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Synergistic Effects of Lavandula angustifolia and a Bacterial Consortium on Bioremediation of a Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soil
Tree Endotherapy: A Comprehensive Review of the Benefits and Drawbacks of Trunk Injection Treatments in Tree Care and Protection
Current Assessment and Future Perspectives on Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals
Floral Characteristics and Reproductive Biology in Brazilian Melon Accessions: Insights from Commercial and Exotic Varieties
High-Blue/Low-Red Mixed Light Modulates Photoperiodic Flowering in Chrysanthemum via Photoreceptor and Sugar Pathways

Journal Description

Plants

Plants is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on plant science published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Phytopathological Society (SEF), the Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP), the Spanish Society of Horticultural Sciences (SECH) and the Italian Society of Phytotherapy (S.I.Fit.) are affiliated with Plants and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Plant Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 4.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2223-7747

Latest Articles

17 pages, 10055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Triploid Plants in Seed-Derived Progeny of Cultivated Olive

by Chenggong Lei, Guangmin Wu, Yingjia Liu, Chengdu Yang, Qianli Dai, Yingchun Zhu, Fa Xiao, Hengxing Zhu and Jiangbo Dang

Plants 2026, 15(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010127 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

The large and hard olive pit adversely affects oil quality during traditional crushing, as seed- and pit-derived enzymes modify phenolic profiles and volatile compounds. Polyploid breeding offers a potential means to reduce pit size and improve processing traits, yet cultivated olive (Olea [...] Read more.

The large and hard olive pit adversely affects oil quality during traditional crushing, as seed- and pit-derived enzymes modify phenolic profiles and volatile compounds. Polyploid breeding offers a potential means to reduce pit size and improve processing traits, yet cultivated olive (Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea) is a strictly diploid species, and natural polyploids have not been previously documented. To evaluate the potential of triploids in olive improvement, we screened seed-derived progeny from multiple cultivars for polyploidy using flow cytometry and chromosome observation. One naturally occurring triploid seedling (‘Olive-3x’) was identified from a mixed lot of open-pollinated seeds. Whole-genome resequencing was used to develop 64 polymorphic InDel markers, and three markers indicated ‘Koroneiki’ as one putative parent of the triploid. Morphological and cytological analyses showed that the triploid exhibited typical polyploid characteristics, including thicker leaves and enlarged epidermal and palisade mesophyll cells compared with diploid controls. These findings provide the first evidence of a naturally occurring triploid in cultivated olive and show that triploids can arise within seed-derived progeny. The identified triploid plant and the developed markers offer useful resources for future studies on olive polyploidy and provide foundational resources for future research on olive polyploidy and cultivar improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

14 pages, 2993 KB

Open AccessArticle

Leaf-Fruit Trait Decoupling Along Environmental Gradients in Tropical Cryptocaryeae (Lauraceae)

by Wendi Zhao, Lifang Wang, Yu Song, Honglei Jiang and Xiali Guo

Plants 2026, 15(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010126 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Cryptocaryeae, as a significant tribe within the Lauraceae family with important economic and ecological value, comprises over 850 species. Its common ancestor dates back to approximately 123 million years ago, in the early Cretaceous, originating in tropical Africa and Asia. Understanding how leaf [...] Read more.

Cryptocaryeae, as a significant tribe within the Lauraceae family with important economic and ecological value, comprises over 850 species. Its common ancestor dates back to approximately 123 million years ago, in the early Cretaceous, originating in tropical Africa and Asia. Understanding how leaf and fruit functional traits of Cryptocaryeae trees (Lauraceae) respond to environmental fluctuations is crucial for protecting the structure and function of forest ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the influence of environmental factors on leaf and fruit morphological traits in the tropical tribe Cryptocaryeae. Based on an established phylogenetic framework for Cryptocaryeae, we compiled a dataset containing 17,117 morphological observations across 369 species. The analyzed traits included leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, fruit length, fruit diameter, and fruit size. Through analyzing trends of leaves and fruits morphological traits across the latitude and longitude and their relationship with environmental factors, and by quantifying the relative contributions of environmental factors to these traits, we demonstrated that leaf morphology exhibited distinct latitudinal and longitudinal zonation and was sensitive to environmental fluctuations, especially to temperature changes. In contrast, the change of fruit morphological traits was comparatively conservative in their variation, mainly affected by precipitation. These findings suggest that different plant traits may employ different trade-off strategies during environmental adaptation. Highlighting the importance of integrating ecological and evolutionary perspectives on leaf and fruit morphological traits of tropical Cryptocaryeae trees could provide insights into understanding plant environmental adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Plant Survival Strategies: Physiological and Biochemical Adaptations)

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19 pages, 2344 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biochemical Diversity and Nutraceutical Potential of Medicinal Plant-Based Herbal Teas from Southwestern Türkiye

by Halil Ibrahim Sagbas, Saban Kordali, Sena Sahin, Selçuk Küçükaydın and Elif Uyduran

Plants 2026, 15(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010125 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Medicinal and aromatic plants contain valuable natural compounds widely used in health, food, and cosmetics. This study compares the antioxidant capacities and phenolic compositions of tea and ethanol extracts from eight species naturally growing in Fethiye, Muğla, Türkiye. Antioxidant activity was assessed using [...] Read more.

Medicinal and aromatic plants contain valuable natural compounds widely used in health, food, and cosmetics. This study compares the antioxidant capacities and phenolic compositions of tea and ethanol extracts from eight species naturally growing in Fethiye, Muğla, Türkiye. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the β-carotene bleaching method, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS⁺), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), and metal chelating activity. Herbal teas generally showed stronger antioxidant activity than ethanol extracts. Rosemary tea had the highest activity (2.90 µg/mL), followed by lavender (11.30 µg/mL). In metal chelating, rosemary tea exhibited a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 9.22 µg/mL, close to ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). Phenolic profiling showed rosemary tea contained 30.74 mg/g rosmarinic acid and 0.74 mg/g quercetin. These results support the traditional use of southwestern Türkiye’s medicinal plants and emphasize the antioxidant potential of herbal teas. Integrating ethnobotanical knowledge with phytochemical data provides a basis for functional food development, crop improvement, and conservation of local plant genetic resources. Unlike previous studies focusing on single species or limited solvent comparisons, this research simultaneously evaluates both herbal tea and ethanol extracts of eight locally grown medicinal plants, offering a unique perspective on their comparative antioxidant and phenolic diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

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19 pages, 2774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Streptomyces Volatiles Alter Auxin/Cytokinin Signaling, Root Architecture, and Growth Rate in Arabidopsis thaliana via Signaling Through the KISS ME DEADLY Gene Family

by Bradley R. Dotson, Vasiliki Verschut, Klas Flärdh, Paul G. Becher and Allan G. Rasmusson

Plants 2026, 15(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010124 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Microbial volatile metabolites can enhance plant growth, yet the mechanisms by which plants perceive and transduce these signals are unknown. Growth of Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 seedlings was found to be stimulated by volatiles from the soil bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor. To investigate volatile-responding [...] Read more.

Microbial volatile metabolites can enhance plant growth, yet the mechanisms by which plants perceive and transduce these signals are unknown. Growth of Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 seedlings was found to be stimulated by volatiles from the soil bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor. To investigate volatile-responding candidate signaling molecules and genes, cultivation of seedlings in gas-phase contact with S. coelicolor genotypes was combined with GC-MS and plant transcriptomics. Components potentially involved were further studied using pure compounds and A. thaliana T-DNA mutants. Application of volatiles from S. coelicolor enhanced the growth of A. thaliana seedlings primarily by stimulating lateral root growth rate and inhibiting primary root extension. Concurrently, a family-wide induction of the Kelch-repeat F-box gene family KISS ME DEADLY (KMD) was observed. A. thaliana genotypes with a loss of function for the KMD family or other alterations of auxin/cytokinin signaling homeostasis suppressed the root response to both S. coelicolor total volatiles and the common microbial volatile 3-octanone. The results reveal a novel function of KMDs in mediating plant growth stimulation in response to volatile stimulation that alters auxin/cytokinin signaling and emphasize rhizospheric microbials as potential indicators of soil status to plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Cell Biology)

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17 pages, 614 KB

Open AccessReview

Interaction of 4-Aminobutyrate (GABA) with the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle in Plants Under Salinity Stress

by Edward J. Flaherty and Barry J. Shelp

Plants 2026, 15(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010123 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

The 4-aminobutyrate (GABA) shunt bypasses 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and succinyl-CoA synthetase in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCAC) by diverting 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate and generating GABA via glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), whereas polyamine oxidation generates GABA directly from 4-aminobutanal. During salinity stress, the TCAC switches from [...] Read more.

The 4-aminobutyrate (GABA) shunt bypasses 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and succinyl-CoA synthetase in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCAC) by diverting 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate and generating GABA via glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), whereas polyamine oxidation generates GABA directly from 4-aminobutanal. During salinity stress, the TCAC switches from a cyclic to a non-cyclic mode of operation probably due to the inhibition of two thiamine pyrophosphate-dependent enzymes, 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase, and increases GAD activity via both transcriptional and post-transcriptional (i.e., elevated cytosolic Ca²⁺/calmodulin, H⁺ or glutamate) processes. Diversion of 2-oxoglutarate may occur via an increase in aminating glutamate dehydrogenase activity, due at least in part to the accumulation of ammonium, resulting from changes in protein synthesis and degradation. Inhibition of diamine oxidase activity by aminoguanidine suggests that polyamine oxidation contributes up to one-third of the salinity-regulated GABA level; however, Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. GAD loss-of-function mutants suggest that polyamines account for less. The use of aminoguanidine and/or the GAD inhibitor, 3-mercaptopropionic acid, in combination with GAD or 4-aminobutanal dehydrogenase loss-of-function mutants, offers additional opportunities to understand if both GABA sources give rise to succinate, which can function to restore or partially restore TCAC activity during salinity stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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22 pages, 3587 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological and Morphological Response Mechanisms of Theobroma cacao L. Rootstocks Under Flooding and Evaluation of Their Adaptability

by Maria Luiza Pereira Barbosa Pinto, Vinicius de Souza Oliveira, Jeane Crasque, Basílio Cerri Neto, Thayanne Rangel Ferreira, Carlos Alberto Spaggiari Souza, Antelmo Ralph Falqueto, Thiago Corrêa de Souza, José Altino Machado Filho, Lúcio de Oliveira Arantes, Carla da Silva Dias, Enilton Nascimento de Santana, Karin Tesch Kuhlcamp and Sara Dousseau-Arantes

Plants 2026, 15(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010122 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

The response of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) to low oxygen availability in the soil and the possibility of recovery after stress relief are associated with the plasticity capacity of each genotype; however, studies evaluating the influence of rootstock on stress response are [...] Read more.

The response of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) to low oxygen availability in the soil and the possibility of recovery after stress relief are associated with the plasticity capacity of each genotype; however, studies evaluating the influence of rootstock on stress response are scarce. Thus, in the northern region of the state of Espírito Santo, municipality of São Mateus, the physiological, biochemical, and anatomical responses and recovery capacity of cocoa PS-1319 grafted onto the rootstocks TSH-1188, Cepec-2002, Pará, Esfip-02, and SJ-02 were evaluated under flooded conditions. The plants were subjected to flooding for 60 days, and their recovery capacity was assessed after this period. The gas exchange, relative chlorophyll content, stem and leaf anatomy, photosynthetic pigments, and carbohydrates were evaluated. All genotypes showed reductions in net photosynthetic assimilation, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate in the flooded environment compared to the non-flooded environment. All pigments were degraded, with average values of Chl a, Chl b, total Chl, and total carotenoids of 9.33, 10.418, 19.75, and 590.75 μg.mL⁻¹ in the non-flooded environment and 6.43, 7.69, 14.12, and 500.33 μg.mL⁻¹ in the flooded environment. The rootstocks Cepec-2002 and Esfip-02 showed the highest carotenoid accumulation, with 585.78 and 650.47 μg.mL⁻¹, respectively, when compared to SJ-02 (474.03 μg.mL⁻¹), Pará (491.58 μg.mL⁻¹), and TSH-1188 (525.86 491.58 μg.mL⁻¹). The Pará rootstock did not show differences in stomatal density between environments, with values of 32.25 in flooding, 34.83 in non-flooding, and 31.61 in recovery. During flooding, lenticels formed in all rootstocks. After recovery, all rootstocks normalized their gas exchange, carbohydrate levels, and anatomy, showing that the root system was able to re-establish its functions, making these rootstocks suitable for areas at risk of flooding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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15 pages, 10961 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrative Transcriptomics Reveals Regulatory Networks Underlying Fatty Acid and Lacquer Wax Formation in Fruit of Toxicodendron vernicifluum

by Shasha Li, Yufen Xie, Xiao Zhang, Xuan Wang, Xiaomin Ge, Junhui Zhou, Chen Chen and Guoqing Bai

Plants 2026, 15(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010121 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

The lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) possesses significant economic value due to its capability to produce raw lacquer, lacquer wax, and lacquer oil. The fruit is the primary source of lacquer wax; the primary components of lacquer wax are fatty acids, yet [...] Read more.

The lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) possesses significant economic value due to its capability to produce raw lacquer, lacquer wax, and lacquer oil. The fruit is the primary source of lacquer wax; the primary components of lacquer wax are fatty acids, yet the synthesis mechanisms of fatty acids and wax esters remain unclear. In this study, we employed RNA-seq to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs) across four developmental stages in the fruit of the lacquer tree. The results revealed that, compared to the T1 stage, there were 1736, 10,228, and 12,444 DEGs in the three developmental stages. Through KEGG enrichment analysis, DEGs associated with lacquer wax synthesis were found to be primarily enriched in fatty acid metabolism, degradation, and the biosynthesis of cutin, suberin, and wax esters pathways. Furthermore, analysis of DEGs expression patterns in fatty acid synthesis pathways revealed that ACC, KAS, KAR, FATB, and FAD were significantly differentially expressed. Additionally, LACS, WSD1, CER4, CER1, and MAH1 participated in wax biosynthesis. Moreover, one co-expression network among wax biosynthesis genes, hormone signal transduction genes, and transcription factors was established. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for identifying key genes involved in regulating fatty acid and lacquer wax synthesis in Toxicodendron vernicifluum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics of Forest Trees—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 4947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) Chlorogenic Acid Extraction Process and Hypoglycemic Effect Study

by Xiaofei Wang, Jiayu Zhang, Chen Yang, Xiaohan Yu, Dan Tian, Mingli Han and Na Xiao

Plants 2026, 15(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010120 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is an active ingredient widely found in plants and has been shown to have potential blood-glucose-lowering effects. However, the research on the efficient extraction processes of CGA from sweet potatoes and its systematic mechanisms underlying hypoglycemic effects is still insufficient. [...] Read more.

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is an active ingredient widely found in plants and has been shown to have potential blood-glucose-lowering effects. However, the research on the efficient extraction processes of CGA from sweet potatoes and its systematic mechanisms underlying hypoglycemic effects is still insufficient. This study optimized the extraction of CGA from various sweet potato parts and varieties using ethanol, and predicted the hypoglycemic mechanism of sweet potato leaves via network pharmacology and molecular docking. The efficacy of the leaf extracts was demonstrated through the in vitro inhibition of hepatic glucose output, accompanied by minimal cytotoxicity, and was further validated in an acute mouse model. The results demonstrated that the optimal extraction conditions were an ethanol concentration of 65.48%, a liquid–solid ratio of 39.00 mL·g⁻¹, an ultrasonic time of 50.00 min, and a temperature of 45 °C. The final extraction yield of CGA crude extract was 3.54%, with the highest content in sweet potato leaves, suggesting a multi-target synergistic mechanism of action for sweet potato leaves. Further in vitro experiments indicated that the CGA crude extract can exert hypoglycemic effects by inhibiting hepatic gluconeogenesis. In conclusion, the study lays a foundation for the further purification and utilization of sweet potato CGA, and establishes a theoretical basis for the development of sweet potato leaf resources as hypoglycemic functional ingredients. Full article

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17 pages, 2986 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Lipidomic Analysis Reveals Dynamic Changes of Polar Lipids for Oil Biosynthesis During Cotyledon Development in Perilla frutescens

by Xiaoxiao Liu, Jiudong Zhang, Weijun Xu, Xichun Du, Deng Yang, Lingling Xu, Shuangyu Zhang and Tianpeng Gao

Plants 2026, 15(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010119 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Perilla (Perilla frutescens) is an important oilseed crop valued for its rich content of nutraceutical compounds and polyunsaturated fatty acids. While triacylglycerol biosynthesis has been studied, the role of polar lipids during seed development remains poorly characterized. Here, we performed a [...] Read more.

Perilla (Perilla frutescens) is an important oilseed crop valued for its rich content of nutraceutical compounds and polyunsaturated fatty acids. While triacylglycerol biosynthesis has been studied, the role of polar lipids during seed development remains poorly characterized. Here, we performed a comprehensive lipidomic analysis of polar lipids in developing perilla seeds across three key stages. A total of 147 molecular species from 10 polar lipid classes were identified. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine were the predominant phospholipids, and both decreased markedly during development, with phosphatidylcholine showing the most significant reduction. In contrast, lysophosphatidic acid increased substantially by 62.4%. Conversely, the galactolipids monolactodiacylglycerol and digalactosyldiacylglycerol showed a decline in perilla during cotyledon development. Additionally, the unsaturation index of most polar lipids decreased during development. These variation characteristics of polar lipids during growth and development may suggest an adaptive strategy for oil accumulation in perilla. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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16 pages, 7449 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silencing of the Mycorrhiza-Inducible Phosphate Transporter TaPT3-2D in Wheat Enhances Pathogen Susceptibility and Impairs Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis

by Yi Zhang, Danfeng Wang, Yuchen Ma, Xueqing Wang, Kedong Xu, Xiaoli Li, Xinxin Shangguan, Haohao Cao, Guozhang Kang and Chengwei Li

Plants 2026, 15(1), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010118 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

The interplay between phosphate (Pi) signaling and defense pathways is crucial for plant fitness, yet its molecular basis, particularly in wheat, remains poorly understood. Here, we functionally characterized the plasma membrane-localized high-affinity phosphate transporter TaPT3-2D and demonstrated its essential roles in Pi uptake, [...] Read more.

The interplay between phosphate (Pi) signaling and defense pathways is crucial for plant fitness, yet its molecular basis, particularly in wheat, remains poorly understood. Here, we functionally characterized the plasma membrane-localized high-affinity phosphate transporter TaPT3-2D and demonstrated its essential roles in Pi uptake, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis, and fungal disease resistance. Quantitative analyses showed that TaPT3-2D expression was strongly induced by AM colonization (165-fold increase) and by infection with Bipolaris sorokiniana (54-fold increase) and Gaeumannomyces tritici (15-fold increase). In contrast, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) of TaPT3-2D reduced Pi uptake and mycorrhizal colonization. Moreover, TaPT3-2D-silenced plants exhibited increased susceptibility to biotrophic, hemibiotrophic, and necrotrophic fungi, accompanied by reduced expression of pathogen-related genes. The simultaneous impairment of Pi uptake, AM symbiosis, and defense responses in silenced plants indicates that TaPT3-2D functionally couples these processes. Functional complementation assays in low-Pi medium further revealed that TaPT3-2D partially rescued defective Pi uptake in mutant MB192 yeast, supporting its role as a high-affinity phosphate transporter. Collectively, these results identify TaPT3-2D as both a key regulator of individual pathways and as a molecular link connecting Pi homeostasis, symbiotic signaling, and disease resistance in wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal–Plant Interactions: From Symbiosis to Pathogenesis)

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20 pages, 1749 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potato Yield and Quality, Soil Chemical Properties and Microbial Community as Affected by Different Potato Rotations in Southern Shanxi Province, China

by Jing Liu, Jundong Shi and Yongshan Li

Plants 2026, 15(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010117 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Continuous potato monoculture leads to yield decline, soil degradation, and increased soil-borne disease incidence. This study evaluated the potential of crop rotation to mitigate these issues by examining its effects on potato performance, soil chemical properties, and soil microbial communities. A two-year field [...] Read more.

Continuous potato monoculture leads to yield decline, soil degradation, and increased soil-borne disease incidence. This study evaluated the potential of crop rotation to mitigate these issues by examining its effects on potato performance, soil chemical properties, and soil microbial communities. A two-year field experiment (2023–2024) in southern Shanxi, China, compared three treatments: continuous potato planting (CK, control), potato rotated with summer maize (with maize straw incorporation, T1), and potato rotated with summer soybean (with soybean straw incorporation, T2). The results demonstrated that both T1 and T2 rotations significantly increased tuber yield by 18.39% and 20.69%, respectively, and improved the potato commodity rate by 19.67% and 10.39%, compared to CK. Rotations also enhanced tuber quality, significantly increasing the content of nitrogen (5.24–28.20), phosphorus (14.68–34.86%), potassium (23.61–52.42%), crude protein (5.14–28.11%), vitamin C (6.67–20.0%), starch (20.0–28.82%), and dry matter (4.55–12.88%), while reducing sugar content. In addition, the soil quality markedly improved under rotation. The soil organic matter, available phosphorus, available potassium, and total nitrogen increased by 27.77–31.92%, 10.48–12.38%, 4.44–28.42%, and 3.98–16.13%, respectively. The T1 rotation affected the Chao1 index and the ACE, measures of the diversity of the soil fungal community. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteriota, Acidobacteriota, Chloroflex, Firmicutes, and Myxococcota were the predominant bacterial phyla and Ascomycota, Mortierellomycota, Basidiomycota, and Chytridiomycota were the predominant fungal phyla. Microbial community analysis revealed that T1 rotation affected the Chao1 index and the ACE, measures of the diversity of the soil fungal community, and the rotations altered community structure. The abundance of pathogenic fungi, including Fusarium, Alternaria, and Lectera, was significantly reduced. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that pH and total nitrogen (TN) were the primary factors shaping soil bacterial and fungal community structure. In conclusion, rotating potato with summer maize or soybean, combined with straw incorporation, is an effective strategy for enhancing tuber yield and quality, improving soil fertility, suppressing soil-borne pathogens, and promoting sustainable potato production in southern Shanxi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

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22 pages, 15645 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of Nelumbo nucifera UXS Family Genes: Mediating Dwarfing and Aquatic Salinity Tolerance

by Li Wang, Xingyan Zheng, Yajun Liu, Qian Mao, Yiwen Chen, Lin Zhao, Xiaomao Cheng, Longqing Chen and Huizhen Hu

Plants 2026, 15(1), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010116 (registering DOI) - 1 Jan 2026

Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) is an economically important aquatic crop frequently challenged by abiotic stresses. The plant cell wall, a primary interface with the environment, undergoes dynamic remodeling to balance structural integrity with adaptation. UDP-glucuronic acid decarboxylase (UXS), a key enzyme synthesizing the nucleotide [...] Read more.

Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) is an economically important aquatic crop frequently challenged by abiotic stresses. The plant cell wall, a primary interface with the environment, undergoes dynamic remodeling to balance structural integrity with adaptation. UDP-glucuronic acid decarboxylase (UXS), a key enzyme synthesizing the nucleotide sugar precursor UDP-xylose, exists in distinct membrane-bound (e.g., Golgi) and cytosolic forms, channeling substrates into compartmentalized polysaccharide biosynthesis pathways and positioning the UXS family as a crucial regulator linking cell wall metabolism to plant adaptation. Here, we systematically characterized the NnUXS gene family in lotus through genome-wide identification, evolutionary synteny analysis, and functional validation. Integrated bioinformatic analysis revealed their physicochemical properties, motif patterns, and regulatory cis-elements, suggesting potential roles in growth and salt stress responses. Among the family, NnUXS3 was prioritized due to its preferentially upregulated in small plant architecture (SPA) varieties, its early induction under salt stress (0.5 days, 200 mM NaCl), and its highest predicted binding affinity for UDP-GlcA (−8.9 kcal/mol). Subsequent functional validation confirmed its dual role: heterologous overexpression in tobacco reduced plant height (47.22%) and leaf area (67.61%), while transient overexpression in lotus enhanced salt tolerance and shortened the petioles. This enhanced tolerance was achieved by upregulating key genes involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis (NnCSLC4, NnXTH22, NnCESA1) and antioxidant defense (NnSOD, NnPOD). Our findings establish NnUXS3 as a key mediator in balancing plant architecture and abiotic stress resilience. This work not only identifies a valuable genetic target for lotus breeding but also provides insights into the growth-stress trade-off, highlighting the importance of UXS subcellular localization in tailoring cell wall remodeling for environmental adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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18 pages, 8313 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation: Mechanistic Study of the Anti-Porphyromonas gingivalis and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Berberis hemsleyana Ahrendt Extract

by Guibin Yang, Mingan Gui, Hai Dong, Dongzhi Zhuoma, Xuehuan Li, Tai Shen, Hao Guo, Ruiying Yuan and Le Li

Plants 2026, 15(1), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010115 - 31 Dec 2025

Anti-Porphyromonas gingivalis mechanisms of Berberis hemsleyana bark extract remain to be elucidated, and the anti-inflammatory activity of its n-butanol fraction (BNB) in RAW264.7 cells—mediated through suppression of the NF-κB pathway—require further validation. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) [...] Read more.

Anti-Porphyromonas gingivalis mechanisms of Berberis hemsleyana bark extract remain to be elucidated, and the anti-inflammatory activity of its n-butanol fraction (BNB) in RAW264.7 cells—mediated through suppression of the NF-κB pathway—require further validation. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the crude extract from B. hemsleyana were determined against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and bacterial protein leakage assays were used to evaluate its antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis. High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was applied to analyze the ethanol extract of B. hemsleyana bark, leading to the screening of 47 compounds. The antibacterial mechanisms of the compounds were predicted through Network Pharmacology analysis and Molecular docking. Anti-inflammatory activity mediated via the NF-κB pathway was verified using an LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell inflammatory model. Specifically, the BNB showed a significant antibacterial effect on P. gingivalis. Meanwhile, it was confirmed that this fraction damaged the bacterial cell membrane structure, leading to the leakage of intracellular proteins in bacteria and thus impairing their infectivity. Network pharmacology analysis and molecular docking results indicated that B. hemsleyana bark’s biologically active compounds (Calenduloside E, Limonin, Acanthoside B, Dihydroberberine) antibacterial activity by regulating cytokines and cell apoptosis, thereby coordinating the body’s microbial homeostasis and inflammation. Additionally, BNB significantly reduced the secretion of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 in vitro via the NF-κB pathway. The crude extract from the bark of B. hemsleyana has antibacterial and Anti-inflammatory activity. The n-butanol fraction showed a significant antibacterial effect on P. gingivalis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

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22 pages, 4059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculation and Different Phosphorus Fertilizer Levels Modulate Phosphorus Acquisition and Utilization Efficiency of Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in Saline-Alkali Soil

by Shangzhi Zhong, Pengxin Hou, Mingliu Yu, Wei Cao, Xiangjian Tu, Xiaotong Ma, Fuhong Miao, Qibo Tao, Juan Sun and Wenke Jia

Plants 2026, 15(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010114 - 31 Dec 2025

Phosphorus (P) is a key nutrient limiting crop growth and productivity, particularly in saline-alkali soils with low P availability. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have the potential to enhance P uptake in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.); however, the synergistic effects and underlying biological [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) is a key nutrient limiting crop growth and productivity, particularly in saline-alkali soils with low P availability. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have the potential to enhance P uptake in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.); however, the synergistic effects and underlying biological mechanisms by which AMF improve P acquisition and utilization efficiency under varying P application levels remain unclear. To explore P acquisition strategies associated with AMF status, root morphology traits, rhizosphere carboxylate exudation, soil properties and microbial biomass, we conducted a pot experiment growing alfalfa in saline-alkali soil under four P application levels (0, 5, 10, and 20 mg kg⁻¹), with or without AMF inoculation. Our results showed that AMF colonization and P application synergistically increased alfalfa biomass and shoot/root P concentrations. Notably, at a low P application level of 5 mg kg⁻¹, the mycorrhizal contribution to P absorption and P-utilization efficiency reached their highest levels, while both declined under high P conditions (20 mg kg⁻¹), suggesting an interaction between P availability and AMF efficacy. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and regression analysis revealed that rhizosphere carboxylate concentrations were positively associated with P-utilization efficiency, whereas soil available P, microbial biomass P (MBP) and carbon (MBC) negatively affected it. Among these factors, AMF-induced enhancement of rhizosphere carboxylate exudation played a critical role in promoting P-utilization efficiency in alfalfa under low-P conditions. In contrast, higher P availability reduced rhizosphere carboxylate concentrations, resulting in lower P-utilization efficiency. In conclusion, the combination of AMF colonization and low P application synergistically improves P acquisition and utilization efficiency in alfalfa, providing valuable insights for sustainable nutrient management in saline-alkali soils with limited P availability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

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27 pages, 1724 KB

Open AccessReview

Regenerative Agriculture and Sustainable Plant Protection: Enhancing Resilience Through Natural Strategies

by Muhammad Ahmad Hassan, Ali Raza, Saba Bashir, Jueping Song, Shoukat Sajad, Ahsan Khan, Laraib Malik and Zoia Arshad Awan

Plants 2026, 15(1), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010113 - 31 Dec 2025

The world faces increasing food, environmental, and human security issues, primarily attributed to an overburdened agricultural sector struggling to keep pace with rising population and demand for food, energy, and fiber. Advances in food production and agriculture, especially with monoculture farming, have continued [...] Read more.

The world faces increasing food, environmental, and human security issues, primarily attributed to an overburdened agricultural sector struggling to keep pace with rising population and demand for food, energy, and fiber. Advances in food production and agriculture, especially with monoculture farming, have continued to meet these demands but at a high price regarding resource depletion and environmental devastation. This is especially severe in developing world areas with rural populations with thin resource margins. Regenerative agriculture has emerged as a solution to provide shielding for food production, ensure environmental protection, and promote social equity while addressing many of these issues. Regenerative agriculture food production aims to restore soils, forests, waterways, and the atmosphere and operate with lower offsite negative environmental and social impacts. This review discusses the fundamental principles and practices of sustainable plant protection for regenerative farming. It focuses on the role of biological and ecological processes, reduces non-renewable inputs, and aims to incorporate traditional ecological knowledge into pest control practices. It offers essential transition strategies, including critical changes from conventional integrated pest management (IPM) to agro-ecological crop protection, focusing on systemic approaches to design agroecosystems. It also reaffirms the importance of a vast diversity of pest control methods that are culturally, mechanistically, physically, and biologically appropriate for regenerative farming practices. Ultimately, the aim is to encourage ecological, economic, and social sustainability for the future of more resilient and controlled agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Fertilizer Management and Integrated Pathogen Management)

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16 pages, 3828 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Continuous Bt Maize Cultivation on Soil Nutrient Content and Microbial Communities

by Xiaomin Liang, Donghua Zhong, Shuai Yan and Yuanjiao Feng

Plants 2026, 15(1), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010112 - 31 Dec 2025

The global population growth has driven the widespread adoption of genetically modified crops, with Bt maize, due to its insect resistance, becoming the second most widely planted GM crop. However, studies on the effects of continuous Bt maize cultivation on soil ecosystems are [...] Read more.

The global population growth has driven the widespread adoption of genetically modified crops, with Bt maize, due to its insect resistance, becoming the second most widely planted GM crop. However, studies on the effects of continuous Bt maize cultivation on soil ecosystems are limited, and there is an urgent need to assess its ecological safety at the regional scale. To evaluate the potential effects of continuous cultivation of transgenic Bt maize on the soil ecosystem, a five-season continuous planting experiment was conducted using two Bt maize varieties (5422Bt1 and 5422CBCL) and their near-isogenic conventional maize (5422). After five consecutive planting seasons, bulk soil and rhizosphere soil were collected. The main nutrient contents of the bulk soil were measured, and high-throughput sequencing was employed to analyze microbial diversity and community composition in both soil types. The results showed that, compared with the near-isogenic conventional maize 5422, continuous planting of Bt maize varieties 5422Bt1 and 5422CBCL did not affect the contents of organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus, or available potassium in bulk soil. Regarding the microbial communities in bulk soil, there were no significant differences in the α-diversity indices of bacteria and fungi after five consecutive seasons of Bt maize cultivation, compared with soils planted with the near-isogenic conventional maize 5422. Proteobacteria and Ascomycota were the dominant phyla of bacteria and fungi, respectively. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that the structure of microbial communities in bulk soil was primarily influenced by factors such as OM, TP, TN and AN, whereas the Bt maize varieties had no significant effect on the overall community structure. Regarding the rhizosphere soil microbial communities, compared with the near-isogenic conventional maize 5422, the evenness of the bacterial community in the rhizosphere soil of Bt maize decreased, leading to a reduction in overall diversity, whereas species richness showed no significant change. This change in diversity patterns further contributed to the restructuring of the rhizosphere soil microbial community. In contrast, the fungal community showed no significant differences among treatments, and its community structure remained relatively stable. Proteobacteria and Ascomycota were the dominant phyla of bacteria and fungi, respectively. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) indicated that continuous cultivation of Bt maize for five seasons had no significant effect on the structure of either bacterial or fungal communities in the rhizosphere soil. In summary, continuous cultivation of Bt maize did not lead to significant changes in soil nutrient contents or microbial community structures, providing a data foundation and theoretical basis for the scientific evaluation of the environmental safety of transgenic maize in agricultural ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosafety and Ecological Assessment of Genetically Engineered and Edited Crops—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of Glyphosate to Control Crabgrass in Different Phenological Stages and Soil Water Potentials

by Ricardo Fagundes Marques, Antonio Carlos Silva Junior, Francielly Rodrigues Gomes, Cibele Chalita Martins and Dagoberto Martins

Plants 2026, 15(1), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010111 - 31 Dec 2025

Herbicide efficacy on weeds under water deficit conditions may be reduced because water stress decreases cuticle hydration, thereby limiting the penetration of herbicides such as glyphosate. This study evaluated the efficiency of the herbicide glyphosate to control crabgrass (Digitaria nuda Schumach.) in [...] Read more.

Herbicide efficacy on weeds under water deficit conditions may be reduced because water stress decreases cuticle hydration, thereby limiting the penetration of herbicides such as glyphosate. This study evaluated the efficiency of the herbicide glyphosate to control crabgrass (Digitaria nuda Schumach.) in different phenological stages of development and when submitted to distinct soil water potentials. A completely randomized design with four replicates was adopted. The treatments were arranged in a 3 × 3 × 2 factorial scheme, consisting of three soil water conditions (−0.03, −0.07, and −1.5 MPa), three glyphosate doses (0.0, 270.0, and 540.0 g a.e. ha⁻¹, corresponding to 0, 50, and 100% of the label-recommended dose, respectively), and two phenological stages (4–6 leaves and 1–3 tillers). The following were evaluated: the specific leaf area, stomatal conductance, the difference between environmental and leaf temperature, and shoot and root dry matter. There is a decrease in crabgrass morphophysiological components according to the increase of water restriction, regardless of the phenological stage evaluated. The 4–6 leaves stage of crabgrass plants influences the control provided by the herbicide glyphosate, irrespective of the dose used. The different water deficits studied reduced the efficiency of the herbicide glyphosate in the two development stages of crabgrass plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Weed Control and Management)

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24 pages, 8351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Association Analysis of Soybean Regeneration-Related Traits and Functional Exploration of Candidate Genes

by Huiyan Zhao, Xin Jin, Yide Zhang, Qi Zhang, Lina Zheng, Yang Yue, Xue Zhao, Yingpeng Han and Weili Teng

Plants 2026, 15(1), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010110 - 31 Dec 2025

Using the cotyledonary node method, four traits related to callus induction rate were identified in 185 soybean germplasm resources. Cultivation of callus tissue is crucial for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) genetic transformation and functional genomics studies. Identifying genes associated with the [...] Read more.

Using the cotyledonary node method, four traits related to callus induction rate were identified in 185 soybean germplasm resources. Cultivation of callus tissue is crucial for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) genetic transformation and functional genomics studies. Identifying genes associated with the induction rate of soybean callus tissue is therefore essential for biotechnological breeding and for understanding the molecular genetic mechanisms of soybean regeneration. The efficiency of genetic transformation impacts the breeding rate of soybeans, with its success rate dependent on the soybean regeneration system. Subsequently, whole genome association analysis (GWAS) and multidimensional functional validation were conducted. GWAS identified 66 significantly associated SNP loci corresponding to the four traits. Expression analysis in extreme phenotypes highlighted four candidate genes: Glyma.12G164100 (GmARF1), Glyma.12G164700 (GmPPR), Glyma.02G006200 (GmERF1), and Glyma.19G128800 (GmAECC1), which positively regulate callus formation. Overexpression and gene-editing assays in hairy roots confirmed that these genes significantly enhanced callus formation rate and density, with GmARF1 exerting the most prominent effect. Hormone profiling revealed elevated levels of gibberellin (GA), auxin (IAA), cytokinin (CTK), and other phytohormones in transgenic lines, consistent with enhanced responsiveness to exogenous GA. Overall, the results suggest that these four candidate genes may promote soybean regeneration, with GmARF1 showing the most pronounced effect. These results provide valuable genetic resources for improving soybean regeneration efficiency and accelerating genetic transformation-based breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Germplasm Resources, Genomics, and Molecular Breeding)

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18 pages, 4462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the Double B-Box (DBB) Family in Three Cotton Species and Functional Analysis of GhDBB22 Under Salt Stress

by Haijun Zhang, Xuerui Wu, Jiahao Yang, Mengxue He, Na Wang, Jie Liu, Jinnan Song, Liyan Yu, Wenjuan Chi and Xianliang Song

Plants 2026, 15(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010109 - 30 Dec 2025

Salt stress causes harm to plants through multiple aspects, such as osmotic pressure, ion poisoning, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative damage. Zinc finger proteins harboring two B-box domains, known as double B-box (DBB) proteins, constitute the DBB family. While DBB genes have been implicated [...] Read more.

Salt stress causes harm to plants through multiple aspects, such as osmotic pressure, ion poisoning, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative damage. Zinc finger proteins harboring two B-box domains, known as double B-box (DBB) proteins, constitute the DBB family. While DBB genes have been implicated in regulating circadian rhythms and stress responses in various plant species, their functions in cotton remain largely unexplored. The present study characterized the DBB gene family across the genomes of Gossypium hirsutum L., Gossypium raimondii L., and Gossypium arboreum L., revealing a complement of 58 members. These DBB genes were assigned to three separate clades based on phylogenetic analysis. Members possessing close phylogenetic relationships have similar conserved protein motifs and gene structures. All DBB proteins were predicted to be nuclear-localized, consistent with their roles as transcription factors. Furthermore, the presence of multiple cis-acting elements related to light, hormone, and stress responses in the promoters implies that GhDBBs are integral to cotton’s environmental stress adaptation. Expression pattern analysis indicated that the expression of GhDBB genes was associated with the plant’s response to multiple abiotic stresses, such as salt, drought, heat (37 °C), and cold (4 °C). The reliability of the expression data was confirmed by qPCR analysis of eight selected GhDBBs. Under 200 mM NaCl, Arabidopsis plants overexpressing GhDBB22 displayed longer roots and healthier true leaves than the wild-type controls. Conversely, VIGS-mediated silencing of GhDBB22 in G. hirsutum led to significantly reduced salt tolerance, accompanied by exacerbated oxidative damage. Taken together, the findings from our integrated genomic and functional analyses provide a foundational understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which proteins encoded by DBB genes are involved in the plant’s response to salt stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Functioning Under Abiotic Stress)

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30 pages, 13647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Intelligent Wood Species Identification Method Based on Multimodal Texture-Dominated Features and Deep Learning Fusion

by Yuxiang Huang, Tianqi Zhu, Zhihong Liang, Hongxu Li, Mingming Qin, Ruicheng Niu, Yuanyuan Ma, Qi Feng and Mingbo Chen

Plants 2026, 15(1), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010108 - 30 Dec 2025

Aimed at the problems of traditional wood species identification relying on manual experience, slow identification speed, and insufficient robustness, this study takes hyperspectral images of cross-sections of 10 typical wood species commonly found in Puer, Yunnan, China, as the research object. It comprehensively [...] Read more.

Aimed at the problems of traditional wood species identification relying on manual experience, slow identification speed, and insufficient robustness, this study takes hyperspectral images of cross-sections of 10 typical wood species commonly found in Puer, Yunnan, China, as the research object. It comprehensively applies various spectral and texture feature extraction technologies and proposes an intelligent wood species identification method based on the fusion of multimodal texture-dominated features and deep learning. Firstly, an SOC710-VP hyperspectral imager is used to collect hyperspectral data under standard laboratory lighting conditions, and a hyperspectral database of wood cross-sections is constructed through reflectance calibration. Secondly, in the spectral space construction stage, a comprehensive similarity matrix is built based on four types of spectral similarity indicators. Representative bands are selected using two Max–Min strategies: partitioned quota and coverage awareness. Multi-scale wavelet fusion is performed to generate high-resolution fused images and extract interest point features. Thirdly, in the texture space construction stage, three types of texture feature matrices are generated based on the PCA first principal component map, and interest point features are extracted. Fourthly, in the complementary collaborative learning stage, the ST-former model is constructed. The weights of the trained SpectralFormer++ and TextureFormer are imported, and only the fusion weights are optimized and learned to realize category-adaptive spectral–texture feature fusion. Experimental results show that the overall classification accuracy of the proposed joint model reaches 90.27%, which is about 8% higher than that of single-modal models on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dendrological Research: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Dendrology Branch of the Chinese Society of Forestry)

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