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Phosphorylation of Plant Ferredoxin-like Protein Is Required for Intensifying PAMP-Triggered Immunity in Arabidopsis thaliana

Journal Description

Plants

Plants is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on plant science published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Australian Society of Plant Scientists (ASPS), the Spanish Phytopathological Society (SEF), the Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP), the Spanish Society of Horticultural Sciences (SECH) and the Italian Society of Phytotherapy (S.I.Fit.) are affiliated with Plants and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Plant Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 4.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2223-7747

Latest Articles

15 pages, 5927 KB

Open AccessArticle

Topographic Heterogeneity Outweighs Climate in Shaping Artemisia L. Species Richness and Endemism in the Hengduan Mountains, Southwest China

by Chang’an Guo, Ziwei Wang, Huifu Zhuang, Dandan Wei and Weikai Bao

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3379; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213379 (registering DOI) - 5 Nov 2025

Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) is an important ecological pioneer genus and a widely used medicinal plant group. The Hengduan Mountains (HDMs), one of the most topographically complex regions in the world, support a high diversity of Artemisia species. Understanding the diversity patterns of Artemisia [...] Read more.

Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) is an important ecological pioneer genus and a widely used medicinal plant group. The Hengduan Mountains (HDMs), one of the most topographically complex regions in the world, support a high diversity of Artemisia species. Understanding the diversity patterns of Artemisia species in this region is essential for conserving plant resources and promoting their sustainable use. In this study, we identified the hotspots of Artemisia species richness and weighted endemism in the HDMs and examined how these patterns relate to topographic heterogeneity. We confirmed the distribution of 114 Artemisia species across the Hengduan Mountains. Our results show clear spatial variation in Artemisia species diversity. Distinct hotspots were found in areas such as the Minshan Mountains, Daba Mountains, Dadu River Valley, Daxue Mountains, and Mount Gongga. The top 5% richest grid cells showed high species richness and endemism, highlighting the ecological and conservation value of these regions. Environmental analysis indicates that topographic heterogeneity, especially elevation range and surface roughness, effectively predicts diversity patterns of Artemisia species. Regions with more complex terrain tend to support higher species richness and endemism. These findings underscore the key role of topography in shaping Artemisia species diversity in mountainous areas and provide a scientific basis for future ecological research and conservation planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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18 pages, 6244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Maturity Classification of Dense Small Lychees Using an Improved Kolmogorov–Arnold Network–Transformer

by Zhenpeng Zhang, Yi Wang, Shanglei Chai and Yibin Tian

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3378; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213378 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Lychee detection and maturity classification are crucial for yield estimation and harvesting. In densely packed lychee clusters with limited training samples, accurately determining ripeness is challenging. This paper proposes a new transformer model incorporating a Kolmogorov–Arnold Network (KAN), termed GhostResNet (GRN)–KAN–Transformer, for lychee [...] Read more.

Lychee detection and maturity classification are crucial for yield estimation and harvesting. In densely packed lychee clusters with limited training samples, accurately determining ripeness is challenging. This paper proposes a new transformer model incorporating a Kolmogorov–Arnold Network (KAN), termed GhostResNet (GRN)–KAN–Transformer, for lychee detection and ripeness classification in dense on-tree fruit clusters. First, within the backbone, we introduce a stackable multi-layer GhostResNet module to reduce redundancy in feature extraction and improve efficiency. Next, during feature fusion, we add a large-scale layer to enhance sensitivity to small objects and to increase polling of the small-scale feature map during querying. We further propose a multi-layer cross-fusion attention (MCFA) module to achieve deeper hierarchical feature integration. Finally, in the decoding stage, we employ an improved KAN for the classification and localization heads to strengthen nonlinear mapping, enabling a better fitting to the complex distributions of categories and positions. Experiments on a public dataset demonstrate the effectiveness of GRN-KANformer. Compared with the baseline, GFLOPs and parameters of the model are reduced by 8.84% and 11.24%, respectively, while mean Average Precision (mAP) metrics mAP50 and mAP50–95 reach 94.7% and 58.4%, respectively. Thus, it lowers computational complexity while maintaining high accuracy. Comparative results against popular deep learning models, including YOLOv8n, YOLOv12n, CenterNet, and EfficientNet, further validate the superior performance of GRN-KANformer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Non-Contact Detection and Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Estimate Quality and Longevity of Horticultural Plants)

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19 pages, 9219 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reproductive Constraints and Severe Pollinator Limitation in the Mexican Endemic Orchid Govenia capitata: Implications for Conservation

by Maythe López-Olvera, Gema Galindo-Flores, Ana Laura López-Escamilla and Carlos Lara

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3377; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213377 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Understanding the reproductive biology of orchids is essential for evaluating population viability and guiding conservation strategies, as their persistence often depends on complex interactions between ecological, physiological, and environmental factors. Govenia capitata, a threatened orchid endemic to the montane forests of central [...] Read more.

Understanding the reproductive biology of orchids is essential for evaluating population viability and guiding conservation strategies, as their persistence often depends on complex interactions between ecological, physiological, and environmental factors. Govenia capitata, a threatened orchid endemic to the montane forests of central Mexico, had not previously been studied in this regard. We examined flowering phenology, floral longevity, stigmatic receptivity, natural and experimental pollination success, seed viability, and asymbiotic germination in two wild populations. Flowering was synchronous, with inflorescences lasting up to 57 days and individual flowers persisting for an average of 20 days. Stigmatic receptivity was detectable from the first day of anthesis and remained evident for at least eight days. Natural fruit set was very low (16.6%), while assisted self- and cross-pollination reached 100% success, demonstrating self-compatibility despite the inability for autonomous selfing due to floral structure. Seed viability differed significantly among treatments, being lowest in selfed capsules (11%) and highest in cross-pollinated ones (32%), representing a 65% reduction and reflecting severe inbreeding depression that extended to germination performance. In vitro germination success also varied, with the L-arginine medium yielding the highest values (46% for cross-pollinated seeds and 44% for naturally pollinated seeds), though post-germination survival requires optimization for conservation applications. Despite the conspicuous floral display, floral visitation was extremely rare and the pollinator identity remains unknown, with only one potentially effective visitor observed during 144 h of monitoring, and most floral visitors were non-pollinating arthropods such as crab spiders, weevils, hymenopterans, and thrips. Population density varied dramatically (26-fold) between sites separated by less than 1 km, indicating pronounced sensitivity to local environmental conditions. These findings reveal that reproduction in G. capitata is constrained by both extrinsic (pollinator limitation) and intrinsic factors (reduced seed viability), which collectively jeopardize long-term population persistence. From a conservation perspective, protecting montane forest remnants and pollinator communities is essential, while the demonstrated potential of asymbiotic germination provides a complementary tool for ex situ propagation and management of this endemic orchid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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22 pages, 3682 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combining In Vitro and Field Studies to Predict Drought Tolerance in Vicia sativa L. Genotypes

by Juan M. González, Yolanda Loarce, Noa Sánchez-Gordo, Lucía De la Rosa and Elena Ramírez-Parra

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3376; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213376 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Vetch (Vicia sativa L.), an important forage legume, faces increasing drought stress due to climate change. This study evaluated drought responses in 26 genotypes using both in vitro and field trials. In vitro experiments analysed seedlings grown on culture media either with [...] Read more.

Vetch (Vicia sativa L.), an important forage legume, faces increasing drought stress due to climate change. This study evaluated drought responses in 26 genotypes using both in vitro and field trials. In vitro experiments analysed seedlings grown on culture media either with 20% polyethylene glycol (PEG) to simulate drought (C20) or without PEG as a control (C0), measuring root and shoot dry weights as well as proline content. Field trials under rainfed and drought conditions assessed 100 seed weight and seed weight per plant. All traits studied exhibited high variability, with elevated coefficients of variation and broad-sense heritability. Seedling roots grown in C20 had higher dry weight than those in C0, while shoots showed the opposite trend. In C20 medium, proline content increased significantly—by 118.1% in roots and 131.1% in shoots. However, proline concentration did not correlate with field yield traits, limiting its utility as a drought tolerance marker. Principal component analysis grouped genotypes based on biomass production and drought response. Importantly, in vitro root and shoot dry weights were positively correlated with field yield traits, indicating their value as early predictors of agronomic performance and offering a useful tool for selection in vetch breeding programmes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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15 pages, 3516 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Winter Wheat Yield Gap for Smallholder Farmers in the Loess Plateau via Boundary Line Analysis

by Jing-Jing Han, Xian-Ping Xia, Hao Liu, Jia-Hui Wang, Ze-Wei Qi, Yue-Chao Wang, Wen Lin, Zhi-Qiang Gao, Shou-Tian Ma and Jian-Fu Xue

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3375; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213375 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Closing the yield gap in smallholder farming systems requires precise identification of key limiting factors. This study addresses this need by applying boundary line analysis (BLA) to diagnose primary soil constraints to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield across 95 smallholder farms [...] Read more.

Closing the yield gap in smallholder farming systems requires precise identification of key limiting factors. This study addresses this need by applying boundary line analysis (BLA) to diagnose primary soil constraints to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield across 95 smallholder farms in the Loess Plateau of China. The BLA approach effectively delineates optimum nutrient ranges amidst inherent field variability, offering a novel methodological advantage for heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. The results showed that, regarding variability, the coefficients of variation for productive spike number and grain yield were considerably greater than those for kernels per spike and thousand-kernel weight. Soil available phosphorus showed the highest coefficient of variation (67.1%), 1.8–2.2 times greater than that of soil organic matter, alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen, and available potassium. Boundary line models identified significant (p < 0.05) parabolic relationships, defining optimal ranges of 18.5–21.7 g kg⁻¹ for soil organic matter, 10.4–49.0 mg kg⁻¹ for alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen, 40.5–61.6 mg kg⁻¹ for available phosphorus, and 218.3–284.1 mg kg⁻¹ for available potassium. Crucially, maintaining soil organic matter and available phosphorus within their respective optimal ranges was fundamental for maximizing yield. These findings provide a scientific basis for site-specific nutrient management and offer direct implications for designing targeted agricultural extension services and fertilization policies to enhance productivity in smallholder systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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18 pages, 4001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide SNP Analysis Reveals Population Structure and Genetic Diversity in Lycium ruthenicum Murr

by Rong Yang, Xiuhua Wu, Yu’e Bai, Yujiao He, Sujuan Chang and Long Hai

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3374; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213374 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Lycium ruthenicum Murr. (Black goji), a medicinal and economically valuable crop rich in bioactive compounds, remains genomically understudied despite its expanding cultivation. To overcome limitations of traditional markers in genetic diversity analysis and molecular breeding, we employed specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) to [...] Read more.

Lycium ruthenicum Murr. (Black goji), a medicinal and economically valuable crop rich in bioactive compounds, remains genomically understudied despite its expanding cultivation. To overcome limitations of traditional markers in genetic diversity analysis and molecular breeding, we employed specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) to develop genome-wide SNP markers and elucidate the genetic structure of 213 L. ruthenicum accessions from natural and cultivated populations in Alxa, China. We identified 827,630 SLAF tags and 33,121 high-quality SNPs uniformly distributed across 12 chromosomes, establishing the first high-density SNP database for this species. Population genetic analyses revealed three distinct genetic clusters with <60% geographic origin consistency, indicating weakened isolation due to anthropogenic germplasm exchange. The Qinghai Nuomuhong population exhibited the highest genetic diversity (Nei’s index = 0.253; Shannon’s index = 0.352), while low overall polymorphism (average PIC = 0.183) likely reflects SNP biallelic limitations and domestication bottlenecks. Notably, SNP-based clustering showed <40% concordance with phenotypic trait clustering (31 traits), underscoring environmental plasticity as a key driver of morphological variation. This study provides the first genome-wide SNP resource for L. ruthenicum, enabling marker-assisted breeding and highlighting the need for standardized germplasm management to mitigate genetic erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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16 pages, 4287 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rolling Leaf 2 Controls Leaf Rolling by Regulating Adaxial-Side Bulliform Cell Number and Size in Rice

by Yu-Jia Leng, Shi-Yu Qiang, Wen-Yu Zhou, Shuai Lu, Tao Tao, Hao-Cheng Zhang, Wen-Xiang Cui, Ya-Fan Zheng, Hong-Bo Liu, Qing-Qing Yang, Ming-Qiu Zhang, Zhi-Di Yang, Fu-Xiang Xu, Hai-Dong Huan, Xu Wei, Xiu-Ling Cai, Su-Kui Jin and Ji-Ping Gao

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3373; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213373 - 4 Nov 2025

Leaves represent an important organ in plant photosynthesis, and moderately rolled leaves would be beneficial in establishing an ideal plant architecture and thereby increasing rice yields. In this study, a stable inherited rolled leaf mutant was obtained via ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis from [...] Read more.

Leaves represent an important organ in plant photosynthesis, and moderately rolled leaves would be beneficial in establishing an ideal plant architecture and thereby increasing rice yields. In this study, a stable inherited rolled leaf mutant was obtained via ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis from japonica variety WYJ27, which was named rll2 (rolling leaf 2). rll2 showed a leaf-rolling phenotype at the seedling stage, which increased with growth. Compared with the wild type, the leaves at all levels of rll2 were significantly shorter and narrower, and the leaf-rolling index gradually decreased from the highest leaf to the third-highest leaf. Semi-thin sections showed that the bulliform cells of rll2 were significantly larger than those of the wild type, and the number of cells was significantly higher than that of the wild type. Genetic analysis showed that rll2 is controlled by a pair of recessive nuclear genes. Map-based cloning revealed that RLL2 encodes a conserved and plant-specific calpain-like cysteine proteinase. RLL2 was mainly expressed in young roots, shoots, spikelets, and panicles. Transcriptome sequencing showed that a total of 104 genes were differentially expressed in the wild type and rll2. Moreover, several transcription factor genes were significantly altered in the rll2 mutant. Taken together, our findings indicate that RLL2 plays an important role in leaf rolling by regulating bulliform cells, which may be useful in breeding rice with an ideal plant architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Plant Genetics and Genomics)

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15 pages, 1003 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of the Nitrogen on Nutrient Dynamics in Soybean–Grass Intercropping in a Degraded Pasture Area

by Karina Batista, Mayne Barboza Sarti, Laíze Aparecida Ferreira Vilela, Ricardo Alexander Peña Venegas and Gerardo Ojeda

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3372; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213372 - 4 Nov 2025

The development of an efficient agricultural system depends on the correct choice of crops and the management of nutrient supply and distribution within the system. This study aimed to determine how nitrogen (N) rates applied to rows of maize and tropical grass during [...] Read more.

The development of an efficient agricultural system depends on the correct choice of crops and the management of nutrient supply and distribution within the system. This study aimed to determine how nitrogen (N) rates applied to rows of maize and tropical grass during the autumn–winter season (previous crop) influence subsequent intercropped plants. Treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with a split-plot scheme and four replications. The main plots comprised three cropping systems: soybean monoculture, soybean intercropped with Aruana Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus cv. Aruana), and soybean intercropped with Congo grass (Urochloa ruziziensis cv. Comum). The subplots consisted of four N rates (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg ha⁻¹) applied to the rows of maize and tropical grass during the previous crop. Macronutrient accumulation and efficiency indices were determined for intercropped plants. Aruana Guinea grass increased the accumulation of N, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulphur (S) in the soybean crop. N applied to the previous crop negatively affected the accumulation of P, K, and S in soybean monoculture. The maximum physiological efficiency of soybean was related to N supply. The efficiency indices for Aruana Guinea grass highlighted its ability to recover residual N applied to the previous crop. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Nutrient Use Efficiency Improvement in Plants—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1654 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Resilience and Change in the Biocultural Heritage of Wild Greens Foraging Among the Arbëreshë Communities in Argolis and Corinthia Areas, Peloponnese, Greece

by Mousaab Alrhmoun, Naji Sulaiman, Ani Bajrami, Avni Hajdari, Andrea Pieroni and Renata Sõukand

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3371; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213371 - 4 Nov 2025

The transformation of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) among minority populations undergoing cultural and linguistic assimilation over time is poorly understood. Arbëreshë communities in Greece, who have preserved Albanian-derived traditions for centuries, offer a unique opportunity to examine how folk plant knowledge adapts over [...] Read more.

The transformation of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) among minority populations undergoing cultural and linguistic assimilation over time is poorly understood. Arbëreshë communities in Greece, who have preserved Albanian-derived traditions for centuries, offer a unique opportunity to examine how folk plant knowledge adapts over time. This study examines the linguistic labels and culinary uses of wild greens among Arbëreshë (or Arvanites), an ethno-linguistic minority traditionally speaking Arbërisht or Arvanitika, the Tosk dialect of Albanian, who have resided in the Argolis and Corinthia regions of the Peloponnese for several centuries. In 2025, fieldwork was conducted in four rural Arbëreshë villages in the Argolis and Corinthia regions of Greece, combining semi-structured interviews with 24 elderly participants, participant observation, and the collection and identification of botanical specimens. The contemporary dataset was compared with historical ethnobotanical records from the 1970s to assess temporal changes in the use of wild vegetables and folk plant nomenclature. Our results reveal that current Arbëreshë ethnobotanical heritage has undergone profound Hellenisation, with 62% of folk plant names of Greek origin, 14% Albanian, and 24% hybrid, reflecting strong linguistic and cultural assimilation over the past half-century. The traditional boiled green mix (lakra in Arbëreshë, chorta in Greek) remains central to the local cuisine, which is rooted in foraged plants, although its culinary applications have diversified. In total, 37 taxa of wild vegetables across 37 genera and 14 families were documented in 2025, compared with 21 taxa across 21 genera in the filtered 1970 dataset. Core families, such as Asteraceae and Brassicaceae, remained dominant, while new families, like Malvaceae and Portulacaceae, appeared, possibly indicating both ecological and culinary changes. These findings raise questions about whether the Arbëreshë wild vegetable heritage was strongly influenced by the surrounding Greek majority or primarily acquired after migration, potentially facilitated by intermarriages and shared Orthodox Christian affiliation. Overall, our study highlights a largely Hellenised Arbëreshë biocultural heritage and underscores the urgent need for national and regional stakeholders to recognise and celebrate the remaining minority’s linguistic and ethnobotanical diversity. The transformation of local ethnobotanical knowledge over the past fifty years appears influenced by ecological availability, socio-cultural dynamics, and changing taste preferences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Historical Ethnobotany: Interpreting the Old Records—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal and Regional Effects on the Yield and Bioactive Constituents of Torreya nucifera Essential Oils in South Korea

by Chanjoo Park, Nahyun Kim and Mi-Jin Park

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3370; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213370 - 4 Nov 2025

The essential oil of Torreya nucifera, a coniferous tree native to East Asia, has notable bioactive properties with potential industrial applications. This study examined the effects of seasonal and regional factors on the yield and bioactive constituents of T. nucifera oils in [...] Read more.

The essential oil of Torreya nucifera, a coniferous tree native to East Asia, has notable bioactive properties with potential industrial applications. This study examined the effects of seasonal and regional factors on the yield and bioactive constituents of T. nucifera oils in South Korea. Leaf samples were collected in spring (March), summer (June), and autumn (September) of 2023–2024 from three ecologically distinct regions: Jeju Island, Jinju, and Hwasun. Oil yield was stable across seasons (0.9–1.6%) but varied significantly by region (p < 0.05), with Hwasun showing the highest yield. This stability across seasons may reflect the perennial evergreen nature of T. nucifera. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) identified 32 volatile components, predominantly monoterpenes (83.7–90.4%) and sesquiterpenes (5.4–11.7%), with D-limonene and 3-carene as key chemical markers. Notably, 3-carene levels were significantly affected by region (p < 0.0001), with higher concentrations in Jeju oils, while D-limonene was influenced by season, region, and their interaction (p < 0.001), reaching peak levels in Hwasun during summer and autumn (up to 70%). Therefore, T. nucifera oil from Hwasun harvested in autumn can be optimised for commercial production by maximising oil yield and enhancing chemical markers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Essential Oils and Plant Extracts)

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18 pages, 1710 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterizing Root Morphology, Water and Nitrogen Uptake of Fibrous-Root and Taproot Crops Under Transparent Soil

by Sen Li, Jinjie Fan, Djifa Fidele Kpalari, Kanghu Li and Shoutian Ma

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3369; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213369 - 4 Nov 2025

Root morphology and uptake capacity are increasingly investigated as indicators of crop performance, yet their characterization remains challenging in laboratory. Soil or sand are opaque to most forms of radiation, while transparent medium fails to provide soil-relevant characteristics. Transparent soil (TS) is specifically [...] Read more.

Root morphology and uptake capacity are increasingly investigated as indicators of crop performance, yet their characterization remains challenging in laboratory. Soil or sand are opaque to most forms of radiation, while transparent medium fails to provide soil-relevant characteristics. Transparent soil (TS) is specifically designed to support root growth in the presence of air, water, and nutrients, enabling in situ root phenotyping. An indoor experiment was conducted, involving three growth mediums (natural soil, TS, hydroponics), two fibrous-root crop species (wheat, maize) and two taproot crop species (cotton, soybean), to evaluate the impact of TS on root morphology and water and nitrogen uptake of crops with different root types. Results showed that, compared with the average difference between hydroponics and natural soil, the average difference in root morphology and water and nitrogen uptake of maize between TS and natural soil was significantly decreased, as well as for cotton, soybeans, and wheat in turn. It was concluded that compared to those developed in hydroponics, the root developed in TS was significantly more similar to those developed in natural soil. Yet such similarity varied across crop species, with no clear correlation to root types. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for promoting the application of TS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Root: Anatomy, Structure and Development)

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14 pages, 3744 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seed-Applied Cobalt, Molybdenum, and Nickel Improve Nitrogen Metabolism in Soybean Plants Across Seed Vigor Levels

by Abimael dos Santos Carmo-Filho, Carlos Henrique Queiroz Rego, Glória de Freitas Rocha Ribeiro, Rafael Mateus Alves, Lucas Alves de Almeida, Bruna Wurr Rodak, José Lavres and Francisco Guilhien Gomes-Junior

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3368; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213368 - 4 Nov 2025

Cobalt, molybdenum, and nickel are elements directly involved in biological nitrogen fixation in legume plants. However, there is a lack of information about the effects of the interaction among these elements on seed vigor and plant development. This study aimed to evaluate the [...] Read more.

Cobalt, molybdenum, and nickel are elements directly involved in biological nitrogen fixation in legume plants. However, there is a lack of information about the effects of the interaction among these elements on seed vigor and plant development. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different doses of these elements on soybean seeds with higher and lower vigor, focusing on nitrogen metabolism and plant development under controlled conditions. The two lots of soybean seeds (higher and lower vigor) were treated with doses of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 mL kg⁻¹ of seeds of a liquid commercial product composed of cobalt, molybdenum, and nickel. At the full flowering stage, urease and nitrogenase activities, dry biomass of shoots, roots, and nodules, nitrogen concentration in shoots, plant height, number of nodules, and the efficiency of biological nitrogen fixation (measured by nitrogen-15 isotopic ratio) were assessed. Urease activity increased by 191% in high-vigor seed plants and 65% in low-vigor seed plants. Nitrogenase activity was higher in higher-vigor plants. Nodule dry biomass increased by 42% in lower-vigor plants compared to the control treatment, while in higher-vigor plants, it decreased with increasing doses. Shoot biomass was 30% higher than the control at the 2 mL kg⁻¹ dose. In general, the best responses to the application of the elements in the evaluated variables were observed with the doses of 2 and 4 mL kg⁻¹. It is concluded that the appropriate application of cobalt, molybdenum, and nickel on seeds enhances growth and symbiotic efficiency. However, excessive doses may cause phytotoxic effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nitrogen Nutrition in Plants)

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21 pages, 3498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nitric Oxide Functions as a Key Mediator in Brassinosteroid-Enhanced Alkaline Tolerance in Cucumber

by Wenjing Nie, Peng Qiao, Yinyu Gu, Qitong Huang, Jie Wang, Haiman Ge, Chi Zhang and Qinghua Shi

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3367; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213367 (registering DOI) - 3 Nov 2025

This study investigated how exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide (EBR) and nitric oxide (NO) enhance the tolerance of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) seedlings to NaHCO₃-induced alkaline stress under hydroponic conditions. NaHCO₃ exposure caused severe sodium toxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and [...] Read more.

This study investigated how exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide (EBR) and nitric oxide (NO) enhance the tolerance of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) seedlings to NaHCO₃-induced alkaline stress under hydroponic conditions. NaHCO₃ exposure caused severe sodium toxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and photosynthetic inhibition, which, together, suppressed plant growth. Treatments with either EBR or NO significantly improved plant performance by alleviating these adverse effects. Both regulators enhanced the ROS scavenging system, maintained ionic homeostasis, and alleviated sodium toxicity. They also stimulated the activities of vacuolar H⁺-ATPase, H⁺-PPase, and plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase, and increased the accumulation of citric and malic acids, thereby sustaining higher photosynthetic efficiency under stress conditions. qRT-PCR analysis further revealed that EBR and NO upregulated SOS1 and NHX2 (sodium transporters) as well as PIP1;2 and PIP2;4 (aquaporins), confirming their involvement in ionic and osmotic regulation. Pharmacological experiments showed that application of NO synthesis inhibitors, including tungstate and L-NAME, as well as the NO scavenger cPTIO, markedly weakened the protective effects of EBR. In contrast, application of the brassinosteroid biosynthesis inhibitor brassinazole (BRz) only had a limited effect on NO-mediated stress tolerance. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that NO functions as a downstream signaling mediator of EBR, coordinating multiple defense pathways including photosynthetic regulation, antioxidant protection, ion balance, aquaporin activity, and organic acid metabolism to enhance cucumber resistance to alkaline stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Mediators in Plant Development and Stress Response)

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18 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Storm-Induced Wind Damage to Urban Trees and Residents’ Perceptions: Quantifying Species and Placement to Change Best Practices

by Attila Molnár V., Szabolcs Kis, Henrietta Bak, Timea Nagy, Attila Takács, Mark C. Mainwaring and Jenő Nagy

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3366; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213366 - 3 Nov 2025

Tree-covered urban green spaces, including streets, parks, and other public areas, are vital for urban sustainability and people’s well-being. However, such trees face threats from the occurrence of extreme weather. In this study, we investigated wind damage to urban trees in the city [...] Read more.

Tree-covered urban green spaces, including streets, parks, and other public areas, are vital for urban sustainability and people’s well-being. However, such trees face threats from the occurrence of extreme weather. In this study, we investigated wind damage to urban trees in the city of Debrecen, Hungary, during two severe windstorms in July 2025. Field surveys were conducted across three distinct urban zones, covering approximately 515,000 m² in total. We assessed 201 damaged and 325 undamaged trees and recorded the species, size, damage type, and contextual landscape features associated with them being damaged or not. Damage type to trees consisted primarily of broken branches, whilst uprooting and trunk breakage were recorded less often. Most tree characteristics (trunk circumference, height, systematic position, nativity) and the proximity and height of buildings upwind of focal trees were significant predictors of their vulnerability to windstorms. In addition, we surveyed 150 residents in person and received comments from 54 people via online questionnaires and explored their perceptions of storm frequency, the causes of storms, and mitigation measures. Most respondents noted increased storm frequency and attributed that to climate change, and they suggested mitigation measures focused on urban tree management and environmental protection. Some people expressed scepticism about the presence of climate change and/or their ability to address such damage on an individual basis. Our study is the first to integrate assessments of storm-related impacts on urban trees with the opinions of residents living in proximity to them. Our findings highlight the need for climate-adaptive and mechanically robust urban forestry planning and offer insights that guide the management of trees in urban areas globally. Specifically, we propose to undertake the following: (1) Prioritise structurally resilient, stress-tolerant tree species adapted to extreme weather conditions when planting new trees. (2) Integrate wind dynamics, microclimatic effects and artificial stabilisation techniques into urban design processes to optimise tree placement and their long-term stability. Urban planners, builders, developers, and homeowners should be informed about these stabilising practices and incorporate the needs of trees early in the design process, rather than as decorative additions. (3) Develop regionally calibrated risk models and early-warning systems to support proactive and data-driven tree management and public safety. (4) Promote climate literacy and public participation to strengthen collective stewardship and resilience of urban trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Plants and Practices for Resilient Urban Greening)

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24 pages, 5127 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Geographical Origin Traceability of Salvia miltiorrhiza by Combining Two-Trace Two-Dimensional (2T2D) Correlation Spectroscopy and Improved DeiT Model

by Jinpo Yang, Kai Chen, Yimin Zhou, Jian Zheng, Linhao Sun, Yun Zhang and Zhu Zhou

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3365; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213365 - 3 Nov 2025

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen) is widely used in modern medicine, but the market faces challenges from counterfeit and mislabeled geographical indication products. To address this, we propose a novel framework combining Two-trace Two-dimensional (2T2D) correlation spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging (HSI), transfer learning, and an [...] Read more.

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen) is widely used in modern medicine, but the market faces challenges from counterfeit and mislabeled geographical indication products. To address this, we propose a novel framework combining Two-trace Two-dimensional (2T2D) correlation spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging (HSI), transfer learning, and an enhanced deep learning model (DeiT-CBAM) to identify both authenticity and origin precisely. Hyperspectral data (873–1720 nm) were collected from six genuine and three adulterated regions and converted into synchronous 2T2D correlation spectroscopy images. We systematically evaluated five preprocessing strategies, three wavelength selection methods, three classical models, and four deep learning models. Models based on 2T2D correlation spectroscopy images consistently outperformed traditional one-dimensional spectral models. Notably, the DeiT-CBAM model, integrated with the successive projections algorithm (SPA), achieved optimal performance using only 79 wavelengths, with 100% accuracy on the training and validation sets and 99.62% on the test set, without the need for additional preprocessing. Model interpretability was further validated through layer-wise class activation mapping (layer-wise CAM). This study demonstrates that the integration of synchronous 2T2D correlation spectroscopy images with the DeiT-CBAM model offers robust discriminative performance, providing a reliable technical solution for geographical origin traceability of food, medicinal herbs, and other species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural Science and Ornamental Plants)

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18 pages, 13837 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity Patterns and a New Species of Dendrocalamus (Poaceae, Bambusoideae) in Yunnan, China

by Jianwei Li, Maosheng Sun, Wanling Qin, Haofeng Bao, Chaomao Hui and Weiyi Liu

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3364; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213364 - 3 Nov 2025

To systematically investigate the diversity and distribution patterns of Dendrocalamus in Yunnan Province, we integrated field surveys, literature reviews, specimen records, and existing research data to compile and analyze the distribution of Dendrocalamus species across the region. The results revealed the following: (1) [...] Read more.

To systematically investigate the diversity and distribution patterns of Dendrocalamus in Yunnan Province, we integrated field surveys, literature reviews, specimen records, and existing research data to compile and analyze the distribution of Dendrocalamus species across the region. The results revealed the following: (1) A total of 3730 valid distribution points were compiled, representing 38 taxa of Dendrocalamus (including 32 species, 3 varieties, and 3 forms), reflecting remarkably high species diversity. These account for approximately 52% (38/73) of the global species and 69% (38/55) of those recorded in China. (2) Horizontal Distribution Pattern: In terms of distribution points, Pu’er had the highest count (929), followed by Xishuangbanna (759) and Lincang (586). Honghe, Wenshan, and Dehong also showed substantial records. Regarding species richness, Xishuangbanna ranked highest with over 20 species, while Pu’er and Honghe contained 15–20 species. Yuxi and Kunming supported 10–15 species, and Baoshan, Nujiang, Chuxiong, Wenshan, Qujing, and Zhaotong each hosted 5–10 species. In contrast, Dali, Lijiang, and Diqing recorded only 0–5 species. (3) Vertical Distribution Pattern: Distribution points were predominantly concentrated in the 1000–1500 m elevation range, whereas species richness peaked in the 500–1000 m band. Both the number of distribution points and species richness were lowest at elevations above 2500 m. (4) Based on the collected 3730 distribution points, kernel density analysis and hot spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*) were performed in ArcGIS 10.8. Both analyses indicated that southern Yunnan (centered on Xishuangbanna and Pu’er) exhibits significant spatial clustering characteristics, identifying it as the core distribution area for Dendrocalamus species in Yunnan Province. (5) During field surveys, a distinctive new species characterized by swollen internodes was discovered. Morphological comparison and phylogenetic analysis confirmed it as a new species of Dendrocalamus and named Dendrocalamus turgidinodis C.M.Hui, M.S.Sun & J.W.Li, it is similar to D. hamiltonii, D. fugongensis, and D. sinicus, but can be easily distinguished by culm diameter 13–16 cm, intranode swollen, culm leaf sheath deciduous, culm blade erect, culm leaf ligule ca. 5 mm tall., Foliage leaf ligule 1–1.5 mm tall (vs. 1.5–2 mm). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that Yunnan Province serves as a major distribution center for Dendrocalamus, with the genus primarily distributed from the southeastern to southwestern parts of the region, and concentrated most densely in the southern area encompassing Xishuangbanna and Pu’er. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Systematics, Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Classification)

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23 pages, 2007 KB

Open AccessArticle

Local-Scale Soil Heterogeneity Differentially Influenced Assimilative Branch Stoichiometry of Three Dominant Shrubs in a Central Asian Desert

by Cheng-Cheng Wang, Xue-Lian Zhang, Ye Tao, Ling Dai, Huan-Huan Meng, Xiao-Bing Zhou and Yuan-Ming Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3363; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213363 - 3 Nov 2025

Most traits of assimilative branches (ABs) present large spatial and interspecific differences; however, it is still unclear how small-scale soil heterogeneity influences nutrient traits in ABs under the same climatic conditions. The AB samples of Ephedra przewalskii (EP; small-sized), Calligonum mongolicum (CM; medium-sized), [...] Read more.

Most traits of assimilative branches (ABs) present large spatial and interspecific differences; however, it is still unclear how small-scale soil heterogeneity influences nutrient traits in ABs under the same climatic conditions. The AB samples of Ephedra przewalskii (EP; small-sized), Calligonum mongolicum (CM; medium-sized), and Haloxylon persicum (HP; large-sized), as well as soil samples, were collected at three sites (north, middle, and south; within 65 km) in the southeastern Gurbantunggut Desert, China. The interspecific and inter-site differences in C:N:P:K stoichiometry and the relationships with soil properties were discussed. From north to south, soil nutrients and biocrust development improved, whereas coarse sand proportion decreased. Species and site markedly influenced ABs’ stoichiometry, with a significant interaction. At the species level, each stoichiometric trait differed among species. CM exhibited the lowest C:P and N:P, whereas HP had the highest N:P. At the site level, N:P and C:P of EP and CM increased from north to south, whereas HP changed unclearly. CM and HP had higher N–P scaling exponents, EP and CM exhibited a higher K allocation rate, resulting in the co-limitation of N and P for all species. The overall stoichiometric homeostasis ranked as follows: HP > CM > EP. The three shrubs were dispersed among each other in an ordination diagram based on nutrient metrics, with different distribution patterns. The nutrient traits in the ABs of EP and CM, rather than HP, were markedly correlated with most soil factors. Local-scale soil variation indeed influenced the nutrient strategies of desert shrubs; plant size might be another important factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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14 pages, 4167 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Phosphatase OsPP2C55 Negatively Regulates Abscisic Acid Biosynthesis and Saline–Alkaline Tolerance in Rice

by Gang Zhang, Yi Yang, Yuhan Jing, Mengjiao Xin, Shuxian Shi, Qingshuai Chen, Ke Yao, Mengyu Su, Lijing Wang and Mingyi Jiang

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3362; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213362 - 3 Nov 2025

In rice (Oryza sativa L.), the short-chain dehydrogenase protein OsABA2 plays a crucial role in regulating abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis. However, little is known about the other proteins that interact with OsABA2 to regulate ABA biosynthesis. Using yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified [...] Read more.

In rice (Oryza sativa L.), the short-chain dehydrogenase protein OsABA2 plays a crucial role in regulating abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis. However, little is known about the other proteins that interact with OsABA2 to regulate ABA biosynthesis. Using yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified a novel OsABA2 interacting protein OsPP2C55, which contains a serine/threonine phosphatase (family 2C) catalytic domain. The yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) assay and firefly luciferase complementary imaging (LCI) assay confirmed these interactions. Subsequent studies revealed that saline–alkaline stress significantly downregulated OsPP2C55 gene expression. Meanwhile, we constructed ospp2c55 CRISPR gene knockout (ospp2c55-KO) plants using Agrobacterium genetic transformation. Compared with wild-type plants, ospp2c55-KO plants under saline–alkaline stress exhibited significantly elevated OsABA2 protein levels, leading to substantial increases in ABA content. In addition, ospp2c55-KO plants demonstrated heightened sensitivity to ABA during seed germination. Moreover, ospp2c55-KO plants improved the survival rate and stress-related indices of rice seedlings under saline–alkaline stress, and upregulated the expression of genes related to adversity stress (OsNCED1, OsNCED3, OsABA2, OsSODCc2, and OsCatB). We found that OsPP2C55 plays a negative regulatory role in ABA biosynthesis and saline–alkaline stress tolerance in rice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rice Physiology, Genetics and Breeding)

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16 pages, 2566 KB

Open AccessArticle

Zinc Finger Protein 30 Is a Novel Candidate Gene for Kernel Row Number in Maize

by Yanwei Xiu, Zhaofeng Li, Bin Hou, Yue Zhu, Jiakuan Yan, Feng Teng, Samat Xamxinur, Zhaohong Liu, Naeem Huzaifa, Tudi Anmureguli, Haitao Jia and Zhenyuan Pan

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3361; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213361 - 3 Nov 2025

Kernel row number (KRN) is a pivotal determinant for yield in maize breeding programs. However, the genetic basis underlying KRN remains largely elusive. To identify candidate genes regulating KRN, a population of 318 BC₄F₄ chromosomal segment substitution lines (CSSLs) was [...] Read more.

Kernel row number (KRN) is a pivotal determinant for yield in maize breeding programs. However, the genetic basis underlying KRN remains largely elusive. To identify candidate genes regulating KRN, a population of 318 BC₄F₄ chromosomal segment substitution lines (CSSLs) was developed via backcrossing, with Baimaya (BMY) as the donor parent and B73 as the recurrent parent. Furthermore, a high-density genetic linkage map containing 2859 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers was constructed for quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping of KRN. Notably, 19 QTLs controlling KRN were detected across three environments and in the Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP) values; among these, a major-effect QTL (qKRN4.09-1) was consistently identified across all three environments and BLUP. Then, the integration of linkage mapping and transcriptome analysis of 5 mm immature ears from near-isogenic lines (NILs) uncovered a candidate gene, Zm00001eb205550. This gene exhibited significant downregulation in qKRN4.09-1^BMY, and two missense variants were detected between qKRN4.09-1^BMY and qKRN4.09-1^B73. Zm00001eb205550 exhibited preferential expression in developing ears. Moreover, the pyramiding of favorable alleles from the five stable QTLs significantly increased KRN in maize. These findings advance our genetic understanding of maize ear development and provide valuable genetic targets for improving KRN in maize breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Germplasm Resources, Genomics, and Molecular Breeding)

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28 pages, 9327 KB

Open AccessArticle

Defying Death: A Multi-Omics Approach to Understanding Desiccation Tolerance and Senescence in Eragrostis nindensis

by Christine F. Madden, Brett Williams, Sagadevan Mundree, Sébastien Acket, Eric Ruelland, Henk W. M. Hilhorst and Jill M. Farrant

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3360; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213360 - 2 Nov 2025

Eragrostis nindensis is a resurrection grass capable of surviving near-complete desiccation. We compared non-senescent leaf tissue (NST) and senescent leaf tissue (ST) to investigate the cellular and molecular basis of desiccation tolerance and senescence. NST recovered fully after drying, while ST failed to [...] Read more.

Eragrostis nindensis is a resurrection grass capable of surviving near-complete desiccation. We compared non-senescent leaf tissue (NST) and senescent leaf tissue (ST) to investigate the cellular and molecular basis of desiccation tolerance and senescence. NST recovered fully after drying, while ST failed to regain viability. Integrated transcriptomic (using RNA-Seq), lipidomic (using LC-MS), and ultrastructural (Transmission Electron Microscopical) analyses revealed that NST maintain RNA processing, protein folding, and translational activity during desiccation. Lipidomic data and ultrastructure showed preferential accumulation of polyunsaturated triacylglycerols (TAGs) and lipid droplets in NST, supporting membrane protection and energy buffering. In contrast, ST showed cellular collapse, reduced oleosin protein accumulation, and signatures of senescence. These findings highlight the importance of post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation, as well as lipid metabolism, in preserving cellular integrity during desiccation in this species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ‘Omics’ and ‘Multi-Omics’ Insights into Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses)

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