Plants

24 pages, 8351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Association Analysis of Soybean Regeneration-Related Traits and Functional Exploration of Candidate Genes

by Huiyan Zhao, Xin Jin, Yide Zhang, Qi Zhang, Lina Zheng, Yang Yue, Xue Zhao, Yingpeng Han and Weili Teng

Plants 2026, 15(1), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010110 (registering DOI) - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Using the cotyledonary node method, four traits related to callus induction rate were identified in 185 soybean germplasm resources. Cultivation of callus tissue is crucial for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) genetic transformation and functional genomics studies. Identifying genes associated with the [...] Read more.

Using the cotyledonary node method, four traits related to callus induction rate were identified in 185 soybean germplasm resources. Cultivation of callus tissue is crucial for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) genetic transformation and functional genomics studies. Identifying genes associated with the induction rate of soybean callus tissue is therefore essential for biotechnological breeding and for understanding the molecular genetic mechanisms of soybean regeneration. The efficiency of genetic transformation impacts the breeding rate of soybeans, with its success rate dependent on the soybean regeneration system. Subsequently, whole genome association analysis (GWAS) and multidimensional functional validation were conducted. GWAS identified 66 significantly associated SNP loci corresponding to the four traits. Expression analysis in extreme phenotypes highlighted four candidate genes: Glyma.12G164100 (GmARF1), Glyma.12G164700 (GmPPR), Glyma.02G006200 (GmERF1), and Glyma.19G128800 (GmAECC1), which positively regulate callus formation. Overexpression and gene-editing assays in hairy roots confirmed that these genes significantly enhanced callus formation rate and density, with GmARF1 exerting the most prominent effect. Hormone profiling revealed elevated levels of gibberellin (GA), auxin (IAA), cytokinin (CTK), and other phytohormones in transgenic lines, consistent with enhanced responsiveness to exogenous GA. Overall, the results suggest that these four candidate genes may promote soybean regeneration, with GmARF1 showing the most pronounced effect. These results provide valuable genetic resources for improving soybean regeneration efficiency and accelerating genetic transformation-based breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Germplasm Resources, Genomics, and Molecular Breeding)

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18 pages, 4462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the Double B-Box (DBB) Family in Three Cotton Species and Functional Analysis of GhDBB22 Under Salt Stress

by Haijun Zhang, Xuerui Wu, Jiahao Yang, Mengxue He, Na Wang, Jie Liu, Jinnan Song, Liyan Yu, Wenjuan Chi and Xianliang Song

Plants 2026, 15(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010109 (registering DOI) - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Salt stress causes harm to plants through multiple aspects, such as osmotic pressure, ion poisoning, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative damage. Zinc finger proteins harboring two B-box domains, known as double B-box (DBB) proteins, constitute the DBB family. While DBB genes have been implicated [...] Read more.

Salt stress causes harm to plants through multiple aspects, such as osmotic pressure, ion poisoning, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative damage. Zinc finger proteins harboring two B-box domains, known as double B-box (DBB) proteins, constitute the DBB family. While DBB genes have been implicated in regulating circadian rhythms and stress responses in various plant species, their functions in cotton remain largely unexplored. The present study characterized the DBB gene family across the genomes of Gossypium hirsutum L., Gossypium raimondii L., and Gossypium arboreum L., revealing a complement of 58 members. These DBB genes were assigned to three separate clades based on phylogenetic analysis. Members possessing close phylogenetic relationships have similar conserved protein motifs and gene structures. All DBB proteins were predicted to be nuclear-localized, consistent with their roles as transcription factors. Furthermore, the presence of multiple cis-acting elements related to light, hormone, and stress responses in the promoters implies that GhDBBs are integral to cotton’s environmental stress adaptation. Expression pattern analysis indicated that the expression of GhDBB genes was associated with the plant’s response to multiple abiotic stresses, such as salt, drought, heat (37 °C), and cold (4 °C). The reliability of the expression data was confirmed by qPCR analysis of eight selected GhDBBs. Under 200 mM NaCl, Arabidopsis plants overexpressing GhDBB22 displayed longer roots and healthier true leaves than the wild-type controls. Conversely, VIGS-mediated silencing of GhDBB22 in G. hirsutum led to significantly reduced salt tolerance, accompanied by exacerbated oxidative damage. Taken together, the findings from our integrated genomic and functional analyses provide a foundational understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which proteins encoded by DBB genes are involved in the plant’s response to salt stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Functioning Under Abiotic Stress)

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30 pages, 10408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Intelligent Wood Species Identification Method Based on Multimodal Texture-Dominated Features and Deep Learning Fusion

by Yuxiang Huang, Tianqi Zhu, Zhihong Liang, Hongxu Li, Mingming Qin, Ruicheng Niu, Yuanyuan Ma, Qi Feng and Mingbo Chen

Plants 2026, 15(1), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010108 (registering DOI) - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Aimed at the problems of traditional wood species identification relying on manual experience, slow identification speed, and insufficient robustness, this study takes hyperspectral images of cross-sections of 10 typical wood species commonly found in Puer, Yunnan, China, as the research object. It comprehensively [...] Read more.

Aimed at the problems of traditional wood species identification relying on manual experience, slow identification speed, and insufficient robustness, this study takes hyperspectral images of cross-sections of 10 typical wood species commonly found in Puer, Yunnan, China, as the research object. It comprehensively applies various spectral and texture feature extraction technologies and proposes an intelligent wood species identification method based on the fusion of multimodal texture-dominated features and deep learning. Firstly, an SOC710-VP hyperspectral imager is used to collect hyperspectral data under standard laboratory lighting conditions, and a hyperspectral database of wood cross-sections is constructed through reflectance calibration. Secondly, in the spectral space construction stage, a comprehensive similarity matrix is built based on four types of spectral similarity indicators. Representative bands are selected using two Max–Min strategies: partitioned quota and coverage awareness. Multi-scale wavelet fusion is performed to generate high-resolution fused images and extract interest point features. Thirdly, in the texture space construction stage, three types of texture feature matrices are generated based on the PCA first principal component map, and interest point features are extracted. Fourthly, in the complementary collaborative learning stage, the ST-former model is constructed. The weights of the trained SpectralFormer++ and TextureFormer are imported, and only the fusion weights are optimized and learned to realize category-adaptive spectral–texture feature fusion. Experimental results show that the overall classification accuracy of the proposed joint model reaches 90.27%, which is about 8% higher than that of single-modal models on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dendrological Research: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Dendrology Branch of the Chinese Society of Forestry)

25 pages, 26149 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution Characteristics and Adaptation Mechanisms of Exotic Spontaneous Plant Diversity in Urban Road Green Spaces of Changchun, China

by Diyang Liu, Congcong Zhao, Yongfang Wang and Yuandong Hu

Plants 2026, 15(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010107 (registering DOI) - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Spontaneous plants are plants that occur in urban environments such as pavement gaps or cracks in walls without cultivation and are not remnants of historic native habitats. They are critical components of urban road green space vegetation, and their distribution is affected by [...] Read more.

Spontaneous plants are plants that occur in urban environments such as pavement gaps or cracks in walls without cultivation and are not remnants of historic native habitats. They are critical components of urban road green space vegetation, and their distribution is affected by multiple factors. Heavy traffic and frequent human disturbances on urban roads exacerbate exotic spontaneous plant invasions. Exploring the diversity of their distributions, adaptation mechanisms of these exotic plants and their relationship with native ones is vital for focused control of harmful invasives. Based on field surveys, this study analyzed the distribution of exotic spontaneous plants across habitat types, urbanization gradients and disturbance intensities in road green spaces, and their interactions with native counterparts. Our results indicated: (1) 425 spontaneous species were recorded (234 exotic, 191 native), with 71.8% cosmopolitan and 74.7% monotypic genera. (2) The spontaneous exotic plant community achieves extensive resource preemption by forming a structure dominated by a single super-dominant species (Setaria viridis) and characterized by a broader overall niche breadth. (3) Different habitats sustain a similar number of exotic spontaneous plant species (i.e.,

α

-diversity), but their species compositions are highly differentiated, with such differences driven almost entirely by species turnover. At the urban scale, spontaneous exotic plants adapt to regional environments with varying urbanization intensities by maintaining extensive similarity in community composition and making only extremely weak adjustments to the pattern of individual distribution among species. (4) The spontaneous plant community exhibits a pattern dominated by weak interspecific associations and random assemblages, where ecological interactions among species are weak, and the community structure is more consistent with the stochastic processes described by the Neutral Theory. At the regional environmental gradient scale, the diversity of spontaneous native and exotic plants exhibited coordinated variation. The study provides a scientific basis for urban biological invasion control and biodiversity management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Management of Invasive Plants—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 3648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of Floral Gene Network Reveals a Critical FT1–AP1 Interaction in Flowering Regulation in Longan

by Yuru Tang, Yating Xu, Haoming Mao, Yawen Xu, Jianling Pan, Shaoquan Zheng, Guochun Zhao, Wenshun Hu and Ray Ming

Plants 2026, 15(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010106 (registering DOI) - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) is a commercially valuable tropical fruit crop that contains two antagonistic FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) homologs involved in regulating flowering time. However, how these FT genes interact with flowering regulators FLOWERING LOCUS D (FD) [...] Read more.

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) is a commercially valuable tropical fruit crop that contains two antagonistic FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) homologs involved in regulating flowering time. However, how these FT genes interact with flowering regulators FLOWERING LOCUS D (FD) and APETALA1 (AP1) remains unknown. Four flowering-related genes in longan, DlFT1, DlFT2, DlAP1 and DlFD, were successfully isolated. Expression profiling revealed that all four genes were expressed in leaves and buds across different stages of natural and KClO₃-induced floral bud differentiation. Functional characterization through heterologous overexpression in Arabidopsis thaliana showed that DlAP1 significantly promotes early flowering under long-day conditions and induced morphological changes in floral organs and leaves. In contrast, DlFD overexpression had no effect on flowering time. Subcellular localization assays revealed that DlFT1 and DlFT2 localized to both the nucleus and the plasma membrane, while DlAP1 and DlFD localized exclusively to the nucleus. Yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) analyses revealed a novel regulatory node: DlFT1 directly interacts with DlAP1, a finding that expands the classical FT-FD-AP1 flowering model. Additionally, DlFD interacts more strongly with DlFT1 than with DlFT2, whereas DlFT1 only interacts with DlAP1, but not DlFT2. These results demonstrate that DlFT1 promotes flowering not only via the conserved FD-dependent pathway but also through direct association with AP1. These findings advance our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of flowering in longan and provide valuable insights into flowering pathways of perennial woody species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling Complex Traits and Developmental Pathways of Forest Trees)

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13 pages, 11172 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fruit-Mediated Reverse Sap Flow: A Plant Water Balance Mechanism Enhancing Water Stress Adaptation

by Yangfan Chai, Runqing Zhang, Qian Wang, Jiawei Pan, Yuanhao Wang, Yu Zou, Shuai Wang, Zhongyuan Hu and Xiangjiang Liu

Plants 2026, 15(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010105 (registering DOI) - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Sap flow serves as the primary carrier for water, nutrients, and signaling molecules, playing a crucial role in fruit development by delivering these essential constituents to the fruit. While the efflux of sap from fruit to other organs (termed reverse sap flow) has [...] Read more.

Sap flow serves as the primary carrier for water, nutrients, and signaling molecules, playing a crucial role in fruit development by delivering these essential constituents to the fruit. While the efflux of sap from fruit to other organs (termed reverse sap flow) has been observed in plants, its underlying mechanisms remain unclear due to a lack of effective methodologies for comprehensive studies. Here, we pioneered the integration of real-time sap flow measurements from novel plant-wearable sensors with synchronized environmental monitoring, establishing a multimodal data framework to systematically decode the endogenous causes and exogenous triggers of reverse sap flow in watermelon plants. Our experimental results reveal that plant water supply–consumption imbalance is the core endogenous cause of reverse sap flow, which is induced by two external triggers in the natural environment: rapid light intensity surges and soil drought. Furthermore, a long-term drought stress experiment illustrates that reverse sap flow from the fruit enhances the drought resistance of plants by adjusting water redistribution within the whole plant. This study challenges the unitary view of fruit solely as a “sink” in the traditional source–sink theory, further refines the understanding of the source–sink paradigm, and provides a novel mechanism and insight for plant drought tolerance strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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33 pages, 1543 KB

Open AccessReview

Biodiversity-Driven Natural Products and Bioactive Metabolites

by Giancarlo Angeles Flores, Gaia Cusumano, Roberto Venanzoni and Paola Angelini

Plants 2026, 15(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010104 (registering DOI) - 29 Dec 2025

Abstract

Natural products represent one of the most diverse and functionally sophisticated groups of bioactive molecules found across plants, fungi, bacteria, and marine organisms. Recent advances in genomics, metabolomics, and chemical ecology have fundamentally redefined how these compounds are generated, regulated, and functionally deployed [...] Read more.

Natural products represent one of the most diverse and functionally sophisticated groups of bioactive molecules found across plants, fungi, bacteria, and marine organisms. Recent advances in genomics, metabolomics, and chemical ecology have fundamentally redefined how these compounds are generated, regulated, and functionally deployed in nature. Increasing evidence reveals that chemical diversity arises not solely from taxonomic lineage but from ecological pressures, evolutionary innovation, and multi-organism interactions that shape biosynthetic pathways over time. Hybrid metabolic architectures, context-dependent activation of biosynthetic gene clusters, and cross-kingdom metabolic integration collectively portray a biosynthetic landscape far more dynamic and interconnected than previously understood. At the same time, mechanistic studies demonstrate that natural products rarely act through single-target interactions. Instead, they influence redox dynamics, membrane architecture, chromatin accessibility, and intracellular signaling in distributed and synergistic ways that reflect both ecological function and evolutionary design. This review synthesizes emerging insights into the evolutionary drivers, ecological determinants, and mechanistic foundations of natural product diversity, highlighting the central role of silent biosynthetic gene clusters, meta-organismal chemistry, and network-level modes of action. By integrating these perspectives, we outline a conceptual and methodological framework capable of unlocking the vast biosynthetic potential that remains dormant within natural systems. Collectively, these advances reposition natural product research as a deeply integrative discipline at the intersection of molecular biology, ecology, evolution, and chemical innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Biodiversity and Bioactive Potential of Plants and Fungi: From Phytochemicals to Medicinal Applications)

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21 pages, 2415 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Rhizospheric Microorganisms of Crotalaria for the Determination of Toxicity and Phytoremediation to Certain Petroleum Compounds

by Ana Guadalupe Ramírez-May, María del Carmen Rivera-Cruz, María Remedios Mendoza-López, Rocío Guadalupe Acosta-Pech, Antonio Trujillo-Narcía and Consuelo Bautista-Muñoz

Plants 2026, 15(1), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010103 (registering DOI) - 29 Dec 2025

Abstract

Microbial toxicity tests in the rhizosphere play an important role in the risk assessment and phytoremediation of chemical compounds in the environment. Tests for the inhibition of nodule number (NN), Rhizobia in the rhizosphere (RhR), Rhizobium in nodules (RhN) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi [...] Read more.

Microbial toxicity tests in the rhizosphere play an important role in the risk assessment and phytoremediation of chemical compounds in the environment. Tests for the inhibition of nodule number (NN), Rhizobia in the rhizosphere (RhR), Rhizobium in nodules (RhN) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs) are important to evaluate the toxicity as well as the removal of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), 15 linear alkanes (LAs), and total linear alkanes (TLAs). The inhibition and removal was evaluated at 60 (vegetative stage, VS) and 154 days (reproductive stage, RS) of the life cycle of Crotalaria incana and Crotalaria pallida in soil with four doses of CRO (3, 15, 30, and 45 g/kg) plus a control (16 treatments). Results indicated that RhN and five structures of the AMFs present an index of toxicity (IT < 1), and the microbiological variable is inhibited by the CRO. RhR exhibits a hormesis index (IT > 1) that is stimulated by the CRO in the VS and RS for C. incana and C. pallida. The highest removal of TPHs (77%) was in the rhizosphere of C. incana in the RS with 45 g/kg of CRO. C. pallida removed the greatest amount of TLA (91%). There was a positive correlation between the RhR and the removal of TPHs, TLA, and LAs (higher molecular weight). It could be argued that symbiotic microorganisms are significant for use in toxicity testing, and the rhizosphere of C. incana and C. pallida can be used for the phytoremediation of HTPs and ALs in loamy-clay soil contaminated with CRO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Plant–Climate Nexus: Bioremediation and Management Strategies for a Sustainable Future)

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17 pages, 2057 KB

Open AccessArticle

Consecutive Application of Biogas Slurry Improved the Cumulative Nitrogen Use Efficiency by Regulating the Soil Carbon Pool

by Sheng Wu, Tingfeng Gao, Chenxue Wu, Haoqiang Yuan, Ying Liu, Jiating Liu, Lei Han, Cheng Zhang, Youhua Ma and Xia Liao

Plants 2026, 15(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010102 - 29 Dec 2025

Abstract

To identify the optimal substitution ratio of biogas slurry to chemical fertilizer, this study determined the cumulative nitrogen use efficiency (CNUE) of wheat and carbon pool in Lime concretion black soil. The following treatments were applied: control (CK), conventional chemical nitrogen fertilizer application [...] Read more.

To identify the optimal substitution ratio of biogas slurry to chemical fertilizer, this study determined the cumulative nitrogen use efficiency (CNUE) of wheat and carbon pool in Lime concretion black soil. The following treatments were applied: control (CK), conventional chemical nitrogen fertilizer application (CN), optimized chemical fertilizer application (ON), and biogas slurry replacing 15% (ONL15%), 30% (ONL30%), and 50% (ONL50%) of fertilizer. The results indicated that CNUE was the highest in the ONL30% treatment and 67.26–80.26% higher in the ONL15%, ONL30%, and ONL50% treatments than it was the CN treatment. The soil dissolved organic carbon of 2023–2024 increased by 11.93–22.93% compared to that in the CN treatment, and the highest particulate organic carbon content was observed in ONL30% treatment. In 2024, the carbon pool management index was 22.20, 42.42, and 29.34% higher in ONL15%, ONL30%, and ONL50% treatments than it was in CN treatment, respectively. In summary, biogas slurry replacing 30% of fertilizer regulated the carbon pool in Lime concretion black soil and improved the yield, quality, and cumulative nitrogen use efficiency of wheat, which was the optimal substitution ratio of biogas slurry to chemical fertilizer in the Northern Anhui Plain of China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Nutrient Use Efficiency Improvement in Plants—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 15141 KB

Open AccessArticle

CaGβ Promotes CaWRKY40 to Activate Immunity Against Ralstonia solanacearum but Disables It from Activating Thermotolerance

by Li He, Meiyun Wan, Xingge Cheng, Xueqiong Chen, Chenfeng Duan, Shuilin He, Yang Wu, Sheng Yang and Ailian Qiu

Plants 2026, 15(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010101 - 29 Dec 2025

Abstract

It has previously been found that CaWRKY40 is employed by pepper to activate immunity against Ralstonia solanacearum and to activate thermotolerance context-specifically, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, CaGβ, a subunit in the heterotrimeric G protein complex that was originally [...] Read more.

It has previously been found that CaWRKY40 is employed by pepper to activate immunity against Ralstonia solanacearum and to activate thermotolerance context-specifically, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, CaGβ, a subunit in the heterotrimeric G protein complex that was originally found to probably interact with CaWRKY40, was expressional and functionally characterized; the results showed that CaGβ was upregulated by R. solanacearum infection; its silencing by virus-induced silencing impaired pepper immunity against R. solanacearum infection, accompanied by downregulation of immunity-related marker genes, including CaPR1, CaDEF1, CaNPR1, and CaPR-STH2. In addition, CaGβ–CaWRKY40 interaction was confirmed by BiFC and pull-down assay using prokaryotically expressed proteins, and activations of immunity-related CaPR1, CaPR-STH2, and CaNPR1 by CaWRKY40 were all promoted, but the activation of thermotolerance-related CaHSP24 by CaWRKY40 blocked CaGβ through its interaction with CaWRKY40. All these data indicate that immunity against R. solanacearum and its antagonism to thermotolerance in pathogen-infected pepper plants are mediated by CaWRKY40 through physical interaction with CaGβ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 7160 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrative Physiological and Molecular Insights into Drought–Induced Accumulation of Bioactive Compounds in Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau Leaves

by Phanuwit Khamwong, Jarunee Jungkang and Usawadee Chanasut

Plants 2026, 15(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010100 - 29 Dec 2025

Abstract

Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau is a medicinal plant known for its antioxidant, anti–inflammatory, and antiviral properties. Drought is a major abiotic stress affecting plant physiology and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of C. nutans under drought stress. [...] Read more.

Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau is a medicinal plant known for its antioxidant, anti–inflammatory, and antiviral properties. Drought is a major abiotic stress affecting plant physiology and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of C. nutans under drought stress. Relative water content declined with prolonged drought, while hydrogen peroxide and proline levels increased, indicating oxidative and osmotic stress. Antioxidant activities (DPPH and ABTS) peaked at days 4–8 and showed positive correlations with phenolic and flavonoid contents and triterpenoids, particularly schaftoside and lupeol. Molecular docking supported the bioactivity of drought–induced metabolites, with schaftoside and lupeol showing favorable interactions with inflammation–related targets. Multivariate analysis revealed that short–term drought enhanced stress tolerance and secondary metabolite accumulation, whereas prolonged stress reduced biosynthetic capacity and survival. These findings suggest that controlled drought exposure can enhance bioactive compound levels in C. nutans, supporting its potential for drought–adaptive cultivation for medicinal use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cell Physiology and Stress Adaptation of Crops)

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20 pages, 1003 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Antioxidant, Photoprotective, and Volatile Compound Profile of Supercritical CO₂ Extracts from Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) Flowers

by Janina Sutkaitienė, Michail Syrpas, Petras Rimantas Venskutonis and Vaida Kitrytė-Syrpa

Plants 2026, 15(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010099 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to develop a sustainable approach for isolating bioactive lipophilic components from Taraxacum officinale flowers using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SFE-CO₂) and to assess the effect of adding 5% ethanol (EtOH) as a co-solvent on extraction yield, in vitro [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop a sustainable approach for isolating bioactive lipophilic components from Taraxacum officinale flowers using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SFE-CO₂) and to assess the effect of adding 5% ethanol (EtOH) as a co-solvent on extraction yield, in vitro antioxidant capacity in CUPRAC and ABTS assays (TEAC_CUPRAC and TEAC_ABTS), total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid (TFC) content, β-carotene concentration, and photoprotective potential, expressed as the sun protection factor (SPF). SFE-CO₂ at 35 MPa and 40 °C resulted in 50% of the total yield within 15 min, with equilibrium reached after 120 min (final yield of 4.6 g/100 g flowers). Co-solvent addition increased yield by ~50% and shortened extraction time. The EtOH-modified extract exhibited markedly higher antioxidant activity, with a 2-fold increase in TEAC_CUPRAC (167 mg TE/g E), an 11-fold increase in TEAC_ABTS (194 mg TE/g E), and a 3-fold increase in TPC (91 mg GAE/g E), along with improved recovery of flavonoids and β-carotene. Volatile profiling revealed monoterpenoids, aldehydes, and esters as dominant groups, with carvone (14.0–16.5%) and dill ether (4.2–5.8%) as major contributors to aroma. The SFE-CO₂ + 5% EtOH extract achieved the highest SPF value (49.5 at 1 mg/mL; SPF > 6 at >0.1 mg/mL), indicating strong photoprotective potential and potential suitability for natural antioxidant and cosmetic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Extracts in Focus: Chemical Characterization, Biological Activity, and Their Significance in Ethnomedicine and Practical Applications)

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17 pages, 2927 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Microbes Mediate Productivity Differences Between Natural and Plantation Forests

by Xing Zhang, Mengya Yang, Yangyang Liu, Jinkun Ye, Jiechen Tangyu, Jie Gao, Weiguo Liu and Yuchuan Fan

Plants 2026, 15(1), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010098 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

While climate is known to regulate forest productivity, the mechanistic contribution of soil microbial communities—and whether it differs between natural and plantation forests—remains poorly quantified at broad scales. Here, we provide a synthesis-level, unified analysis that jointly evaluates climate, edaphic conditions, and soil [...] Read more.

While climate is known to regulate forest productivity, the mechanistic contribution of soil microbial communities—and whether it differs between natural and plantation forests—remains poorly quantified at broad scales. Here, we provide a synthesis-level, unified analysis that jointly evaluates climate, edaphic conditions, and soil microbes to compare mechanistic pathways underlying productivity divergence between forest types. We synthesized 237 observations across China and integrated productivity metrics—gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP)—with microbial diversity, dominant taxa, and soil drivers to compare natural and plantation forests within the current environmental coverage. Plantation productivity showed nonlinear responses to microbial diversity and appeared more sensitive than natural forests. Natural forests exhibited higher bacterial Shannon and Chao1 but lower fungal Chao1 and were characterized by taxa such as Nitrobacter, Bradyrhizobium, and Cortinarius. In contrast, plantations were characterized by taxa often associated with disturbance tolerance and opportunistic life-history strategies (e.g., Sphingomonas, Fusarium, Gemmatimonas), consistent with potential functional simplification. Structural equation models identified climate as the strongest correlate of productivity, while soil properties showed contrasting associations with microbial diversity across forest types. Random forest models further highlighted cation-exchange capacity and total nitrogen as key predictors of microbial diversity in plantations. Overall, our results indicate that soil microbial communities are differentially associated with forest productivity across forest types and environmental contexts and underscore the need for future climate-comparable designs and management-intensity information to more robustly isolate microbial contributions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dendrological Research: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Dendrology Branch of the Chinese Society of Forestry)

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17 pages, 6317 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sexual Dimorphism on a Conserved Scaffold: Insights from the Floral Ontogeny of Eurychorda (Restionaceae: Poales)

by Constantin I. Fomichev, Barbara G. Briggs and Dmitry D. Sokoloff

Plants 2026, 15(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010097 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

Angiosperms include many taxa with dimorphic unisexual reproductive structures. These are well studied in some grasses, with maize as a key model, but other wind-pollinated lineages in Poales remain less explored. Within Poales, the family Restionaceae has the highest known proportion of dioecious [...] Read more.

Angiosperms include many taxa with dimorphic unisexual reproductive structures. These are well studied in some grasses, with maize as a key model, but other wind-pollinated lineages in Poales remain less explored. Within Poales, the family Restionaceae has the highest known proportion of dioecious species. In its Australian subfamily Leptocarpoideae, the sexually dimorphic Leptocarpus denmarkicus has raised questions about the basic flowering unit and the developmental basis of dimorphism. Here, we analyze inflorescence architecture and floral development in Eurychorda complanata, the sister lineage to the remainder of Leptocarpoideae. Using comparative morphology, light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, we reconstruct synflorescence topology, floral organography, and ontogeny in both sexes and compare them with those in L. denmarkicus. In Eurychorda, both sexes produce polytelic paniculate synflorescences with distinct inhibition zones and many-flowered simple spikelets as the basic flowering unit. Male and female spikelets bear up to 50 and up to 15 fertile flowers, respectively. Male flowers have two stamens and a dimerous pistillode, whereas female flowers possess two long filamentous staminodes and a dimerous gynoecium. Ontogenetic series show that flowers of both sexes initiate both androecial and gynoecial structures, and that functional unisexuality is achieved through late arrest of the organs of one sex. Defining spikelets as racemose axes with lateral sessile flowers clarifies homologies of reproductive structures and supports reinterpretation of the dimorphic female unit in L. denmarkicus as a derived compound spike generated through shifts in branching rank and the timing of lateral initiation. The compound female spike of L. denmarkicus has a striking overall similarity to the simple female spikelet in Eurychorda, illustrating fascinating parallelism in the evolution of reproductive organs within Restionaceae and Poales more broadly. At the male side, Eurychorda achieves anther exsertion via filament elongation, whereas in L. denmarkicus filaments are very short and anthers remain within the perianth, but male spikelets sit on long, flexible peduncles that invert the spikelet and promote trembling, thereby ventilating the perianth chamber and aiding pollen escape. These two solutions—filament elongation versus spikelet-peduncle flexibility—represent alternative strategies of pollen release in wind-pollinated flowers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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20 pages, 2403 KB

Open AccessArticle

CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated pds Knockout in Potato Reveals Network-Level Transcriptomic Reorganization Beyond Pigment Loss

by Xianjun Lai, Yuxin Xiang, Siqi Liu, Yandan Zhang, Yizheng Zhang, Zihan Chen, Shifeng Liu and Lang Yan

Plants 2026, 15(1), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010096 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

Background: The phytoene desaturase gene is a classical visual marker for validating CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing in plants, as its loss of function produces a readily scorable albino phenotype. While the biochemical basis of pigment loss is well established, it remains unclear whether pds [...] Read more.

Background: The phytoene desaturase gene is a classical visual marker for validating CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing in plants, as its loss of function produces a readily scorable albino phenotype. While the biochemical basis of pigment loss is well established, it remains unclear whether pds knockout elicits transcriptomic changes extending beyond carotenoid biosynthesis. Resolving this question is essential for correctly interpreting pds-based editing outcomes and for assessing the robustness of phenotype-only screening approaches. Methods: A CRISPR/Cas9 editing platform targeting pds was established in diploid potato. Albino, non-albino edited, and wild-type tissues were subjected to RNA-seq profiling. Differential expression, functional enrichment, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis were integrated to resolve phenotype-associated transcriptional modules, and hierarchical regulatory layers underlying albinism. Results: CRISPR/Cas9-mediated disruption of pds in potato-generated stable albino phenotypes and revealed extensive transcriptomic reprogramming that was not limited to pigment loss. Albino tissues exhibited more than 9700 differentially expressed genes relative to both wild-type and non-albino edited tissues, whereas non-albino edits showed substantially fewer changes. Functional enrichment demonstrated pervasive suppression of photosynthesis and carbon metabolism alongside activation of secondary metabolism, stress responses, hormone signaling, and cell wall remodeling. WGCNA and cross-validation resolved these changes into distinct, phenotype-associated regulatory layers: MEorangered4 captured coordinated repression of starch and sucrose metabolism (r = −0.998), MEdarkgreen marked albino-linked activation of secondary metabolism and barrier biogenesis (r = 0.855; overlap with Albino Core set, OR = 23.65), while MEblack and MEgrey60 reflected downregulation of stress signaling, proteostasis, and hormone-integrative control and were enriched in transgenic–background-associated gene sets. Conclusions: pds knockout in potato is accompanied by broad transcriptomic changes beyond pigment biosynthesis, suggesting that albinism involves coordinated regulatory and metabolic adjustment under plastid dysfunction rather than pigment loss alone. These results refine the use of pds as a visual editing marker and provide a framework for linking localized genome edits to coordinated network-level transcriptional responses in plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

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18 pages, 2920 KB

Open AccessArticle

Volatile Organic Compound Emissions in the Invasive Legume Cytisus scoparius: Linking Plant Phenology, Arthropod Communities, and Environmental Factors

by Evans Effah, Paul G. Peterson, D. Paul Barrett and Andrea Clavijo McCormick

Plants 2026, 15(1), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010095 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius; Fabaceae) is an invasive nitrogen-fixing shrub widespread in New Zealand, where it impacts forestry, pasturelands, and native ecosystems. Although several biological control agents have been released, Scotch broom continues to expand in regions such as the North [...] Read more.

Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius; Fabaceae) is an invasive nitrogen-fixing shrub widespread in New Zealand, where it impacts forestry, pasturelands, and native ecosystems. Although several biological control agents have been released, Scotch broom continues to expand in regions such as the North Island’s Central Plateau. Scotch broom affects the germination and growth of other plants and modifies arthropod communities (including pollinators, herbivores, and predators) within its invaded range. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play a key role in mediating plant–plant and plant–arthropod interactions, potentially contributing to this invasive plant’s ecological success. However, Scotch broom’s VOC emissions in its invaded ranges remain poorly understood. We examined VOC emissions from flowering and non-flowering Scotch broom plants in the Central Plateau and assessed links with biotic and abiotic factors. Our aims were to (1) characterise differences in VOCs between phenological stages; (2) explore shifts in arthropod community composition; and (3) evaluate correlations between VOC emissions, arthropod groups and environmental variables. Flowering plants had higher diversity and abundance of VOCs, with blends dominated by monoterpenes, aromatics, and fatty acid esters, whereas non-flowering plants were characterised by green leaf volatiles (GLVs). Flowering stages supported Hemiptera and Thysanoptera (herbivores), which were positively correlated with fatty acid esters. In contrast, GLVs correlated with Araneae (predators) abundance. Temperature was the strongest predictor of VOC emission patterns, showing significant correlation with most compound classes. These results advance understanding of Scotch broom invasion ecology and highlight the need to further explore individual compounds potentially influencing arthropod composition to inform both native arthropods conservation and future biocontrol strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Invasions and Their Interactions with the Environment)

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18 pages, 3610 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inheritance of DNA Methylation Patterns and Its Role in Modulating Allelic Expression in Camellia F₁ Hybrids

by Min Zhang, Lin-Jian Xie, Shu-Rong Yan, Qi-Ling Huang, Cai-Lin Xu, Zi-Fei Li, Yi-Wei Tang, Xin-Kai Liu, Nai-Sheng Zhong and Wen-Ju Zhang

Plants 2026, 15(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010094 - 28 Dec 2025

Abstract

DNA methylation, as an important epigenetic modification, plays a key role in shaping hybrid phenotypes. Studies have shown that DNA methylation—specifically, allele-specific methylation (ASM)—can mediate allelic expression imbalance (AEI) and participate in the regulation of plant growth and development. However, since this regulatory [...] Read more.

DNA methylation, as an important epigenetic modification, plays a key role in shaping hybrid phenotypes. Studies have shown that DNA methylation—specifically, allele-specific methylation (ASM)—can mediate allelic expression imbalance (AEI) and participate in the regulation of plant growth and development. However, since this regulatory mechanism is often sequence-dependent, the prevalence of ASM and the extent to which it influences allelic expression remain poorly characterized. To address this challenge, the present study utilized Camellia azalea, C. amplexicaulis and their F₁ hybrids [C. azalea (♀) × C. amplexicaulis (♂)] as research materials. By performing whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS), resequencing, and transcriptome sequencing, we assessed the inheritance of DNA methylation patterns and its role in shaping allelic expression in F₁ hybrids. The results showed the following: (1) the overall cytosine methylation level in the F₁ hybrid was intermediate between the two parents; (2) the methylation states of the parental genomes were partly transmitted to the next generation; (3) ASM was not prevalent in the F₁ hybrids, primarily because biparental parent-specific methylation sites (PSMSs) were widespread and randomly distributed, which often act on the same allele pairs; (4) although ASM was not common, it led to biased expression of some alleles related to flower development. The results indicated that ASM was rare in F₁ hybrids, mainly because PSMSs occurred randomly. Instead of causing AEI, the randomly distributed PSMSs played a more important role in balancing allelic expression in F₁ hybrids. Therefore, most of the alleles in F₁ were not biasedly expressed. ASM did not necessarily lead to allele-biased expression; however, its occurrence may hold significant biological implications in modulating AEI and transgressive phenotypes in the F₁ hybrids. These findings elucidate the synergistic effects of genetic and epigenetic controls on transcriptional regulation in hybrid plants, substantially deepening the mechanistic understanding of hybridization at the molecular scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dendrological Research: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Dendrology Branch of the Chinese Society of Forestry)

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24 pages, 5699 KB

Open AccessArticle

Alpine Grassland Growth and Its Ecological Responses to Environmental Impacts: Insights from a Comprehensive Growth Index and SHAP-Based Analysis

by Yanying Li, Yongmei Liu, Xiaoyu Li, Junjuan Yan, Yuxin Du, Ying Meng and Jianhong Liu

Plants 2026, 15(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010093 - 27 Dec 2025

Abstract

The alpine grassland is one of the most representative ecosystems on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Growth monitoring is fundamental for the alpine grassland maintenance and husbandry sustainability. In this study, by the integration of regression model, principal component analysis, and SHAP-enhanced machine learning, a [...] Read more.

The alpine grassland is one of the most representative ecosystems on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Growth monitoring is fundamental for the alpine grassland maintenance and husbandry sustainability. In this study, by the integration of regression model, principal component analysis, and SHAP-enhanced machine learning, a comprehensive growth index (CGI) was proposed for the accurate and quick assessment of alpine grassland growth in Qinghai Province, located in the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The temporal and spatial growth behaviors of the main grassland types over 2001–2023 were then determined and the differences in key driving factors and their responses explored. The results indicated that the CGI composed of KNDVI, EVI, MSAVI, GNDVI and CVI characterized the typical ecological and physical parameters related to grassland growth, proved to be optimal and efficient in long-term growth monitoring. Alpine grassland growth fluctuated but gradually increased from 2001 to 2023, but individual types exhibited different trends. In particular, the two main types of alpine meadow and alpine steppe displayed the weakest increasing trend in growth, with the good-growth and continuous-increasing area proportions of 26.01% and 18.03%, 70.45% and 74.72%, respectively. Soil total nitrogen was the most critical common factor and significantly increased the growth across all five grassland types, then followed by grazing intensity and precipitation, which exhibits diverse effects on the individual types. The result implies the significant heterogeneity in the key driviers which affect the alpine grassland growth over large scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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22 pages, 1300 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Foliar Biostimulant Application on Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity in Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.)

by Tiago Lopes, Ana Paula Silva, Alfredo Aires, Rosa Carvalho, Maria Ferreira, António A. Vicente and Berta Gonçalves

Plants 2026, 15(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010092 - 27 Dec 2025

Abstract

Blueberries are rich in bioactive compounds and antioxidants whose contents can be significantly affected by pre-harvest agronomic practices. Thus, using natural biostimulants like Ecklonia maxima (EM) extract and glycine betaine (GB) is a promising strategy to improve blueberry quality. The effect of foliar [...] Read more.

Blueberries are rich in bioactive compounds and antioxidants whose contents can be significantly affected by pre-harvest agronomic practices. Thus, using natural biostimulants like Ecklonia maxima (EM) extract and glycine betaine (GB) is a promising strategy to improve blueberry quality. The effect of foliar pre-harvest application of EM and GB on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity (AC) of ‘Duke’ and ‘Draper’ blueberries was investigated in 2022 and 2023. Blueberries treated with GB had higher polyphenol contents and AC by the ABTS^•+ and CUPRAC methods, particularly at higher doses. Vitamin C in ‘Duke’ was decreased by both doses of GB and low-dose EM + GB by 10–30% over two years, whereas in ‘Draper’, both doses of GB increased vitamin C in 2023 by 40–80%. High GB and EM + GB doses improved the AC of ‘Duke’ blueberries by 7–12% (CUPRAC) in both seasons. In 2022, the high dose of EM increased the levels of polyphenols in both cultivars by 14–21% and AC by ABTS^•+ and CUPRAC in cv. ‘Draper’. As a result, blueberries’ nutritional value and AC can be enhanced by biostimulants, whose application must be adjusted according to cultivar and dose to optimize their use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biostimulant Use on Horticultural Crops)

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