Toxics

14 pages, 406 KB

Open AccessReview

Acute Intoxication After Baclofen Administration: A Review of the Literature and Methodological Proposals

by Giuseppe Davide Albano, Mauro Midiri, Péter Attila Gergely, Tamás Gergő Harsányi, Kálmán Racz, Alessandra Matilde Nivoli, Roberto Buscemi, Stefania Zerbo, Antonina Argo and Claudia Trignano

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 999; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110999 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Baclofen intoxication, once rare, is now increasingly observed in clinical and forensic settings due to its expanding medical and off-label use. However, baclofen is not routinely included in standard postmortem toxicological panels and is usually tested only when explicitly requested. This selective approach, [...] Read more.

Baclofen intoxication, once rare, is now increasingly observed in clinical and forensic settings due to its expanding medical and off-label use. However, baclofen is not routinely included in standard postmortem toxicological panels and is usually tested only when explicitly requested. This selective approach, together with the lack of validated cut-offs and standardized interpretative protocols, complicates both clinical management and postmortem evaluation. A systematic review of the literature published between July 2005 and July 2025 was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines, including fatal and non-fatal baclofen intoxications with quantitative toxicological data. Analytical methods, biological matrices, concentration ranges, and clinical outcomes were compared to identify recurring patterns and interpretative gaps. A fatal intrathecal overdose case was also analyzed as a paradigmatic example of diagnostic and methodological challenges. In thirteen studies meeting inclusion criteria and comprising over 300 cases, reported blood concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 110 mg/L, with overlapping values between survivors and fatalities. The analysis revealed marked heterogeneity in matrices and methods, and a poor correlation between concentration and clinical severity, limiting the reliability of toxicological interpretation in both clinical and postmortem settings. Baclofen intoxication illustrates the challenges of interpreting toxicological data without harmonized analytical criteria and highlights the need for standardized procedures and shared reference databases to improve diagnostic and medico-legal accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues and Research Perspectives in Forensic Toxicology)

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13 pages, 736 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Euphoria to Cardiac Stress: Role of Oxidative Stress on the Cardiotoxicity of Methylone and 3,4-DMMC

by Maria Moreira, Verónica Rocha, Ana Margarida Araújo and Márcia Carvalho

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110998 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Synthetic cathinones (SCs), commonly referred to as “bath salts”, are a class of novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) that elicit amphetamine-like effects and severe cardiovascular outcomes, including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. Despite these risks, the mechanisms underlying SC-induced cardiotoxicity remain poorly studied. [...] Read more.

Synthetic cathinones (SCs), commonly referred to as “bath salts”, are a class of novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) that elicit amphetamine-like effects and severe cardiovascular outcomes, including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. Despite these risks, the mechanisms underlying SC-induced cardiotoxicity remain poorly studied. This study investigated the in vitro cardiotoxicity of two prevalent SCs—methylone and 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC)—in H9c2 rat cardiomyoblasts, focusing on oxidative stress and the potential protective role of antioxidants. Cells were exposed to methylone (0.01–4.0 mM) or 3,4-DMMC (0.0005–0.8 mM) for 24 and 48 h, and cytotoxicity was assessed by an MTT assay. Intracellular reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) were quantified by fluorescence, and antioxidant effects were evaluated using ascorbic acid, N-acetylcysteine, and Trolox. Both SCs caused concentration-dependent cytotoxicity, with 3,4-DMMC showing higher potency than methylone (IC₅₀: 0.28 vs. 0.98 mM, p = 0.0013). ROS/RNS levels increased in a concentration- and time-dependent manner for both compounds, reflecting early and sustained redox imbalance. Of the antioxidants, only ascorbic acid significantly improved cell viability. Taken together, these findings demonstrate for the first time that methylone and 3,4-DMMC exert cardiotoxic effects in vitro, with oxidative stress as a key contributor. The protective effect of ascorbic acid highlights its potential as a therapeutic candidate against SC-induced cardiac injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Metabolism and Toxicological Mechanisms—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 5341 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Biochar and Microbial Organic Fertilizers on Agricultural Productivity and Their Microbial Mechanisms Under Heavy Metal Stress

by Zhenyu He, Wenming Wang, Bo Kang, Yonggao Yin and Jie Yang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110997 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Biochar has been demonstrated to be effective in the remediation of heavy metal contamination in soil. However, few studies have examined the impacts of varying proportions of biochar and microbial organic fertilizers on heavy metal adsorption and microbial abundance in soil. Therefore, we [...] Read more.

Biochar has been demonstrated to be effective in the remediation of heavy metal contamination in soil. However, few studies have examined the impacts of varying proportions of biochar and microbial organic fertilizers on heavy metal adsorption and microbial abundance in soil. Therefore, we investigated the remediation of soil contaminated with heavy metals (Cd and Cu) using different proportions of biochar and microbial organic fertilizer. The results revealed that the adsorption effect of different modifier combinations on heavy metals was notably different, and the metal speciation was significantly altered. Optimal biochar and microbial organic fertilizer combinations significantly reduced the bioavailability and ecological toxicity of heavy metals in the soil, which enhanced plant germination and growth. Furthermore, the addition of modifiers regulated soil pH, preventing root acidification; optimized microbial abundance; enhanced soil microbial environment; and reduced the inhibitory effect of heavy metals on microorganisms. These findings indicate that the addition of amendments may create a virtuous cycle of heavy metal pollutant adsorption, resulting in organic fertilizer efficiency, a better soil environment, and increased crop yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Remediation Strategies for Soil Pollution)

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18 pages, 3418 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Spatial Distribution and Bioaccumulation of Anatoxin-A in Hulun Lake

by Shiyu Li, Rui Liu, Shuhao Guo, Xiaoxuan Chen, Wenxue Wu, Bo Pang, Zixuan Liu, Haiming Ying, Yanlong Zhang, Yuanyuan Zhang and Chengxue Ma

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110996 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The intensification of eutrophication in global water bodies has exacerbated the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms, whose secondary metabolites can have detrimental effects on animals, humans, and ecosystems. This study analyzed and statistically evaluated the species composition and distribution of phytoplankton, assessed the concentration [...] Read more.

The intensification of eutrophication in global water bodies has exacerbated the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms, whose secondary metabolites can have detrimental effects on animals, humans, and ecosystems. This study analyzed and statistically evaluated the species composition and distribution of phytoplankton, assessed the concentration of anatoxin-a (ATX-a) in environmental and biological samples (n = 261), and explored the spatial distribution and bioaccumulation of ATX-a in Hulun Lake (Inner Mongolia, China). In late July 2024, the cyanobacteria Dolichospermum spp. comprised 85.5% of the total phytoplankton density. ATX-a levels were vertically distributed with higher concentrations in deeper water (3 m; 146.69 ± 11.84 ng·L⁻¹) and sediments (3.28 ± 0.45 ng·g⁻¹ dry weight) as compared to surface layers (0.5 m; 132.46 ± 8.19 ng·L⁻¹). In fish, bioaccumulation of ATX-a was greatest in the liver (2.37 ± 1.85 ng·g⁻¹), followed by intestinal contents (1.83 ± 0.74 ng·g⁻¹), with minimal accumulation in muscle tissues (1.74 ± 0.77 ng·g⁻¹). ATX-a levels were higher in smaller fish (minnows) than larger fish (Predatory carp, Gibel carp, and European carp). Additionally, all fish tissue samples contained ATX-a, suggesting that aquatic organisms were continuously exposed to ATX-a throughout the summer. A biodilution of ATX-a was observed from phytoplankton (384.82 ± 176.82 ng·L⁻¹) to zooplankton (1.27 ± 0.12 ng·g⁻¹), followed by biomagnification from zooplankton to fish. Full article

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18 pages, 2902 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Antibiotic Pollution and Ecological Risk Assessment in the Pearl River Delta Region, China

by Yong’an Chen, Zhenxian He, Haochuan Wu, Xueqin Tao, Xiaolong Yu, Xiaojun Niu and Jianteng Sun

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111004 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Excessive antibiotic use and their release into soils leads to alterations in soil processes, adversely affecting terrestrial organisms and presenting a serious threat to crop growth and productivity. Herein, the spatial patterns and prevalence of 22 typical antibiotics in agricultural soils throughout the [...] Read more.

Excessive antibiotic use and their release into soils leads to alterations in soil processes, adversely affecting terrestrial organisms and presenting a serious threat to crop growth and productivity. Herein, the spatial patterns and prevalence of 22 typical antibiotics in agricultural soils throughout the Pearl River Delta area of China. In addition, the contamination characteristics and health risks were evaluated by integrating ArcGIS 10.7 spatial analysis, spearman correlation, and Risk Quotient (RQ) modeling. Antibiotics were detected in all the 240 soil samples with the total concentrations ranging from ND to 897 μg·kg⁻¹ dry weight. The concentrations of seven antibiotic classes followed the order: quinolones (21.0 μg/kg) > β-lactams (15.1 μg/kg) > tetracyclines (9.65 μg/kg) > sulfonamides (3.91 μg/kg) > macrolides (0.26 μg/kg) > chloramphenicol (0.18 μg/kg) > lincosamides (0.03 μg/kg). Among the 240 sampling sites, quinolone antibiotics had the highest average contribution rate (41.89%), followed by β-lactams (30.09%), tetracyclines (19.28%), sulfonamides (7.81%), macrolides (0.52%), and chloramphenicol (0.36%), while lincomycin had the lowest contribution rate (0.06%). Spatial distribution demonstrated a significant positive correlation with per capita livestock/poultry product consumption, while 82.5% of sampling sites exhibited medium-high ecological risk primarily linked to livestock, poultry, and aquaculture. Quinolones, β-lactams, and tetracyclines were identified as the dominant ecological risk drivers in current regions. Mitigation requires synergistic measures including regulated veterinary drug use in aquaculture, enhanced manure treatment, and pollution remediation systems. These findings provide a scientific basis for supervising antibiotic pollution in agriculture soil and improving the sustainability and health of soil in the Pearl River Delta. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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19 pages, 1857 KB

Open AccessReview

Use of Formaldehyde in Poultry Production for the Treatment of Litter, Hatching Eggs, Hatcheries, and Feed: An Updated Mini Review

by Pedro Henrique Gomes de Sá Santos, Gabriel da Silva Oliveira, Concepta McManus and Vinícius Machado dos Santos

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111003 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Bacteria such as Salmonella spp. are primarily transmitted through contaminated eggs and infected poultry; however, other routes, including the movement of personnel, vehicles, and lapses in biosecurity protocols, also play a significant role in their dissemination within poultry systems. Control of a wide [...] Read more.

Bacteria such as Salmonella spp. are primarily transmitted through contaminated eggs and infected poultry; however, other routes, including the movement of personnel, vehicles, and lapses in biosecurity protocols, also play a significant role in their dissemination within poultry systems. Control of a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, is often carried out using chemical agents, such as formaldehyde, applied in its solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. Reports on the use of formaldehyde in poultry production date back more than a century. However, it continues to attract research interest due to growing concerns about bacterial resistance, embryotoxicity, occupational exposure, the generation of toxic byproducts, and the search for safer alternatives in poultry production systems. It remains widely used worldwide, but comprehensive and updated evaluations of its efficacy, toxicity, and risks to both poultry and workers are still limited. This review aims to synthesize the current knowledge on the use of formaldehyde in poultry production. Overall, the synthesis shows that formaldehyde remains an effective but high-risk sanitizer whose continued use in poultry systems requires rigorous control and monitoring protocols, and that the development and adoption of efficient and safer alternatives is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology)

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21 pages, 1193 KB

Open AccessArticle

Life Expectancy and Mortality in the Aspect of Diverse Environmental Exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCBs—Ecological Case Study from the Silesia Province, Poland

by Aleksandra Duda, Agata Piekut and Grzegorz Dziubanek

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1002; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111002 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The present ecological study endeavours to evaluate the variability of life expectancy (MLE) and mortality rate (MR) on a micro scale, specifically between populations of neighbouring villages in the Silesia Province. This endeavour is of particular significance due to the chronic exposure to [...] Read more.

The present ecological study endeavours to evaluate the variability of life expectancy (MLE) and mortality rate (MR) on a micro scale, specifically between populations of neighbouring villages in the Silesia Province. This endeavour is of particular significance due to the chronic exposure to halogenated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in one of the villages under study. The present study is innovative in comparison with previous research in this field, as it considers the impact of the most toxic dioxin, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD), and utilises a village-level reference area. A thorough investigation was undertaken to determine the possible consequences of inhalation exposure within the local community to polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). A robust correlation was evidenced between chronic exposure of case study residents to 2,3,7,8-TCDD and their mortality. Furthermore, an investigation revealed a strong correlation between the concentration of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in the air and actual MLE. An increase in the concentration of 2,3,7,8-TCDD by 10 fg I-TEQ/m³ has the potential to result in a reduction in the mean MLE of the exposed inhabitants of Silesia by 1 year and 9 months. In addition, the results of this study indicate that the female population exhibits a lifespan that is 7 years and 10 months longer than that of the male population. However, given the substantial differences in the mean MLE observed also in low-polluted areas of this region, it is probable that not only environmental factors, including exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCBs, but also various socio-economic factors may be involved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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16 pages, 1977 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Occurrence, Distribution and Risk Assessment of Biocides in Chao Lake and Its Tributaries

by Longxiao Ji, Lei Jiang, Shengxing Wang, Xiaozhen Hu, Kaining Chen, Qinglong Wu and Lijun Zhou

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111001 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Biocides, including fungicides and paraben preservatives, are widely used in medicine, agriculture and food industries, and are ubiquitous in aquatic environments, which will have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms. This study investigated the occurrence, distribution, ecological risks, and human health risks of 7 [...] Read more.

Biocides, including fungicides and paraben preservatives, are widely used in medicine, agriculture and food industries, and are ubiquitous in aquatic environments, which will have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms. This study investigated the occurrence, distribution, ecological risks, and human health risks of 7 target biocides in Chao Lake, a large eutrophic urban lake, and its tributaries. Four biocides were detected, with total concentrations ranging from 186 ng/L to 853 ng/L. Carbendazim (CBD), fluconazole (FCZ), and methylparaben (MP) had detection frequencies of 100%, with mean concentrations of 234 ng/L, 35.3 ng/L, and 26.8 ng/L, respectively. Significant spatial heterogeneity was observed, with obviously elevated levels in the western region compared with the central and eastern regions. Strong correlations (p ≤ 0.01) were found between these three biocides, CBD, FCZ, and climbazole (CLI), and the following two environmental factors: total nitrogen and dissolved total nitrogen. Based on the risk quotient (RQ) evaluation, CBD was identified as a high-risk compound for aquatic organisms, particularly Daphnia magna, with RQ values exceeding 1 and reaching up to 7.42. CLI showed moderate risks at some sampling sites, while FCZ and MP posed no risk. Human health risk quotient (RQ_h) analysis revealed no significant health risks to different age groups, with the RQ_h values of biocides at all sampling sites in Chao Lake below 0.1. The ecological risks of CBD warrant even greater attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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14 pages, 1921 KB

Open AccessArticle

Citric Acid-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation of Arsenic and Metal-Rich Acidic Mine Pond Sediments

by Oznur Karaca

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111000 - 20 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Mining activities in the study area have led to the formation of irregular depressions where rainwater accumulates, creating acidic mine ponds. The water in these ponds becomes contaminated through contact with mine wastes and bottom sediments, leading to the dispersion of toxic metals [...] Read more.

Mining activities in the study area have led to the formation of irregular depressions where rainwater accumulates, creating acidic mine ponds. The water in these ponds becomes contaminated through contact with mine wastes and bottom sediments, leading to the dispersion of toxic metals and metalloids into the surrounding environment and food chain. This study investigates electrokinetic remediation (EKR) of highly contaminated acidic mine pond sediments and evaluates the role of citric acid (CA) as a biodegradable and environmentally friendly chelating agent. The sediment was highly acidic (pH 3.35) and contained elevated concentrations of Al, Fe, Mn, and As. Laboratory-scale EKR experiments were conducted for 27 days under a constant potential gradient of 1 V/cm, using 0.1 M CA as the electrolyte. The results obtained from this study were compared with those obtained using deionised water (DIW) as the electrolyte. The results demonstrated that CA significantly enhanced metal mobility, leading to higher removal efficiencies for Al (82.4%), As (51.1%), Mn (32.9%), and Fe (29.5%) compared to DIW. The pH near the cathode remained more balanced, and metal precipitation was minimised. Furthermore, total energy consumption decreased by about 53% (from 551 to 262 kWh/m³), indicating improved process efficiency. These results reveal that CA-assisted EKR can be an effective and sustainable method for the remediation of highly acidic mine pond sediments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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15 pages, 6759 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Ultraviolet-Based Combined Disinfection Processes on the Formation and Toxicity of Ciprofloxacin Disinfection Byproducts in Water

by Yang Guo, Chengyu Zhou, Tao Zhu, Kangle Shao and Junhao Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110995 - 19 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are ubiquitously present in aquatic environments, garnering considerable research attention. Ciprofloxacin (CIP), the most extensively utilized FQ antibiotic, features high aqueous residual levels and ranks among the most frequently detected antibiotics in environmental matrices. It also acts as a precursor of [...] Read more.

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are ubiquitously present in aquatic environments, garnering considerable research attention. Ciprofloxacin (CIP), the most extensively utilized FQ antibiotic, features high aqueous residual levels and ranks among the most frequently detected antibiotics in environmental matrices. It also acts as a precursor of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In recent years, ultraviolet-based combined disinfection has been widely used. This study investigated the removal efficiency of CIP and the identification of DBPs under four disinfection systems: UV irradiation, UV/PS, UV/CaO₂, and UV/H₂O₂. Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa), a dominant algal species in eutrophic freshwater ecosystems, was selected as the test organism to investigate the toxicity of DBPs generated via distinct disinfection approaches. The results demonstrated significant variations in CIP removal efficiency among the four disinfection methods. The removal rates reached 93–99% under UV/H₂O₂, UV/CaO₂, and UV/PS, while single UV irradiation achieved only 87%. Sixteen DBPs were identified during the process. The DBPs produced under different disinfection methods exhibited varying inhibitory effects on M. aeruginosa growth. DBPs formed under the UV/H₂O₂ and UV/CaO₂ systems displayed the strongest inhibition, with maximum inhibition rates of 42.1% and 36.2% within 12 days, respectively. In contrast, DBPs formed under the UV/PS and UV systems showed weaker inhibition (25.3% and 22.1%, respectively), and their inhibitory effects decreased at higher disinfection byproduct (DBP) concentrations. The results indicate that while combined UV disinfection enhances CIP removal, it may also increase the toxicity of the resulting DBPs to aquatic organisms. Overall, the UV/PS process demonstrated the highest degradation efficiency for CIP and produced disinfection byproducts (DBPs) with lower toxicity, making it the most effective and environmentally friendly method for treating water contaminated with ciprofloxacin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)

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5 pages, 180 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems

by Hongbin Lu, Zhuowei Zhang and Fanhao Song

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110994 - 19 Nov 2025

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Abstract

In response to the growing concerns of environmental pollution and its ecological impacts, this collection of research focuses on the monitoring, behavior, and remediation of various contaminants in aquatic systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

13 pages, 852 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor-Mediated Disruption of Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Integrity by Dioxin Isomers

by Hideki Kakutani and Teruyuki Nakao

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110993 - 18 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The intestinal epithelium constitutes a critical barrier that protects the host from luminal toxins. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls, are ubiquitous aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligands. However, their effects on intestinal barrier integrity remain poorly understood. We examined [...] Read more.

The intestinal epithelium constitutes a critical barrier that protects the host from luminal toxins. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls, are ubiquitous aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligands. However, their effects on intestinal barrier integrity remain poorly understood. We examined representative POPs in vitro (using human Caco-2 monolayers) and in vivo (using a mouse jejunal loop model). Measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance, fluorescein isothiocyanate–dextran permeability, and cytotoxicity revealed that 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) impaired barrier function at non-cytotoxic concentrations. This effect was accompanied by increased ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity and subsequently reversed by the AhR antagonist CH223191, indicating AhR dependence. Mechanistically, TCDD suppressed claudin-1, claudin-4, and zonula occludens-1 expression while upregulating the transcription factor Slug, consistent with junctional remodeling. In vivo, TCDD enhanced systemic dextran leakage and reduced claudin-4 expression in jejunal epithelia. These findings identify intestinal barrier disruption as a sensitive toxicological endpoint of POP exposure and provide mechanistic insight into the link between environmental pollutants and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Hazards and Challenges)

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18 pages, 1512 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Toxicological Risk Associated with the Oral Use of Colloidal Silver Dietary Supplements

by Oana Catalina Bute, Anca-Irina Gheboianu, Bogdan Trica and Ana-Maria Hossu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110992 - 18 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The increasing availability of colloidal silver dietary supplements raises important concerns regarding their safety when used for oral consumption. This study presents the physicochemical characterization of a commercial colloidal silver solution with a high concentration (1000 mg/L), stabilized with pectin in distilled water. [...] Read more.

The increasing availability of colloidal silver dietary supplements raises important concerns regarding their safety when used for oral consumption. This study presents the physicochemical characterization of a commercial colloidal silver solution with a high concentration (1000 mg/L), stabilized with pectin in distilled water. The characterization was performed using UV-VIS, XRD, and TEM. The manufacturer did not provide information regarding nanoparticle size or recommended duration of use. The 1000 mg/L sample was also compared with a standard colloidal silver solution provided by Sigma Aldrich to validate nanoparticle size, stability, and spectral profiles. In addition, a comparative theoretical analysis was conducted on other commercially available products containing colloidal silver at concentrations of 15, 30, 55, 80, and 125 mg/L, based solely on the recommended daily intake and the oral reference dose of 0.005 mg/kg/day established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Although no in vivo or in vitro toxicity tests were performed, the results indicate a potential toxicological risk due to estimated intake levels that may exceed safety thresholds, particularly in high-concentration products with insufficient labelling or unclear usage guidelines. These findings emphasize the need for stricter regulatory measures and greater public awareness regarding the internal use of colloidal silver supplements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Evaluation of Hazardous Substances in Food)

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17 pages, 4675 KB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Exposure to 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol During Pregnancy in a Mouse Model Leads to Abnormal Development of the Urinary System in Offspring

by Yuanyan Jiang, Ningli Ye, Minghui Yu, Haixin Ju, Chunyan Wang, Hengmin Wang, Jiaojiao Liu, Qian Shen and Hong Xu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110991 - 18 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The occurrence of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) is influenced by intrauterine environmental factors, and maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during pregnancy may affect the kidney development of offspring. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) is a high-production volume chemical classified as [...] Read more.

The occurrence of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) is influenced by intrauterine environmental factors, and maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during pregnancy may affect the kidney development of offspring. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) is a high-production volume chemical classified as an EDC, which has been detected in humans and has been found to increase mortality and malformation rates in zebrafish embryos. Its effects on mammalian development are still unknown. In this study, a maternal mouse model exposed to 2,4-DTBP throughout pregnancy was established by gavage. The overall conditions of the maternal mice and their offspring were observed, and the concentrations of 2,4-DTBP in maternal serum and offspring tissues were measured using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Exposure to 2,4-DTBP of 75 µg/g·day during pregnancy markedly reduced the early pregnancy rate in mice to 41.75% (95% CI: 33.53–49.97%; n = 139), compared to 82.29% (95% CI: 74.18–90.39%; n = 85) in the controls (p < 0.0001), with a relative risk (RR) of 0.51 (95% CI: 0.41–0.63). 2,4-DTBP could accumulate in maternal mice and be transferred to embryos and internal organs of the offspring, and is associated with the elevated risk of CAKUT in the offspring, primarily manifesting as hydronephrosis/ureteral dilation. The CAKUT rate of DTBP-75 group is 33.59% (95% CI: 17.62–49.56%; N = 9, n = 56), compared to 11.85% (95% CI: 2.43–21.28%; N = 9, n = 67) in the controls (p = 0.02), RR = 2.53 (95% CI: 1.18–5.42). These findings enhance the understanding of the health risks posed by 2,4-DTBP and provide a theoretical basis for environmental monitoring in public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pregnancy and Lactation Period Exposure to Environmental Toxicants and the Effects on Maternal and Child Health)

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12 pages, 769 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Oxidative DNA Damage Levels in Urine of Healthcare Workers Exposed to Ionizing Radiation

by Ayşegül Yurt, Ayşe Coşkun Beyan, Gamze Tuna, Yaşar Aysun Manisalıgil, Sabriye Özcan and Hande Oğuzhan

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110990 - 17 Nov 2025

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Abstract

This study aimed to assess oxidative DNA damage products in healthcare workers who are directly exposed to or use ionizing radiation in their work. In the study, three groups were defined based on the probability of radiation exposure, ranging from the highest-risk group [...] Read more.

This study aimed to assess oxidative DNA damage products in healthcare workers who are directly exposed to or use ionizing radiation in their work. In the study, three groups were defined based on the probability of radiation exposure, ranging from the highest-risk group to the lowest, with the fourth group designated as the control group. First, a questionnaire was administered to the participants, and then their first morning urine samples were taken to detect oxidative DNA damage markers. According to the Kruskal-Wallis test results among the four groups in our study, statistically significant differences were found only in terms of age, height, and weight (p values = 0.011, 0.038, and 0.003, respectively). However, it was observed that there was no significant relationship between the oxidative DNA damage parameters 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG), and 8,5′-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosines (S- and R-cdA) in relation to radiation exposure, with p-values of 0.132, 0.179, and 0.611, respectively. The study’s results revealed that exposure to ionizing radiation did not cause a significant increase in urinary oxidative DNA damage markers. This outcome may be associated with the effective use of personal protective equipment and strict adherence to radiation safety protocols among healthcare workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress from Environmental and Occupational Exposure: Implications for Health Risk Assessment)

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20 pages, 6347 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Transcriptomic and Physiological and Biochemical Analysis Revealed Response Mechanism of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) to Methylmercury Toxicity Stress

by Lin Liu, Kang Wang, Shuiting Long, Wentao Li, Adili Batuer, Lei Wang, Tinjia Ma, Xiaohang Xu, Longchao Liang, Md. Habibullah-Al-Mamun and Guangle Qiu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110989 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 364

Abstract

Methylmercury (MeHg), a pervasive environmental contaminant, poses significant human health risks due to its bioaccumulation in food chain, particularly through rice, a dietary staple for billions of people. Although extensive research has been conducted on the environmental cycling and health impacts of MeHg [...] Read more.

Methylmercury (MeHg), a pervasive environmental contaminant, poses significant human health risks due to its bioaccumulation in food chain, particularly through rice, a dietary staple for billions of people. Although extensive research has been conducted on the environmental cycling and health impacts of MeHg on rice, limited attention has been given to understanding the molecular and physiological responses to MeHg stress, which is crucial for elucidating the mechanisms of detoxification and adaptation. Herein, we conducted pot experiments of rice with varying MeHg concentrations of soil, followed by high-throughput sequencing and assessment of physiological and biochemical responses in order to evaluate the impacts of MeHg exposure on rice growth, stress tolerance, and underlying molecular mechanisms. The results showed that significant increases in root-to-stem translocation of MeHg occurred, further inducing oxidative stress, as evidenced by alterations in antioxidant enzyme activities (CAT, POD, and SOD), proline (PRO) content, and chlorophyll levels, resulting in cellular damage and stunted plant growth. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs) in rice roots associated with metabolic regulation, signal transduction, biosynthesis, and plant–pathogen interactions. Notably, genes involved in starch and sucrose metabolism, the Target of Rapamycin (TOR) signaling pathways, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis were found to be key in rice’s response to MeHg toxicity. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) and miRNA–target gene analyses further highlighted genes encoding jasmonic acid-amido synthetase and FERONIA-like receptors as potential candidates for detoxification mechanisms. This study contributes to building the molecular regulation network and physiological underpinnings of rice’s response to MeHg stress, providing insights into potential targets for genetic improvement to enhance rice’s resilience to MeHg toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessArticle

Work as a Predictor of Ethylenethiourea (ETU) Exposure During Pregnancy Among Participants Enrolled in the SEMILLA Birth Cohort Study

by Alexis J. Handal, Fadya Orozco, Stephanie Montenegro, Nataly Cadena, Fabián Muñoz, Eileen Ramírez del Rio and Niko Kaciroti

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110988 - 17 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Background: Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU [...] Read more.

Background: Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU increases with longer work hours. Methods: Participants (agricultural workers, non-agricultural workers, and non-workers) provided baseline urine samples, which were processed and stored for ETU analysis. Surveys captured ETU exposure predictors. Regression models assessed associations between work sector, weekly work hours, and urinary ETU levels (specific gravity-corrected), controlling for key covariates. Results: The sample includes 111 agricultural workers (92% floriculture), 149 non-agricultural workers, and 149 non-workers. At baseline, maternal age averaged 27 years (SD = 5.8) and gestational age 15 weeks (SD = 3.2). Urinary ETU_SG levels were elevated across the sample (geometric mean: 3.38 µg/L). Agricultural workers had significantly higher ETU_SG levels than others (5.61 vs. 3.07 and 2.57 µg/L; p < 0.001). Among agricultural workers, ETU_SG levels increased with weekly hours (B = 0.288, p = 0.001). Conclusions: Agricultural work strongly predicts higher prenatal ETU exposure, with evidence of a dose–response relationship. Research on prenatal fungicide exposure and infant health among pregnant workers is limited. Findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to protect pregnant workers and infant health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Effects and Mechanisms of Environmental Endocrine Disruptors)

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15 pages, 2230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Decabromodiphenyl Ether (BDE209) Exposure on Toxicity and Oxidative Stress of Beas-2B Cells

by Yanan Zhang, Ziyu Xiao, Pu Mao, Fengrui Yang, Yingdi Ma, Bensen Xian, Mingming Fu and Guiying Li

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110987 - 16 Nov 2025

Viewed by 355

Abstract

Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209) has been widely used because of its excellent flame-retardant properties and ability. On the one hand, many studies have shown that the presence of BDE209 can potentially threaten human health and the environment. The production and processing of products containing [...] Read more.

Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209) has been widely used because of its excellent flame-retardant properties and ability. On the one hand, many studies have shown that the presence of BDE209 can potentially threaten human health and the environment. The production and processing of products containing BDE209 is prohibited except for special applications in China. On the other hand, the study of BDE209 on respiratory cells is not yet fully understood. Consequently, this study aims to investigate the mechanisms of toxic damage and oxidative stress induced by BDE209 exposure in lung epithelial Beas-2B cells. The proliferation of Beas-2B cells under BDE209 exposure was first analyzed by using a real-time label-free cell analyzer (RTCA). Then the cells’ morphological changes were observed using laser confocal microscopy. Subsequently, the effects of BDE209 exposure alone, combined exposure to N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and BDE209, on reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and antioxidant defense-related factors in Beas-2B cells were analyzed separately. The results show that BDE209 exposure induces the proliferation of Beas-2B cells with a dose-dependent increase in inhibition. Microscopic observation of Beas-2B cells reveals significant damage and death. The levels of ROS are significantly increased (p < 0.01), the contents of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) are increased, the contents of catalase (CAT) are decreased, and the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) are first decreased and then increased. However, under the co-exposure of NAC and BDE209, ROS levels are significantly reduced (p < 0.01), MDA contents decrease, and SOD activities increase. In summary, BDE209 exposure leads to inhibition of Beas-2B cell proliferation, cellular morphology damage, increased ROS levels, and disturbances in antioxidant defense-related factors. The cells showed toxic damage and oxidative stress. In contrast, NAC can suppress ROS levels, enhance SOD activity, and inhibit GPX activity, thereby alleviating BDE209-induced cellular damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 5898 KB

Open AccessArticle

A GC-MS Database of Nitrogen-Rich Volatile Compounds

by Anastasia Yu. Sholokhova, Svetlana A. Borovikova, Dmitry S. Kosyakov and Dmitriy D. Matyushin

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110986 - 16 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) was previously used as a rocket propellant in launch vehicles. During the operation and accidents of launch vehicles, hundreds of tons of UDMH were released. While these launch vehicles are gradually being phased out, UDMH continues to be used in [...] Read more.

Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) was previously used as a rocket propellant in launch vehicles. During the operation and accidents of launch vehicles, hundreds of tons of UDMH were released. While these launch vehicles are gradually being phased out, UDMH continues to be used in space technology and other industries. When released into the environment, UDMH forms numerous transformation products. Several dozen have been reliably identified, and hundreds are believed to exist, many of which are highly toxic and quite persistent in the environment. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is one of the primary methods for identifying these compounds. Library searches using mass spectra and retention indices are often used. However, UDMH transformation products are highly specific—they are organic compounds, typically aromatic heterocycles, with unusually high nitrogen content. Such compounds are poorly represented in GC-MS databases, while existing data are often of poor quality and were obtained back in the 1980s. A database of such compounds was presented, containing information on retention indices for non-polar (5%-phenylpolydimethylsiloxane) and polar (polyethylene glycol) stationary phases, as well as electron ionization mass spectra (70 eV) for 104 nitrogen-containing compounds: derivatives of triazoles, pyrazoles, imidazoles, pyridines, diazines, and triazines, as well as amides and other compounds. Many of the compounds presented in the database are proven UDMH transformation products, while many of the other compounds are probable. Derivatives of triazoles and triazines are also used as pesticides, and our database can be useful in detecting their derivatives. The database is free and available online. Full article

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20 pages, 25859 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Assessment and Prediction of Groundwater Drinking Quality Integrating Game Theory and Machine Learning in the Nyangchu River Basin, Southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

by Xun Huang, Xiyong Wu, Weiting Liu, Denghui Wei, Ying Wang, Hua Wu, Yangshuang Wang, Boyi Zhu, Qili Hu, Yunhui Zhang and Wei Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110985 - 16 Nov 2025

Viewed by 612

Abstract

To address the limitations of traditional groundwater quality assessment and prediction methods, this study integrates game theory and machine learning to investigate the drinking quality of groundwater in the southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The results showed that the groundwater in the study area is [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of traditional groundwater quality assessment and prediction methods, this study integrates game theory and machine learning to investigate the drinking quality of groundwater in the southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The results showed that the groundwater in the study area is generally weakly alkaline (mean pH: 8.08) and dominated by freshwater (mean TDS: 302.58 mg/L), with hardness levels mostly ranging from soft to medium. Major cations follow the concentration order: Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺; anions are in the sequence of HCO₃⁻ > SO₄²⁻ > Cl⁻. The hydrochemical type is mainly Ca-HCO₃. A few samples exceed the limit values specified in the Groundwater Quality Standard. Through multivariate statistical analysis, ion ratio analysis, and saturation index calculations, water-rock interaction is identified as the primary factor influencing groundwater chemistry. It consists of carbonate dissolution and silicate weathering, accompanied by cation exchange. The water quality index improved based on game theory, integrated subjective weights (from analytic hierarchy process) and objective weights (from entropy-weighted method), shows that the overall groundwater quality in the study area is good: 95.97% of the samples are high-quality water (WQI ≤ 50), more than 99% of the samples have a WQI < 150, which is suitable as drinking water sources; only 0.81% of the samples are of extremely poor quality, presumably related to local pollution. Linear regression achieved the best performance (R² = 0.99, RMSE≈0.00) with strong stability, followed by support vector machines (test R² = 0.98), while the extreme gradient boosting model showed overfitting. This study provides a scientific basis for groundwater management in river basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Water-Soil Pollution Control and Environmental Management)

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15 pages, 1543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution, Sources, and Risks of Heavy Metal Contamination in Farmland Soils Surrounding Typical Industrial Areas of South Shanxi Province, China

by Ying Zhao, Yirong Ren and Fei Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110984 - 16 Nov 2025

Viewed by 372

Abstract

This research investigated the characteristics and risks associated with heavy metal contamination in farmland soils surrounding an industrial aggregation area in Yuncheng City, southern Shanxi Province. It analyzed the concentrations and spatial accumulation patterns of eight heavy metal elements, employed principal component analysis [...] Read more.

This research investigated the characteristics and risks associated with heavy metal contamination in farmland soils surrounding an industrial aggregation area in Yuncheng City, southern Shanxi Province. It analyzed the concentrations and spatial accumulation patterns of eight heavy metal elements, employed principal component analysis (PCA) to identify sources, and assessed both the ecological and health risks. The results revealed the following: (1) The mean concentrations of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, Cr, Zn, Cu, and Ni in the study area were 26.1, 0.29, 13.4, 0.05, 61.4, 72.94, 27.15, and 32.33 mg·kg⁻¹, respectively. These concentrations were elevated above local background levels but remained within Chinese regulatory thresholds for agricultural soil. According to the geoaccumulation index, only Cd was classified as slightly polluted, while the other elements were essentially uncontaminated. The Nemerow comprehensive pollution index indicated light pollution. The potential ecological risk index identified Cd and Hg as the primary contributors to ecological risk, indicating moderate contamination. (2) Source apportionment results revealed that As, Cr, and Ni originated from industrial–natural sources; Cd, Zn, and Cu were linked to industrial production; and Pb and Hg were attributed to mining and traffic sources. (3) Health risk assessments suggested that non-carcinogenic risks for adults and children (0.28 and 0.51, respectively) were within safe limits. However, the carcinogenic risk for children (1.02 × 10⁻⁴) exceeded the acceptable threshold, while the level for adults (4.67 × 10⁻⁵) remained acceptable. This study provides a scientific basis for preventing, controlling and remediating local heavy metal contamination in soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pollutants in Soil and Groundwater, Effects and Strategies for Comprehensive Risk Assessment)

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16 pages, 1874 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Prenatal Ozone Exposure with Fetal Growth and Birth Outcomes: Roles of Maternal Inflammation and Metabolic Dysregulation

by Zexin Yu, Chunyan Wang, Yueyi Lv, Mengjun Chang, Hao Wang, Yunyun Du, Xianjia Li, Jin Ji and Suzhen Guan

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110983 - 15 Nov 2025

Viewed by 480

Abstract

Prenatal ozone (O₃) exposure may trigger systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. These effects could contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. We conducted a prospective cohort study involving 235 pregnant women in Ningxia, China. Maternal O₃ exposure during pregnancy and prior to [...] Read more.

Prenatal ozone (O₃) exposure may trigger systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. These effects could contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. We conducted a prospective cohort study involving 235 pregnant women in Ningxia, China. Maternal O₃ exposure during pregnancy and prior to conception was assessed using high-resolution spatiotemporal models. Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses were employed to evaluate the associations between O₃ exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Mediation and interaction models were further applied to examine the potential modifying roles of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and inflammatory biomarkers. In multivariable analyses adjusted for maternal and environmental covariates, higher prenatal O₃ exposure was significantly associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (PTB) (OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.05~1.45, p = 0.010) and low birth weight (LBW) (OR = 1.29, 95% CI: 1.09~1.54, p = 0.004). Similarly, elevated maternal SAA and CRP levels were positively associated with these adverse pregnancy outcomes (p < 0.05). Notably, higher TNF-α levels were inversely associated with the risks of PTB (OR = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.03~0.85, p = 0.032) and LBW (OR = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.01~0.39, p = 0.005). IL-17A levels were inversely associated with neonatal length-for-age Z scores (β = −0.28, 95% CI: −0.55~−0.01, p = 0.043). Our findings suggest that prenatal O₃ exposure is associated with increased risks of PTB and LBW. Alterations in systemic inflammatory markers and metabolic dysfunction during pregnancy were related to adverse pregnancy outcomes and fetal growth deficits, but they did not mediate these associations, with O₃ remaining an independent predictor after adjustment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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14 pages, 2132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Application of Indirect Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Acetamiprid in Traditional Chinese Medicine

by Tingting Zhou, Biao Zhang, Xuan Xie, Yuanxi Liu, Hailiang Li, Hongyu Jin, Yongqiang Lin, Feng Wei and Ying Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110982 - 15 Nov 2025

Viewed by 344

Abstract

The contamination of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with neonicotinoid pesticides, notably acetamiprid (ACE), poses a significant challenge to product safety. Conventional detection methods are often hampered by operational complexity, prolonged analysis times, and dependence on sophisticated instrumentation, rendering them impractical for rapid on-site [...] Read more.

The contamination of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with neonicotinoid pesticides, notably acetamiprid (ACE), poses a significant challenge to product safety. Conventional detection methods are often hampered by operational complexity, prolonged analysis times, and dependence on sophisticated instrumentation, rendering them impractical for rapid on-site screening. To address these limitations, an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ic-ELISA) was developed for the efficient quantification of ACE residue in TCM matrices. A monoclonal antibody-based ic-ELISA was developed through the synthesis of an ACE antigen. Critical assay parameters—including coated antigen concentration, antibody dilution ratio, and blocking buffer composition—were systematically optimized. The validated protocol was subsequently applied to ACE detection in five representative TCMs. The sensitivity (IC₅₀), limit of detection (IC₁₅), and detection range (IC₂₀-IC₈₀) of the developed ic-ELISA for ACE were 13.61 ng/mL, 0.50 ng/mL, and 1.00–150.99 ng/mL, respectively. The ic-ELISA demonstrated good stability and specificity, with cross-reactivity for ACE analogs all below 1.5%. Additionally, the ic-ELISA for ACE achieved recoveries of 86.87–104.80% in spiked TCM samples (Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, Lycii Fructus, Bulbus Lilii, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, and Jasminum sambae Flos), with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 3.33–12.05%. The recovery rate of ic-ELISA was verified to be in good consistency with that of high-performance liquid chromatography (86.09–102.10%), indicating that ic-ELISA has acceptable accuracy and precision. This approach is simple and sensitive, making it suitable for the rapid quantitative detection of ACE residues in TCM products. It also provides technical references for the development of ic-ELISA for other small-molecule contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harmful Substances and Safety Evaluation of Herbal Medicines)

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16 pages, 2494 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beta-Blockers as Potential Adjuvants in Melanoma Treatment

by Laura Rama, Mónica Almeida, Jiya Jose, Maria de Lourdes Pereira and Miguel Oliveira

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110981 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 575

Abstract

Melanoma, in advanced stages, is the most invasive type of skin cancer, with currently available treatments showing limited efficiency. The number of melanoma cancer cases is expected to increase in the coming years, emphasizing the need for more efficient therapeutic strategies. The present [...] Read more.

Melanoma, in advanced stages, is the most invasive type of skin cancer, with currently available treatments showing limited efficiency. The number of melanoma cancer cases is expected to increase in the coming years, emphasizing the need for more efficient therapeutic strategies. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential of β-blockers, commonly used to treat cardiac conditions, to be repurposed for the treatment of melanoma. The effects of non-selective β-blockers (carvedilol and propranolol), β1 selective blockers (atenolol and metoprolol) and antineoplastics drugs (cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil) on the A375 melanoma cell line were studied, individually and in combined exposures, by assessing cell viability over a 72 h period. The 72 h half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀s) determined for A375 cells allow the ranking of toxicity as: cisplatin (2.46 (1.87–3.38) μM) > 5-fluorouracil (4.77 (4.48–5.07) μM) > carvedilol (16.91 (15.47–18.99) μM) > propranolol (58.03 (57.08–59.11) μM) > atenolol and metoprolol (β1 selective blockers that exhibited no significant effect on the cell’s viability). The effects of combined exposures were also studied. Metoprolol and carvedilol exhibited synergistic interactions with cisplatin at specific concentrations. Overall, the data highlight the concentration-dependent nature of mixture effects and support the potential application of β-blockers melanoma treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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21 pages, 1879 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hetero-Aggregation of Nanoplastics with Freshwater Algae and the Toxicological Consequences: The Role of Extracellular Polymeric Substances

by Jiannan Ding, Jiaxin Yang, Xiaojun Song, Shuo Liu, Zhenguo Wang and Hua Zou

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110980 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 451

Abstract

The presence of nanoplastics (NPs) in freshwater environments has received increasing attention in recent years. However, the hetero-aggregation behaviors of NPs with the co-existing algae and the influence on NP toxicity, especially the potential role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during the entire [...] Read more.

The presence of nanoplastics (NPs) in freshwater environments has received increasing attention in recent years. However, the hetero-aggregation behaviors of NPs with the co-existing algae and the influence on NP toxicity, especially the potential role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during the entire process, are poorly understood. In this study, the hetero-aggregations of polystyrene (PS) and polylactic acid (PLA) NPs with Chlorella vulgaris, along with their toxicological consequences, were investigated in EPS-containing and EPS-free conditions. The results in the 12 h settling experiments showed that the ΔOD_reduced values ranged from 0.33 to 0.74, and the PS NPs exhibited higher aggregation efficiency with algae than the PLA NPs, which was inconsistent with previous microplastic studies and the Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek calculations. This can be attributed to the unique properties of NPs and the mediating effects of tightly bound and loosely bound EPS during the formation of stable heteropolymers. In the 96 h toxicological experiments, various endpoints for algal growth inhibition, pigment synthesis disturbance, cell membrane damage, and oxidative stress were measured. Both the ΔOD_reduced values and integrated biomarker responses were positively associated with membrane damage and superoxide dismutase activity, demonstrating a view that the hetero-aggregation behavior could affect the membrane integrity and oxidative stress of algal cells, and exacerbate the toxicity of NPs on algae. The present study underscores the material-specific uniqueness of NPs in interactions with freshwater algae. Further studies are needed to broaden our knowledge of the hetero-aggregation behaviors and toxicological effects of NPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Monitoring, Transformation and Ecological Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Aquatic Environments)

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16 pages, 1486 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aquatic Toxicity of Antibiotics Ciprofloxacin and Sulfamethoxazole: Significant Impact on Early Life Stages of Crustaceans, a Marine Diatom, and a Freshwater Plant

by Edoardo Pietropoli, Rebecca Zgheib, Marco Selmo, Giacomo Melotto, Rosa Maria Lopparelli, Lorena Lucatello, Marianna Pauletto and Marco De Liguoro

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110979 - 14 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) [...] Read more.

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) was assessed in the following model organisms: Daphnia magna and Artemia salina (embryonic and immobilisation test with a 10-d follow-up), Phaeodactylum tricornutum (algal growth inhibition test), and Spirodela polyrhiza (duckweed growth inhibition test). Results showed that among the two saltwater organisms, A. salina was insensitive to both antibiotics, whilst P. tricornutum responded only to SMX with an EC₅₀ of 2.7 mg L⁻¹. In freshwater species, D. magna embryos were more sensitive than juveniles to SMX (EC₅₀ 53.8 and 439.2 mg L⁻¹, respectively), whereas the opposite trend was observed for CIP (EC₅₀ 95.9 and 15 mg L⁻¹, respectively). S. polyrhiza confirmed the remarkable sensitivity of aquatic plants to fluoroquinolones, with EC₅₀ values between 0.28 and 0.34 mg L⁻¹ depending on the endpoint considered. Notably, this species was also more sensitive to SMX than expected, with EC₅₀ values between 1.5 and 2.5 mg L⁻¹, which are an order of magnitude lower than those typically obtained with Lemna spp. exposed to sulphonamides. Considering the high environmental input of these antibiotics from both human and veterinary treatments, adverse effects on aquatic plants cannot be excluded, potentially leading to ecosystem-level consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Environmental Fate, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Solutions)

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27 pages, 9778 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut–Liver Axis Mediates the Combined Hepatointestinal Toxicity of Triclosan and Polystyrene Microplastics in Mice: Implications for Human Co-Exposure Risks

by Huijuan Liu, Jie Zhou, Zhifei Cheng, Wenhao Liu and Jiao Xie

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110977 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 694

Abstract

As two representative environmental contaminants, the individual toxic effects of microplastics and triclosan have been extensively studied; however, systematic evidence regarding their combined toxicity in mammals and the underlying mechanisms remains lacking. In this study, mice were orally exposed to triclosan (TCS) or/and [...] Read more.

As two representative environmental contaminants, the individual toxic effects of microplastics and triclosan have been extensively studied; however, systematic evidence regarding their combined toxicity in mammals and the underlying mechanisms remains lacking. In this study, mice were orally exposed to triclosan (TCS) or/and polystyrene microplastics (PS), and their toxicity to intestine and liver was evaluated through histopathological examination, biochemical assays, and 16S rRNA sequencing. Results demonstrated that co-exposure to TCS and PS elicited markedly aggravated toxicological effects compared to individual exposures. Histopathological evaluation revealed exacerbated tissue damage, with histological scores substantially higher in co-exposed mice (colon: 7.27; liver: 5.0) than in PS-alone (colon: 6.07; liver: 3.0) or TCS-alone (colon: 3.0; liver: 0.7) groups. Quantitative Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR) analysis confirmed this potential additive or synergistic interaction: co-exposure not only dramatically elevated colonic oxidative stress (R_IB = 12.30 vs. 5.88 in PS and 0.23 in TCS groups) but also exacerbated inflammatory responses (R_IB = 11.69 vs. 3.52 in PS and 0 in TCS). Hepatic assessment demonstrated the most severe compromise in liver function and oxidative homeostasis following co-exposure (R_IB = 16.48), markedly exceeding the effects of individual PS (4.75) or TCS (0.43) exposure. In-depth exploration found that co-exposure to TCS and PS significantly disrupted gut microbiota homeostasis, characterized by enrichment of opportunistic pathogens and depletion of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria; these alterations were not only correlated with intestinal barrier impairment but also exacerbated gut–liver axis dysregulation. Together, the findings not only highlight the synergistic toxicity of triclosan and polystyrene microplastics in mice but also identify the gut–liver axis as a mediator of this effect, thereby providing novel evidence for health risk assessment and underscoring a potential concern for human health under co-exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 4277 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Trends and Drivers of PM_2.5 Concentrations in Shandong Province from 2014 to 2023 Under Socioeconomic Transition

by Shuaisen Qiao, Qingchun Guo, Zhenfang He, Genyue Feng, Zhaosheng Wang and Xinzhou Li

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110978 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 470

Abstract

China’s rapid economic growth since its reform and opening-up has come at the cost of worsening atmospheric pollution. This study investigates the spatiotemporal evolution and driving mechanisms of PM_2.5 concentrations in Shandong province, a key industrial region, during 2014–2023, using comprehensive air [...] Read more.

China’s rapid economic growth since its reform and opening-up has come at the cost of worsening atmospheric pollution. This study investigates the spatiotemporal evolution and driving mechanisms of PM_2.5 concentrations in Shandong province, a key industrial region, during 2014–2023, using comprehensive air quality monitoring, meteorological observations, and socioeconomic datasets. Through spatial analysis and geodetector methods, we identify that (1) The annual PM_2.5 concentration decreases significantly by 50.9%; spatially, heterogeneity is observed with the western urban agglomeration experiencing more severe pollution, while the eastern coastal urban agglomeration exhibits better air quality. (2) Gravity model analysis shows that the centroids of PM_2.5 pollution undergo distinct migration phases. (3) PM_2.5 levels show a distinct seasonal pattern, peaking in winter at a level 143.7% higher than the summer average. (4) The meteorological driving factors are primarily air temperature (r = 0.511) and wind speed (r = −0.487), while the socioeconomic factors are tertiary industry production (r = −0.971), particulate matter emissions (r = 0.956), and sulfur dioxide emissions (r = 0.938). Concurrently, the combined effect of tertiary industry production and PM emissions account for 99.5% of PM_2.5 variability. Notably, we validate an Environmental Kuznets Curve relationship (R² = 0.805) between economic development and air quality improvement, demonstrating that clean production policy integration can reconcile environmental and economic objectives. These findings provide empirical evidence supporting circular economy strategies for air pollution mitigation in industrializing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions, Practices, and Policies to Reduce Particulate Matter Air Pollution Exposure and Health Outcomes)

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5 pages, 151 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Multiple Effects, Pathways, and Potential Health Risks from Environmental Microplastic Exposure

by Lei Su

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110976 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 345

Abstract

After nearly two decades of extensive research, microplastics (MPs) have been documented in virtually all ecosystems and across diverse environmental compartments [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Exposure to Microplastics: Effects on Animals and Human Health)

20 pages, 4592 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mixtures of p,p′-DDE, PCB153, BDE47, and PFOS Alter Adipocytic Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Cells

by Melanie M. Garcia, John L. Pearce, Morgan A. Jacobellis, William S. Baldwin, Kelly J. Hunt and Lisa J. Bain

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110975 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 691

Abstract

Exposure to certain chemicals can promote adipogenesis, but less is known about whether exposure to human-relevant chemical mixtures behaves similarly. Chemical concentrations from the serum of mothers enrolled in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes—Fetal Growth Study (n = 813) were used [...] Read more.

Exposure to certain chemicals can promote adipogenesis, but less is known about whether exposure to human-relevant chemical mixtures behaves similarly. Chemical concentrations from the serum of mothers enrolled in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes—Fetal Growth Study (n = 813) were used in a self-organizing map algorithm to identify five distinct patterns of real-world exposure mixtures containing p,p′-DDE, PCB153, BDE47, and PFOS. Each mixture profile was exposed to 3T3-L1 cells at 1×, 50×, and 500× serum levels over a 14-day adipogenic differentiation period. Cells were assessed for triglycerides and markers of adipocyte formation and maturation. The results indicate that a mixture dominated by high BDE47 levels (Profile 3) behaved differently than BDE47 alone. BDE47 alone increased expression of Fsp27, Fabp4, and Cpt1, while the Profile 3 mixture inhibited expression of these three genes. In contrast, mixtures dominated by either p,p′-DDE or PFOS (Profiles 1 and 4) behaved similarly to their dominant chemicals. Exposures inducing Pparγ increased Fsp27 levels, while those inducing Ampk reduced Fsp27 levels. These findings suggest that individual chemicals alter transcription factors that control adipogenesis, and the interplay between transcription factors yields synergistic or antagonistic chemical interactions in real-world mixture exposures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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Toxics, Volume 13, Issue 11 (November 2025) – 102 articles

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