selection-based breeding. In this [...] Read more.

Spike length is a critical trait influencing the yield potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). However, there has been limited research on spike-length-related genes in wheat. Moreover, the scarcity of stable markers for spike-related traits has restricted marker-assisted selection-based breeding. In this study, a novel long-spike mutant material (LS1) was generated from wheat variety ‘Aikang 58’ (AK58) using ethyl methanesulfonate. We established an F₂ segregating population by crossing AK58 with LS1. Morphological analyses of this population indicated that spike length is a dominant quantitative trait regulated by multiple genes. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) technology was used to preliminarily identify nine candidate regions associated with spike length traits. These regions were mainly in a 7.22 Mb interval (673.84–713.26 Mb) on chromosome 5A and in a 2.34 Mb interval (714.83–717.69 Mb) on chromosome 7B. Twelve candidate genes were identified within these regions. Furthermore, two kompetitive allele specific polymerase chain reaction (KASP) markers (KASP-LS1-681460621 and KASP-LS1-692013966) associated with spike length traits were developed. Both KASP markers effectively genotyped parental lines and the F₂ population. Our study results provide a theoretical foundation for the genetic improvement of spike-length-related traits in wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cereal Crop Breeding, 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 6694 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microclimate Characterization of a Low-Tech Greenhouse During a Tomato Crop (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Production Cycle in Chaltura, Imbabura

by Luis Marcelo Albuja-Illescas, Miguel Gómez-Cabezas, Gabriel Jácome-Aguirre, Juan Pablo Aragón-Suárez, Rafael Jiménez-Lao, Araceli Peña-Fernández and María Teresa Lao

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3702; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233702 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1073

Abstract

Greenhouse agriculture is experiencing global expansion; however, in Andean countries such as Ecuador, its development is constrained by low-tech infrastructure, limited automation, and insufficient environmental monitoring, all of which negatively affect productivity and fruit quality. This study characterized the microclimate of a low-tech [...] Read more.

Greenhouse agriculture is experiencing global expansion; however, in Andean countries such as Ecuador, its development is constrained by low-tech infrastructure, limited automation, and insufficient environmental monitoring, all of which negatively affect productivity and fruit quality. This study characterized the microclimate of a low-tech greenhouse in Chaltura, Imbabura Province, during a complete production cycle of tomato crop (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Microclimatic conditions were analyzed during three phenological stages (vegetative, reproductive, and harvest). Temperature and relative humidity were recorded at 5 min intervals using sensors placed in the greenhouse quadrants, while an external weather station provided daily outdoor climate data. Statistical analyses were performed in R software (version 4.4.x). The results revealed marked internal microclimatic heterogeneity and showed that the crop remained outside the optimal ranges of temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) for over 50% of the time across all phenological stages and greenhouse quadrants. These findings underscore the urgent need for cost-effective climate-control strategies adapted to local conditions and provide a scientific basis for future research aimed at improving climatic and productive efficiency, as well as the resilience and sustainability of protected agriculture in Andean regions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1815 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mid-Domain Effect Shapes a Unimodal Latitudinal Pattern in Fruiting Phenology

by Longyang Zhang, Qianhuai Xue and Yanjun Du

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3701; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233701 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 675

Abstract

The mid-domain effect (MDE) has been used to explain spatial diversity patterns and flowering phenology, but its role in fruiting phenology has received limited attention to date. This study investigates whether the MDE shapes fruiting phenology and whether its influence varies with latitude. [...] Read more.

The mid-domain effect (MDE) has been used to explain spatial diversity patterns and flowering phenology, but its role in fruiting phenology has received limited attention to date. This study investigates whether the MDE shapes fruiting phenology and whether its influence varies with latitude. We integrated fruiting phenology data for 12,179 plant species across 28 Chinese provinces and used a null model to simulate expected fruiting richness patterns. Our results suggest that the MDE plays a significant role in explaining fruiting phenology patterns in most provinces. Crucially, the variance explained by the MDE exhibited a significant unimodal relationship with latitude across all groups, peaking at mid-latitudes (39.6° N for all species, 37.1° N for herbaceous plants, and 36.8° N for woody plants). Unlike flowering phenology—which tends to show a simple linear increase in MDE strength with latitude—fruiting exhibited a distinct peak, highlighting different ecological pressures acting on these two reproductive stages. The MDE was the primary contributor explaining fruiting richness, providing a markedly stronger fit to the data than key climate variables like temperature and precipitation, although woody plants showed a stronger secondary response to precipitation. These findings demonstrate that geometric constraints are a key driver of fruiting phenology, deepening our understanding of temporal niches and the ecological processes shaping plant reproductive phenology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Relationships Between Plant Phenology and Climate Factors)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 1784 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Nutritional Value, Biochemical Traits, and Growth of Brassica oleracea Grown Under Red, Blue, and Combined Red–Blue LED Lighting

by Maryam Haghighi, Mohammad Reza Moradian, Maryam Mozafarian and András Geösel

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3700; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233700 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1007

Abstract

Brassica vegetables are in high demand because they are an essential nutrient source for humans. Glucosinolates (GSLs), a major bioactive compound found in Brassicaceae, are amino acid derivatives that contribute to the health benefits of these crops. Light quality plays a significant role [...] Read more.

Brassica vegetables are in high demand because they are an essential nutrient source for humans. Glucosinolates (GSLs), a major bioactive compound found in Brassicaceae, are amino acid derivatives that contribute to the health benefits of these crops. Light quality plays a significant role in plant growth and metabolite synthesis, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as artificial light sources offer many benefits. This study examined three cultivars of leafy cabbage B. oleracea. var. acephala (Kale), B. oleracea var. viridis (collard), and B. oleracea var. capitata (cabbage) grown under different LED conditions (red, blue, and blue–red) in the growing chamber. The primary objective of this study was to identify the most effective LED light spectrum for promoting GSLs accumulation and enhancing the overall plant quality. The findings of this study demonstrate that LED lights can have varying impacts on the cultivars of leafy cabbage. The different light spectra had varying impacts on the parameters examined in this study. GSLs compounds, particularly glucobrassicin, showed the most significant increase under the blue light treatment, with a 61% increase compared to the control. The R&B (red and blue) light treatment was the most effective in improving the growth traits of the shoot and root in the Kale cultivar. For the collard cultivar, the R&B light increased the leaf length and width, whereas for the cabbage cultivar, it led to an increase in the number of leaves and chlorophyll index. These findings demonstrate that the specific light quality can have different effects on the phytochemical composition and morphological characteristics of the different leafy cabbage cultivars. The blue light spectrum was particularly effective in enhancing GSLs accumulation, while the combination of red and blue light provided the most beneficial effects on overall plant growth and development across the three cultivars studied. These results suggest that the metabolism and phytochemical properties of leafy cabbage cultivars depend on exposure to multiple factors, such as cultivar type and light quality. Therefore, R&B light was the most effective light for most traits and can be suggested for performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Light on Plant Growth and Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4079 KB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidative Stress and Negative Consequences on Photosystem II Occasioned by Lead Stress Are Mitigated by 24-Epibrassinolide and Dopamine in Tomato Plants

by Lohana Ribeiro Prestes, Sharon Graziela Alves da Silva, Madson Mateus Santos da Silva, Maria Andressa Fernandes Gonçalves, Elaine Maria Silva Guedes Lobato, Caroline Cristine Augusto, Bruno Lemos Batista and Allan Klynger da Silva Lobato

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3699; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233699 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 814

Abstract

Food security and human health are directly related to the condition of agricultural soils. Soil contamination by heavy metals is a global environmental problem. Lead (Pb) is a toxic and non-biodegradable element posing a significant risk to ecosystems and human health. 24-Epibrassinolide (EBR) [...] Read more.

Food security and human health are directly related to the condition of agricultural soils. Soil contamination by heavy metals is a global environmental problem. Lead (Pb) is a toxic and non-biodegradable element posing a significant risk to ecosystems and human health. 24-Epibrassinolide (EBR) has multiple benefits in plant metabolism, including maximizing gas exchange. In plants, exogenous application of dopamine (DOP) confers tolerance to abiotic stresses, minimizing interferences on growth. This study aimed to investigate whether the exogenous application of EBR and DOP, administered independently or jointly, can contribute to mitigating the oxidative stress and impacts on photosystem II in Pb-stressed tomato, evaluating parameters related to nutritional status, photosystem II activity, gas exchange, antioxidant enzymes, and biomass. Better results were observed with the isolated EBR application, improving the photosynthetic efficiency, as evidenced by the increases in chlorophyll contents, effective quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, photochemical quenching coefficient, and electron transport rate, resulting in a higher net photosynthesis rate. Parallelly, treatment using both plant growth regulators (DOP and EBR) promoted significant increases of 14%, 18%, 13%, and 35% in the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and peroxidase, contributing to the reduction in oxidative stress in photosystem II of Pb-stressed plants. Therefore, this research proves that the exogenous application of DOP and EBR, alone or in combination, attenuates the toxic effects generated by Pb in tomato plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Plants to Heavy Metal Toxicity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2886 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploration of the Donors and Specific Genes of B Subgenome in Perilla frutescens Based on Genomic Analysis

by Zhaoyuan Li, Bin Wang, Wei Wei, Yang Liu, Qiuling Wang, Zhihui Gao and Jianhe Wei

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3698; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233698 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 651

Abstract

Perilla frutescens is an important medicinal and edible plant in Asia and was introduced in Europe and North America mainly as a spice plant. The commonly cultivated species is an allotetraploid (AABB). While the identity of its AA diploid donor has been preliminarily [...] Read more.

Perilla frutescens is an important medicinal and edible plant in Asia and was introduced in Europe and North America mainly as a spice plant. The commonly cultivated species is an allotetraploid (AABB). While the identity of its AA diploid donor has been preliminarily clarified, the other donor, BB, has not been discovered yet, and the taxonomic status and characteristics of the BB donor remain unresolved. Based on the published genomes of Perilla spp., we employed a collinearity analysis, gene structure similarity assessment, and multi-level functional annotation to infer the genomic and phenotypic features of the B subgenome. Results suggest that the protein sequences of the B and A subgenomes exhibit the highest similarity, while the protein sequences of Lavandula angustifolia or Ocimum basilicum are less similar to the B subgenome, and two subgenomes also possess the largest number of homologous genes and have similar gene structures. A total of 90 BB progenitor-specific genes were significantly enriched in pathways related to secondary metabolite biosynthesis and environmental stress response. Among these genes, the terpene synthase genes constitute the main genetic basis for the diversity of bioactive components in perilla. The discovery of a homologous gene containing the NB-ARC domain, associated with resistance to late blight, suggests that BB may contribute to key disease-resistant traits. Further gene family analysis revealed that compared with the A subgenome, the B subgenome exhibited fewer genes and lower diversity in the TPS and NB-ARC families. These findings indicate that BB may have originated from an unfound or extinct species within the Perilla spp. The BB donor might be less diversified than AA, possibly adapting to a narrow geographic and climatic range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Omics and Bioinformatics in Medicinal Plants)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 26167 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Breeding Target for Salt-Tolerant Maize: ZmEXPA3 Overexpression Enhances Growth of Maize Under Both Non-Stressed and Salt Stress Conditions Through Cell-Wall Architecture Alteration

by Bingying Leng, Xia Liu, Yue Sun, Huiru Yin, Chunhua Mu, Shijun Ma, Qiantong Liu, Jing Hou, Zhenwei Yan and Guoqi Yao

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3697; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233697 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 705

Abstract

Expansins contribute to maize tolerance to salt stress, but the molecular mechanisms by which they function under high-salinity conditions remain poorly understood. In this research, the α-expansin gene ZmEXPA3 was characterized. We obtained overexpression transgenic lines in maize and determined physiological and biochemical [...] Read more.

Expansins contribute to maize tolerance to salt stress, but the molecular mechanisms by which they function under high-salinity conditions remain poorly understood. In this research, the α-expansin gene ZmEXPA3 was characterized. We obtained overexpression transgenic lines in maize and determined physiological and biochemical indices to elucidate its molecular role in salt stress. Our results confirmed that ZmEXPA3 functioned as a positive salt tolerance regulator and was potentially regulated by abscisic acid (ABA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA). ZmEXPA3 located to the cytoplasm and cell wall. Overexpression of ZmEXPA3 achieved thicker cell wall and bigger cell size and thereby promoted biomass accumulation. The ZmEXPA3-OE lines showed a marked reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) and H₂O₂ accumulation compared to the WT under salt stress. Overexpression of ZmEXPA3 elevated the enzyme activity of peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and proline accumulation and decreased the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio in roots. Transcriptome and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis of ZmEXPA3-OE lines and WT showed that many differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in cell-wall-related terms, plant hormone response, osmotic stress response, salt stress response, oxidoreductase activity, etc. Changes in these processes may be the primary reasons why ZmEXPA3 overexpression promotes growth and salt tolerance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 973 KB

Open AccessArticle

Harnessing Rhizobial Inoculation for Sustainable Nitrogen Management in Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.)

by Dieini Melissa Teles dos Santos, Vinício Oliosi Favero, Ana Beatriz Carneiro Leite, Giulia da Costa Rodrigues dos Santos, Jaqueline Carvalho de Almeida, Josimar Nogueira Batista, Willian Pereira, Everaldo Zonta, Segundo Urquiaga, Norma Gouvêa Rumjanek and Gustavo Ribeiro Xavier

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3695; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233695 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1057

Abstract

As a pulse crop, mung beans are associated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which can improve soil fertility, lower the need for nitrogen fertilizers, and increase yield and soil quality for subsequent harvests. This study aimed to identify effective rhizobial inoculants for mung beans ( [...] Read more.

As a pulse crop, mung beans are associated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which can improve soil fertility, lower the need for nitrogen fertilizers, and increase yield and soil quality for subsequent harvests. This study aimed to identify effective rhizobial inoculants for mung beans (Vigna radiata L.) by evaluating selected strains for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) under controlled (axenic) conditions. Cowpea, soybean, and common bean strains were tested as mung beans inoculants under axenic conditions. Promising strains were then tested in the field to assess grain yield and to quantify nitrogen fixation using the ¹⁵N natural abundance method. The cowpea strain BR 3302 (Bradyrhizobium viridifuturi) increased mung bean yield by 18%, achieving results similar to a 240 kg N ha⁻¹ fertilizer application. The soybean strain BR 96 (B. elkanii) facilitated the highest nitrogen fixation (35.3 kg N ha⁻¹), significantly surpassing the contribution of indigenous diazotrophic bacteria (18.5 kg N ha⁻¹). Interestingly, BR 3302 appeared to primarily enhance nitrogen uptake from the soil (65% of plant N), indicating the presence of other potential plant growth-promoting mechanisms beyond nitrogen fixation. This research demonstrates that Bradyrhizobium strains can benefit mung beans through both enhanced nitrogen fixation and additional growth-promoting mechanisms, offering a sustainable approach to improve mung beans production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction of Growth-Promoting Microorganisms with Pulses: Nutrition, Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses and Increase in Grain Production)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 8140 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Climate Change on the Invasion of Mikania micrantha Kunth in China: Predicting Future Distribution Using MaxEnt Modeling

by Chunping Xie, Zhiquan Chen, Mianting Yu and Chi Yung Jim

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3694; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233694 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1028

Abstract

Invasive alien species pose escalating threats to global biodiversity and ecosystems, which may be exacerbated by climate change, potentially leading to range expansions and intensified impacts. In China, Mikania micrantha Kunth, a fast-growing tropical vine listed among the world’s 100 worst invasive species, [...] Read more.

Invasive alien species pose escalating threats to global biodiversity and ecosystems, which may be exacerbated by climate change, potentially leading to range expansions and intensified impacts. In China, Mikania micrantha Kunth, a fast-growing tropical vine listed among the world’s 100 worst invasive species, has proliferated since its introduction in the mid-20th century, causing severe ecological damage through the smothering of vegetation, suppression of allelopathy, and economic losses in agriculture and forestry. This study aimed to predict its current and future distributions to guide management. Using 205 stringently filtered occurrence records from databases, surveys, and literature, combined with bioclimatic variables from WorldClim and MaxEnt modeling—optimized via ENMeval and evaluated by AUC (>0.97)—projected habitats under current (1970–2000) conditions and future SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP3-7.0 scenarios for the 2050s and 2070s via the BCC-CSM2-HR model. Temperature factors dominated predictions, with current excellent suitability (3.6 × 10⁴ km²) concentrated in Hainan and southern Guangdong, expanding to good and moderate zones in Guangxi, Fujian, and Yunnan. Future averages showed expansions in excellent (21.3%), good (10.0%), and moderate (14.0%) habitats, with some northward shifts into Jiangxi and Hunan under higher emissions. In situ augmentation of habitat suitability and spatial containment overshadows the northward range expansion. The high-emission scenario is projected to lead to temperature overshoots, which will dampen habitat suitability. The findings underscore M. micrantha’s resilience to warming, necessitating integrated strategies such as guarding critical biodiversity sites, early detection, biocontrol, and habitat restoration to mitigate risks in both core and emerging zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Invasive Plants)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 270 KB

Open AccessArticle

Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from Juçara Palm (Euterpe edulis Mart.) Fruit Residues Using Deep Eutectic and Conventional Solvents

by Ana Paula Stafussa, Jean Halison de Oliveira, Eduardo Cesar Meurer, Monica Regina da Silva Scapim and Grasiele Scaramal Madrona

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3693; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233693 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 549

Abstract

This study aimed to develop an efficient and environmentally sustainable method for extracting bioactive compounds from juçara palm (Euterpe edulis Mart.) fruit residues using deep eutectic solvents (DES) and conventional solvents, combined with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). Seven DES formulations based on choline [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop an efficient and environmentally sustainable method for extracting bioactive compounds from juçara palm (Euterpe edulis Mart.) fruit residues using deep eutectic solvents (DES) and conventional solvents, combined with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). Seven DES formulations based on choline chloride (ChCl) and different hydrogen bond donors (glycerol, glucose, and organic acids) were prepared, and their performance was compared with water, ethanol, and ethanol/water mixtures. The phenolic composition, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of the extracts were determined using spectrophotometric assays (Folin–Ciocalteu, DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP) and ESI–MS/MS analysis. The results showed that DES exhibited higher efficiency in recovering total phenolic compounds, anthocyanins and ABTS compared to conventional solvents, particularly in the ChCl–glycerol system. ESI–MS/MS analyses monitored around 40 phenolic compounds, including phenolic acids, flavanones, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. Acidic solvents favored anthocyanin extraction and stability, while ethanol- and glycerol-based systems provided broader compound profiles. The use of DES proved to be a green and selective alternative for obtaining extracts rich in bioactive compounds, enhancing the value of juçara residues and contributing to the sustainability of the species production chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges of Technology and Processing for Plant Extraction)

23 pages, 447 KB

Open AccessArticle

Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants for Symptom Relief During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Bulgaria

by Djeni Cherneva, Nadezhda Nikolova, Tsonka Dimitrova, Dobri Ivanov, Ivelin Iliev, Svetlana Georgieva and Galina Yaneva

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3692; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233692 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1032

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has renewed global interest in medicinal plants as accessible sources of prophylactic and supportive therapies. Ethnobotanical research provides an important foundation for developing plant-based medicines with preventive and therapeutic potential. This study aimed (1) to investigate the distribution and indications [...] Read more.

The COVID-19 pandemic has renewed global interest in medicinal plants as accessible sources of prophylactic and supportive therapies. Ethnobotanical research provides an important foundation for developing plant-based medicines with preventive and therapeutic potential. This study aimed (1) to investigate the distribution and indications for the use of medicinal plants in the prevention and relief of COVID-19-related symptoms among the Bulgarian population, and (2) to identify culturally significant species with potential for further development as antiviral agents. A total of 513 respondents from different regions and demographic groups in Bulgaria were interviewed. Their knowledge regarding the use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention or treatment was quantitatively assessed using ethnobotanical indices: relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (FIC), fidelity level (FL), and use value (UV). Participants reported 45 species belonging to 43 genera and 23 families. The highest RFC and UVs were recorded for Matricaria chamomilla L., Tilia sp., Thymus vulgaris L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Mentha sp., Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck, Rosa canina L., and Sideritis scardica Griseb. Culturally significant species identified were Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Tilia sp., Mentha sp., Sideritis scardica Griseb, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck. This ethnobotanical survey in Bulgaria documents culturally important medicinal plants that may have potential applications in prophylaxis and complementary therapy for COVID-19. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 2336 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Alteration of Gene Expression by Benzyl Adenine and meta-Topolin in In Vitro Apple Shoots

by Anita Király, Viktor Ambrus, Dóra Farkas, Neama Abdalla and Judit Dobránszki

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3691; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233691 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1161

Abstract

Exogenous cytokinin supply is a crucial factor during the in vitro shoot multiplication of apples. Meta-topolin has been shown to cause improved multiplication rate, higher quality in vitro shoots with better rooting, and acclimatization ability than the widely used benzyl adenine. The [...] Read more.

Exogenous cytokinin supply is a crucial factor during the in vitro shoot multiplication of apples. Meta-topolin has been shown to cause improved multiplication rate, higher quality in vitro shoots with better rooting, and acclimatization ability than the widely used benzyl adenine. The effects of benzyl adenine and meta-topolin on mRNA transcription in in vitro shoots were analyzed by using mRNA-seq, bioinformatics analysis, GO annotation, and KEGG mapping. The present investigations revealed that there were about 6-fold more significantly up-, or down-regulated genes (DEGs) in shoots grown on the benzyl adenine-containing medium than in those grown on the meta-topolin-containing medium. DEG analyses showed that WRKYs, bHLH, and MYB were the most affected transcription factors after both cytokinin treatments, while the expression of MIKC-type MADS-box, ERF, and AP2 transcription factors changed only after benzyl adenine treatment. DEGs related to auxin transport and signaling, as well as auxin synthesis, were differently affected by the two cytokinins. The DEG encoding cytokinin hydroxylase-like protein and related to trans-zeatin biosynthesis was up-regulated only after benzyl adenine treatment. The DEG encoding gibberellin 20 oxidase 2-like was down-regulated after a benzyl adenine supply while it was up-regulated after a meta-topolin supply. Changes in the cytokinin–auxin balance and gibberellin biosynthesis in in vitro shoots may contribute to the morphological differences previously observed for the two cytokinins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture: Genomics, Proteomics, Transcriptomics, and Metabolomics Approaches)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 6235 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Photoperiodic Transcription Factor OsPRR37 on Grain Filling and Starch Synthesis During Rice Caryopsis Development

by Hanbing Zhang, Siqi Tang, Funan Wei, Wubei Zong, Junbin Hou, Xu Ran, Jingjing Zhao, Jingxin Guo and Zhonghua Wang

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3690; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233690 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 734

Abstract

Grain filling governs grain weight formation in rice, while starch biosynthesis during this process critically determines both grain quality and yield. In this study, we characterized the heading date regulator OsPRR37 on regulating grain development, starch metabolism, and starch physicochemical properties. The osprr37 [...] Read more.

Grain filling governs grain weight formation in rice, while starch biosynthesis during this process critically determines both grain quality and yield. In this study, we characterized the heading date regulator OsPRR37 on regulating grain development, starch metabolism, and starch physicochemical properties. The osprr37 mutants exhibited undesirable agronomic traits, including reduced plant height, decreased grain thickness, lower 1000-grain weight, and diminished yield. Moreover, mutant endosperm displayed irregular starch packing, aberrant granules morphology, and decreased granule diameter. Impaired grain filling was observed in osprr37 mutants with reduced grain filling rates, which coincided with elevated soluble sugar content and reduced starch accumulation during grain development. Simultaneously, the expression of starch synthesis-related genes (SSRGs) was significantly altered. osprr37 mutants had decreased total starch and amylose content, leading to reduced starch crystallinity, lower structural order degree, and impaired gelatinization properties. Collectively, our results demonstrated that OsPRR37 functions as a key regulator of grain filling and starch biosynthesis, thereby determining starch composition and physicochemical properties that ultimately affect rice quality and yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Breeding and Germplasm Improvement of Rice—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2908 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agromorphological Characterization of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Under Andean–Amazonian Region of Peru

by Victor-Hugo Baldera-Chapoñan, Germán De la Cruz, Segundo Oliva-Cruz and Flavio Lozano-Isla

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3689; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233689 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1661

Abstract

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an Andean pseudocereal of high nutritional value and remarkable phenotypic diversity, recognized as a strategic crop for food security under increasing climatic variability. In this study, the agromorphological diversity of 158 accessions cultivated in the Andean–Amazonian region [...] Read more.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an Andean pseudocereal of high nutritional value and remarkable phenotypic diversity, recognized as a strategic crop for food security under increasing climatic variability. In this study, the agromorphological diversity of 158 accessions cultivated in the Andean–Amazonian region of Peru was evaluated with the aim of identifying superior materials for conservation and breeding programs. The experiment was conducted using an augmented design that included three check cultivars (INIA 415 Pasankalla, INIA 420 Negra Collana, and Blanca Juli). Diversity in eleven qualitative traits was quantified using the Shannon–Weaver (H′) and Nei (He) indices, whereas twelve quantitative traits were analyzed through principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering. The results revealed substantial intra- and inter-accession variability, with He values ranging from 0.21 to 0.76 and H′ values from 0.40 to 1.79, reflecting marked differences in growth habit, panicle morphology, stem pigmentation, and tolerance to Peronospora variabilis and Epicauta spp. Multivariate analyses identified three contrasting groups and enabled the selection of outstanding accessions, including UNTRM-367-1149, UNTRM-367-1107, UNTRM-367-1078, UNTRM-367-1079, UNTRM-367-1081, UNTRM-367-1095, and UNTRM-367-1104, characterized by high yield potential, favorable reproductive architecture, early or intermediate maturity, and low downy mildew severity. These accessions represent promising genetic resources for developing quinoa varieties adapted to transitional Andean–Amazonian environments, contributing to improved crop productivity and resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

50 pages, 7514 KB

Open AccessReview

Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicology of Belamcanda chinensis: A Review

by Tieqiang Zong, Mingxia Li, Zhengyu Hu, Long Jin, Yanan Liu, Yuanqi Duan, Jinfeng Sun, Wei Zhou and Gao Li

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3688; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233688 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2181

Abstract

The Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté is a perennial herb belong to the genus Belamcanda, primarily found in China, but with additional distribution in North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and India. The rhizomes of B. chinensis have a long history of use as [...] Read more.

The Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté is a perennial herb belong to the genus Belamcanda, primarily found in China, but with additional distribution in North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and India. The rhizomes of B. chinensis have a long history of use as a traditional herbal medicine in China, one that is recognized for its effects in clearing heat, in detoxifying and eliminating phlegm, and in soothing the throat. In this review, we conducted a comprehensive search across several databases, both Chinese and international, using the primary keyword Belamcanda chinensis paired with a relevant research area (e.g., chemical composition, pharmacology). The databases included Sci-Finder, ScienceDirect, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wiley, Springer Baidu Scholar and Research Gate, as well as domestic materia medica. We illustrated the chemical structures using ChemBioDraw Ultra 22.0 software. There are more than 10 proprietary Chinese medicines already on the market that consist of or originate from B. chinensis. More than 200 natural products have been isolated and identified from B. chinensis, including iridal-type triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, quinones, sesquiterpenes, and polysaccharides. Modern pharmacological studies indicate that both crude extracts and monomeric compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antioxidant, neuroprotective and anti-diabetic activities, with potential regulatory pathways. Additionally, B. chinensis demonstrates toxicity to fish, mollusks and arthropods. Clinical studies have shown that formulas containing B. chinensis as the main ingredient have a good therapeutic effect on respiratory diseases. In summary, B. chinensis presents promising prospects for application in medicine, functional food, cosmetics and agriculture. Therefore, we have reviewed the chemical composition, pharmacological activities (both in vivo and in vitro), structure–activity relationships, toxicity and clinical application of B. chinensis over the past 40 years, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for the subsequent comprehensive utilization of the plants. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 959 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Spruce Bark Biochar Minimizes Nitrogen and Carbon Leaching from an Eastern Newfoundland Podzolic Soil

by Riad O. Eissa, Lordwin Jeyakumar, David B. McKenzie and Jianghua Wu

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3687; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233687 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Biochar has broad applications in agriculture, where its incorporation into soils is recognized as an effective strategy for improving soil quality, enhancing remediation, sequestering carbon, and mitigating climate change. Although the application of nitrogen fertilizers can enhance nitrogen leaching, integrating biochar may improve [...] Read more.

Biochar has broad applications in agriculture, where its incorporation into soils is recognized as an effective strategy for improving soil quality, enhancing remediation, sequestering carbon, and mitigating climate change. Although the application of nitrogen fertilizers can enhance nitrogen leaching, integrating biochar may improve nutrient retention and reduce associated losses. However, the effects of biochar on nitrogen and carbon leaching in specific soil types remain unclear. This study investigated the impact of spruce bark biochar (SB550) on the leaching of total nitrogen (TN), nitrate (NO₃⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in agricultural soils of eastern Newfoundland. A greenhouse experiment was conducted with Festulolium forage grown in a soil–biochar mixture at five biochar rates (0, 2, 5, 8, and 10% v/v), with and without nitrogen fertilizer (0 and 60 kg N ha⁻¹). The results showed that SB550 biochar significantly reduced nutrient and carbon losses (p < 0.001). At the 10% biochar rate, leaching of NO₃⁻, NH₄⁺, TN, and DOC decreased by 48.6%, 80.4%, 60.0%, and 74.3%, respectively, compared with the control. These findings confirm that the addition of biochar is an effective amendment for minimizing nitrogen and DOC leaching, offering a promising strategy for sustainable nutrient management and environmental protection in this soil type. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochar–Soil–Plant Interactions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2172 KB

Open AccessArticle

Demographic Drivers of Population Decline in the Endangered Korean Fir (Abies koreana): Insights from a Bayesian Integral Projection Model

by Jeong-Soo Park, Jaeyeon Lee and Chung-Weon Yun

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3686; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233686 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 725

Abstract

Understanding the demographic mechanisms underlying the decline of endangered tree species is essential for developing effective conservation strategies. This study aimed to quantify the population trajectory and its demographic drivers in the Korean fir (Abies koreana), a subalpine conifer endemic to [...] Read more.

Understanding the demographic mechanisms underlying the decline of endangered tree species is essential for developing effective conservation strategies. This study aimed to quantify the population trajectory and its demographic drivers in the Korean fir (Abies koreana), a subalpine conifer endemic to South Korea and listed as endangered by the IUCN, using a Bayesian Integral Projection Model (IPM). Based on eight years of field monitoring of survival, growth, and recruitment, the Bayesian IPM estimated the population growth rate (λ_s) and quantified its uncertainty under interannual environmental variation. The results indicated that interannual variation in drought, represented by the Standardized Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), was a key driver of demographic changes. The mean population growth rate (λ = 0.983) suggests a slow decline, primarily driven by high mortality among intermediate-sized individuals, which are vital for maintaining population stability. In contrast, the growth of small to medium trees showed a weak but positive elasticity, implying that management actions targeting these size classes could benefit population persistence. Accordingly, effective conservation of A. koreana should focus on mitigating drought stress through reducing competition and improving soil moisture and structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dendrological Research: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Dendrology Branch of the Chinese Society of Forestry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1949 KB

Open AccessArticle

Allelopathic Effect of the Invasive Species Acacia dealbata Link and Hakea decurrens R.Br., subsp. physocarpa on Native Mediterranean Scrub Species

by Laura Nogales, Natividad Chaves, José Blanco-Salas, Laura Mateos, Luz Victoria Rubio and Juan Carlos Alías

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3685; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233685 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1112

Abstract

Invasive species can profoundly alter ecosystems through mechanisms such as allelopathy. This study evaluates the allelopathic effects of Acacia dealbata and Hakea decurrens subsp. physocarpa on two dominant Mediterranean native species, Cistus ladanifer and Lavandula stoechas. Germination bioassays using aqueous extracts (1:10 [...] Read more.

Invasive species can profoundly alter ecosystems through mechanisms such as allelopathy. This study evaluates the allelopathic effects of Acacia dealbata and Hakea decurrens subsp. physocarpa on two dominant Mediterranean native species, Cistus ladanifer and Lavandula stoechas. Germination bioassays using aqueous extracts (1:10 w/v) at concentrations of 1, 1/2, and 1/4 of leaves collected in March and September were used to evaluate germination, hypocotyl emergence, and root development compared to control values (water) and between treatments. The phenolic composition of the solutions used was also analyzed. Significant inhibitory effects were observed across all parameters, especially at high concentrations, with responses modulated by the invasive species, the native target, and seasonal variation. A. dealbata showed stronger phytotoxicity in March, while H. decurrens subsp. physocarpa was more active in September. Phytochemical analysis revealed a higher load of phenolic compounds in A. dealbata, which may be related to the greater allelopathic activity of this species. These findings confirm the allelopathic potential of both invasive species and their ability to interfere with the establishment of native plants while facilitating their own, potentially impacting the colonization success of invasive species and altering vegetation succession in Mediterranean ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1941 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regulatory Effects of Paclobutrazol and Uniconazole Mixture on the Morphology and Biomass Allocation of Amorpha fruticosa Seedlings

by Jiapeng Zhang, Ning Liu, Keyan Wu, Xueli Zhang, Chengcheng Gao, Fenfen Liu, Jimeng Sun and Chenggong Liu

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3684; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233684 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 698

Abstract

Global climate change has intensified land desertification in the arid and semi-arid regions of northwestern China, highlighting the urgent need to cultivate plant species with ideal architecture and well-developed root systems to combat ecosystem degradation. Amorpha fruticosa is widely used as a windbreak [...] Read more.

Global climate change has intensified land desertification in the arid and semi-arid regions of northwestern China, highlighting the urgent need to cultivate plant species with ideal architecture and well-developed root systems to combat ecosystem degradation. Amorpha fruticosa is widely used as a windbreak and sand-fixation shrub; however, its rapid growth and high transpiration during the early planting stage often result in excessive water loss, low survival rates, and limited vegetation restoration effectiveness. Plant growth retardants (PGRts) are known to suppress apical dominance and promote branching. In this study, one-year-old A. fruticosa seedlings were treated with different combinations of paclobutrazol (PP₃₃₃) and uniconazole (S₃₃₀₇) to investigate their effects on plant morphology and biomass allocation; it aims to determine the optimal formula for cultivating shrub structures with excellent windbreak and sand-fixation effects in land desertification areas. The results showed that both PP₃₃₃ and S₃₃₀₇ significantly inhibited plant height while promoting basal stem diameter, branching, and root development. Among all treatments, the S₃₃₀₇ 200 mg·L⁻¹ + PP₃₃₃ 200 mg·L⁻¹ combination (SD3) was the most effective, resulting in the greatest increases in basal diameter, branch number, total root length, and root-to-shoot ratio, while significantly reducing height increment, leaf length and leaf area (p < 0.05). Under the S₃₃₀₇ 200 mg·L⁻¹ + PP₃₃₃ 300 mg·L⁻¹ treatment (SD4), leaf width and specific leaf area were reduced by 17.92% and 38.89%, respectively, compared with the control. Correlation analysis revealed significant positive or negative relationships among most growth traits, with leaf length negatively correlated with other morphological indicators. Fresh and dry weights of both aboveground and root tissues were significantly positively correlated with basal diameter (R = 0.38) and branch basal diameter (R = 0.33). Principal component analysis demonstrated that the SD3 treatment achieved the highest comprehensive score (2.91), indicating its superiority in promoting a compact yet robust plant architecture. Overall, the SD3 treatment improved drought resistance and sand-fixation capacity of A. fruticosa by “dwarfing and strengthening plants while optimizing root–shoot allocation.” These findings provide theoretical support for large-scale cultivation and vegetation restoration in arid and semi-arid regions and offer a technical reference for growth regulation and windbreak and sand-fixation capacity in other xerophytic shrub species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1899 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Multiplex RT-PCR Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Velarivirus arecae, Arepavirus arecae and Arepavirus arecamaculatum

by Kexin Sun, Li Zhang, Zemu Li, Peng Zhao and Siyu Wan

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3683; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233683 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 598

Abstract

Areca Palm Velarivirus 1 (Velarivirus arecae, APV1), Areca palm necrotic ringspot virus (Arepavirus arecae, ANRSV), and Areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus (Arepavirus arecamaculatum, ANSSV) are major viral pathogens that cause significant economic losses in areca palm cultivation. [...] Read more.

Areca Palm Velarivirus 1 (Velarivirus arecae, APV1), Areca palm necrotic ringspot virus (Arepavirus arecae, ANRSV), and Areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus (Arepavirus arecamaculatum, ANSSV) are major viral pathogens that cause significant economic losses in areca palm cultivation. Rapid and reliable detection methods are essential for the early diagnosis and management of these viruses in affected regions. Specific primers were designed based on the Coat Protein (CP) gene sequences of the three target viruses: APV1. A specific primer pair targeting the coat protein (CP) region was designed for APV1, while primer pairs for ANRSV and ANSSV were designed based on conserved sequences surrounding the Nla-VPg/Nla-Pro protease cleavage sites. A multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (multiplex RT-PCR) assay was subsequently developed to simultaneously amplify the target sequences. The multiplex RT-PCR detection system was optimized by adjusting critical parameters, including the annealing temperature, extension time, and number of cycles, to ensure high specificity and sensitivity. The optimized multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (multiplex RT-PCR) successfully yielded distinct amplification products for all three target viruses: 938 bp for APV1, 527 bp for ANRSV, and 250 bp for ANSSV. The size differences among the amplicons allowed them to be clearly distinguishable by 2% agarose gel electrophoresis. The optimal reaction conditions were determined to be an annealing temperature of 53.4 °C and 35 cycles. Applying the optimized multiplex RT-PCR method, we analyzed 414 field samples collected from Hainan province. APV1 was identified as the most prevalent virus, detected in 22.71% of the total samples. ANRSV and ANSSV were detected at significantly lower rates, in 3.86% and 0.2% of the samples, respectively. Virus detection in areca samples from Hainan Island revealed clear regional differences in disease incidence, with higher rates in the eastern and central regions—particularly Baoting, Lingshui, Wanning, and Qionghai—averaging 46.73%. Together, these results demonstrate that the developed multiplex RT-PCR is a sensitive and practical tool for the routine molecular diagnosis and epidemiological investigation of APV1, ANRSV, and ANSSV in areca palms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Palmaceae Research: Genomic Insights, Trait Analysis, and Breeding Innovations)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3516 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Omics Analysis Unravels the Biosynthesis and Regulatory Mechanisms of Floral Scent Across Various Cultivars and Developmental Stages in Phalaenopsis

by Huaiqin Zhong, Yan Chen, Shengyuan Zhong, Jun He, Bing Lin, Jianshe Wu and Ronghui Fan

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3682; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233682 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 896

Abstract

Phalaenopsis is one of the most economically valuable genera in the Orchidaceae family. However, the common varieties of Phalaenopsis in the market rarely have fragrance, greatly limiting the sustainable development of the Phalaenopsis industry. Here, an integrated investigation was conducted on the patterns [...] Read more.

Phalaenopsis is one of the most economically valuable genera in the Orchidaceae family. However, the common varieties of Phalaenopsis in the market rarely have fragrance, greatly limiting the sustainable development of the Phalaenopsis industry. Here, an integrated investigation was conducted on the patterns and determinants of aroma release in Phalaenopsis. GC-MS/MS analysis revealed that the primary volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in 10 fragrant Phalaenopsis cultivars are consistent. Terpenoids, alcohols, ketones, and esters collectively accounted for an average of 66.59% of the total VOCs across these 10 varieties. By performing metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses, we investigated the variation in 1532 VOCs in four different developmental stages of Phalaenopsis Formosa Sweet Memory. Metabolite analysis revealed that the levels of total volatiles, terpenoids, esters, and heterocyclic compounds were significantly upregulated during the flowering stages, and Linalool, β-Ocimene, and Methyl Benzoate were selected as key metabolites. While analyzing the correlation network between aroma components synthesis and differentially expressed genes, 33 key structural genes were detected and regulated by transcription factors. PAXXG356500_TPS, PAXXG333030_4CL, and PAXXG061420_SAM were key genes in the terpenoids and esters’ biosynthetic pathway, and they were co-expressed with aroma release. In summary, this study characterized the key metabolic pathways involved in aroma formation in Phalaenopsis and constructed the corresponding transcriptional regulatory network. These results laid a theoretical foundation for the subsequent research on aroma of Phalaenopsis and genetic engineering technology breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Horticultural Plant Genomics—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 6006 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of N-P-K Nutrient Ratios for Three Leafy Vegetables Using Response Surface Methodology and Principal Component Analysis

by Ruiping Yang, Hao Su, Jiangshan Lai, Yu Sheng and Yu Shen

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3681; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233681 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1412

Abstract

This study determined the optimal nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (N-P-K) ratios for maximizing growth performance in spinach (Spinacia oleracea), bok choy (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis), and Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa pekinensis). A response surface methodology experiment with 15 N-P-K treatments (0–1.5 [...] Read more.

This study determined the optimal nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (N-P-K) ratios for maximizing growth performance in spinach (Spinacia oleracea), bok choy (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis), and Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa pekinensis). A response surface methodology experiment with 15 N-P-K treatments (0–1.5 g/L per nutrient) was conducted under controlled conditions. Growth parameters including plant height, biomass, leaf area, and root development were measured after four weeks and analyzed using principal component analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. Optimal ratios were species-specific: spinach achieved maximum performance with N-P-K = 2-0-2 (13.15 g fresh weight, 13.88 g total biomass), bok choy with N-P-K = 0-2-2 (2631.31 mm² leaf area, 4.42 mm stem diameter), and Chinese cabbage with N-P-K = 2-0-2 (14.14 cm height, 9883.44 mm² leaf area). High nitrogen levels were negatively correlated with root development across all species (r = −0.531 to −0.690, p < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that species-specific nutrient management strategies are essential for optimal leafy vegetable production. Balanced N-P-K ratios prevent nutrient toxicity while maximizing growth, providing evidence-based guidelines for precision fertilization in controlled environment agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Growth and Development of Vegetable Crops—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1577 KB

Open AccessReview

Second Genome: Rhizosphere Microbiome as a Key External Driver of Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Maize

by Ping Luo, Lin Yang, Yonghui Zhu, Mao Liu, Yuanyuan He, Chengwei Liu and Wenzhu He

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3680; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233680 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1174

Abstract

Improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in maize is critical for reducing fertilizer inputs and mitigating environmental impacts. The rhizosphere microbiome—the plant’s “second genome”—plays a key role in nitrogen acquisition, assimilation, and signaling. This review synthesizes recent advances from multi-omics studies, functional validation, and [...] Read more.

Improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in maize is critical for reducing fertilizer inputs and mitigating environmental impacts. The rhizosphere microbiome—the plant’s “second genome”—plays a key role in nitrogen acquisition, assimilation, and signaling. This review synthesizes recent advances from multi-omics studies, functional validation, and field experiments, highlighting how maize roots recruit and coordinate microbial taxa, including diazotrophs, nitrifiers, organic nitrogen mineralizers, and growth-promoting bacteria, to enhance NUE under variable nitrogen availability. We integrate mechanistic insights into transporter-mediated nitrogen uptake, microbial regulation of root development and exudation, and host genetic determinants, such as ZmC2, ZmSBT3, and ZmNLP8, that influence microbiome assembly. Evidence from synthetic communities, isotope tracing, and host–microbiome association studies demonstrates that microbial contributions to plant nitrogen can be substantial and genetically modulated. Finally, we discuss microbiome-based interventions, including functional strain discovery, microbial fertilizers, biostimulants, and microbiome-assisted breeding, assessing their potential and limitations. We conclude by highlighting key challenges and proposing an integrative framework to guide microbiome-informed strategies for sustainable improvement of maize NUE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nitrogen Nutrition in Plants)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 6921 KB

Open AccessArticle

Plant Hormone Stimulation and HbHSP90.3 Plays a Vital Role in Water Deficit of Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.)

by Mingyang Liu, Songle Fan, Cuicui Wang, Bingbing Guo, Hong Yang, Phearun Phen and Lifeng Wang

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3679; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233679 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 641

Abstract

The yield and quality of rubber tree latex are affected by environmental stresses and plant hormone stimulation. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) is widely involved in various developmental processes and stress responses in plants, especially in drought stress. In this study, we cloned [...] Read more.

The yield and quality of rubber tree latex are affected by environmental stresses and plant hormone stimulation. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) is widely involved in various developmental processes and stress responses in plants, especially in drought stress. In this study, we cloned the HbHSP90.3 gene and characterized its expression pattern in different tissues and mechanical wounding treatments of the rubber tree and found that it is highly expressed in latex and responds to mechanical wounding treatment. To reveal the roles of plant hormones and HSP90.3 protein in the drought resistance process of rubber trees. Treatment with the specific HSP90 protein inhibitor geldanamycin (GDA) and yeast expression experiments demonstrated that HbHSP90.3 has a relieving effect on water deficit in rubber trees. The expression pattern showed that the HbHSP90.3 gene was closely related to hormone signaling, especially for Indole acid (IAA) and Zeatin (ZT) induction under different plant hormone treatments. Protein interaction analysis showed that HbHSP90.3 interacted with the suppressor of the G2 allele of skp1 (HbSGT1b). Taken together, HbHSP90.3 interacts with HbSGT1b in the nucleus and plays a key role in water deficit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Stress of Crops: Molecular Genetics and Genomics—3rd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 4126 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen Topdressing Rate Alters Starch and Protein Properties in Grains at Different Spike Positions Under Long-Term Field Conditions

by Jiarui Wang, Haiyang Jin, Xiaoyan Zhang, Yonghui Hao, Baoting Fang, Deqi Zhang, Cheng Yang, Hanfang Wang, Junqin Yue, Hongjian Cheng, Fei Zheng and Xiangdong Li

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3678; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233678 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 664

Abstract

Nitrogen (N) is a key nutrient influencing wheat growth, grain yield, and quality. A long-term field experiment was conducted using cultivar Zhengmai 1860 to clarify the effects of N topdressing on grain protein composition, starch accumulation, and yield. Treatments included a basal N [...] Read more.

Nitrogen (N) is a key nutrient influencing wheat growth, grain yield, and quality. A long-term field experiment was conducted using cultivar Zhengmai 1860 to clarify the effects of N topdressing on grain protein composition, starch accumulation, and yield. Treatments included a basal N application of 150 kg ha⁻¹ (N1) combined with four topdressing rates at jointing: 37.5, 75, 112.5, and 150 kg ha⁻¹ (N1 + 37.5, N1 + 75, N1 + 112.5, N1 + 150). Nitrogen topdressing significantly affected the physiological and biochemical characteristics of grains at different spike positions. Amylopectin, globulin, soluble starch (SS), and soluble starch synthase (SSS) accumulated most under 75–112.5 kg ha⁻¹, with N1 + 75 showing the strongest response in basal and middle spike grains. Amylose and granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS) peaked at the middle spike under N1 + 112.5. Protein component (gliadin, glutelin, albumin), amino acids, glutamate synthase (GOGAT), and glutamine synthetase (GS) increased progressively with higher N rates, with maximum accumulation at N1 + 150. Nitrogen topdressing also enhanced spike number (5.05–37.13%), grains per spike (3.86–16.22%), and 1000-grain weight (2.72–5.79%), with the highest yield (9451.7 kg ha⁻¹) at N1 + 112.5. These results highlight the critical role of optimized N management in improving grain composition and yield in wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 9683 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Lipotubuloids of Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Contain Hyperstable Microtubules

by Krithika Yogeeswaran, Manfred Ingerfeld, Nicholas R. McInnes, Brian E. S. Gunning and David A. Collings

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3677; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233677 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 590

Abstract

The epidermal cells of bracts, petals and sepals of Ornithogalum umbellatum L. (Star-of-Bethlehem, Asparagaceae) contain lipotubuloids, complex aggregates of lipid droplets (LDs) enmeshed by bundles of microtubules (MTs). We investigated lipotubuloid organization and stability through the transient expression of GFP fusion proteins targeted [...] Read more.

The epidermal cells of bracts, petals and sepals of Ornithogalum umbellatum L. (Star-of-Bethlehem, Asparagaceae) contain lipotubuloids, complex aggregates of lipid droplets (LDs) enmeshed by bundles of microtubules (MTs). We investigated lipotubuloid organization and stability through the transient expression of GFP fusion proteins targeted to different subcellular structures and with immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Live cell imaging confirmed that lipotubuloids contain LDs, organelles including endomembranes, mitochondria and peroxisomes, a tonoplast-defined vacuole, and that they move through actin microfilament-based streaming. Intriguingly, the different microscopy modes used showed different patterns of MT organization in the lipotubuloid. While MT sheets and bundles were visible by TEM, few MTs were seen with fusion proteins and immunofluorescence. Oryzalin-based MT depolymerization experiments suggest a possible resolution for this paradox: TEM showed that lipotubuloid MTs resisted depolymerization, even after 20 h in oryzalin, while MT polymerization was visible in lipotubuloids with fusion proteins during oryzalin wash-out. These results suggest that the Ornithogalum lipotubuloids contain hyperstable MTs, possibly formed with microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) that normally occlude fusion protein and antibody binding sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Morphology, Anatomy, and Embryology: Current Research and Future Directions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Plants, Volume 14, Issue 23 (December-1 2025) – 158 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI