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Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and...
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Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects

A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Air Pollution and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 26 June 2026 | Viewed by 9467

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Gloria Melzi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Interests: genotoxicity; DNA repair; oxidative stress; risk assessment; new approach methodology
Dr. Yuewei Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
Interests: environmental epidemiology; reproductive health; air pollution; climate change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue explores the impact of ambient particulate matter (PM) on airway health, with a particular focus on respiratory diseases and underlying mechanisms. It aims to examine the effects of PM effects, particularly inflammation, oxidative stress, and lung function decline, while highlighting innovative methodologies like in vitro models and alternative testing methods.

The key objectives of this Special Issue include investigating size- and composition-specific PM impacts (e.g., PM2.5, PM10, and ultrafine particles), advancing mechanistic understanding, and integrating novel exposure and health risk assessment techniques. Contributions will span toxicology, environmental science, public health, and regulatory frameworks.

Positioned within a well-established body of literature on PM and respiratory health, this collection of works addresses critical gaps, such as insufficient focus on cellular mechanisms, limited adoption of animal-free methodologies, and the need for comprehensive exposure modeling linked to specific PM sources. By showcasing interdisciplinary approaches, it aims to advance the field's capacity for actionable insights.

This Special Issue also aligns with growing global interest in mitigating air pollution’s health impacts, contributing to ethical, innovative, and evidence-based research. It supports policymakers, scientists, and public health professionals in developing targeted interventions, ensuring its relevance for a broad audience while addressing the pressing need for sustainable solutions to pollution-induced respiratory challenges.

Dr. Gloria Melzi
Dr. Yuewei Liu
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • air pollution
  • particulate matter (PM)
  • respiratory health
  • airway inflammation
  • oxidative stress
  • in vitro toxicology
  • alternative testing methods
  • cell culture models
  • health risk assessment

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 626 KB  
Article
Associations of Gestational Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter Constituents with Preterm Birth: A Birth Cohort-Based Hypothetical Intervention Study
by Yonggui Gao, Rui Qian, Xinyue Li, Sheng Qiu, Zijun Yang, Saijun Huang, Pengzhen Hu, Yin Yang, Hualiang Lin, Xi Su, Qingmei Lin and Zilong Zhang
Toxics 2026, 14(3), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030233 - 9 Mar 2026
Viewed by 630
Abstract
Preterm birth (PTB) has been increasingly linked to maternal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) during pregnancy. However, the contribution of individual PM2.5 constituents risk remains unclear. This research investigated associations between prenatal exposure to PM2.5 constituents and PTB [...] Read more.
Preterm birth (PTB) has been increasingly linked to maternal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) during pregnancy. However, the contribution of individual PM2.5 constituents risk remains unclear. This research investigated associations between prenatal exposure to PM2.5 constituents and PTB risk using a hypothetical intervention approach. A birth cohort of 148,068 mother–child pairs from Foshan, China was constructed from health records. Maternal exposure to PM2.5 constituents—including black carbon (BC), organic matter (OM), nitrate (NO3−), ammonium (NH4+), and sulfate (SO42−)—was estimated based on satellite-derived spatial and temporal modeling. Parametric G-computation and distributed lag nonlinear models were used to estimate the cumulative risks of PTB under hypothetical reductions of PM2.5 constituents during pregnancy. Potential benefits (preventable PTB cases) were also estimated. Among the cohort, 9757 (6.59%) PTBs were observed. Hypothetical reductions in all five constituents during pregnancy were associated with decreased cumulative risks of birth at week 36 (i.e., the threshold for PTB). For instance, a 40% reduction (reducing PM2.5 to the WHO recommended levels) yielded risk differences of −2.29 (BC), −3.70 (OM), −4.74 (NH4+), −5.00 (NO3−), and −2.11 (SO42−) per thousand births, corresponding to 312 (3.20%) to 740 (7.58%) preventable cases. Our results indicate that reductions in PM2.5 constituents, especially NO3− and NH4+, were associated with lower risks of PTB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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18 pages, 5795 KB  
Article
The Synergistic Effects of Fine Particulate Matter and High Humidity on Allergic Asthma: An Association with TRPV4/MAPK Pathway Activation
by Ziyu Shu, Xu Yang, Baizhan Li, Ping Ma, Yang Wu, Yan Li, Miao Guo, Chenqiu Du, Fangxin Fang and Runming Yao
Toxics 2026, 14(3), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030219 - 3 Mar 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 746
Abstract
Identifying environmental factors contributing to allergic asthma is critical for effective prevention. PM2.5, a major environmental pollutant, and high relative humidity frequently coexist in urban and industrialized regions, particularly when ventilation is poor. However, the combined effects of PM2.5 and [...] Read more.
Identifying environmental factors contributing to allergic asthma is critical for effective prevention. PM2.5, a major environmental pollutant, and high relative humidity frequently coexist in urban and industrialized regions, particularly when ventilation is poor. However, the combined effects of PM2.5 and humidity remain unclear. This study used a murine asthma model, exposing male Balb/c mice sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA) to PM2.5 (75 μg/m3 and 35 μg/m3), based on China’s Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB3095-2012), and/or varying relative humidity levels in a controlled chamber. Allergic asthma severity was evaluated through histopathological changes, pulmonary function, Th1/Th2 balance, mucus hypersecretion, and inflammatory factor levels, alongside the activation of TRPV4 and MAPK signaling pathways (ERK, p38MAPK, and JNK). The results showed that high humidity (90%) or PM2.5 exposure alone had minimal impact, but combined exposure to 75 μg/m3 PM2.5 and 90% humidity markedly aggravated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and mucus hypersecretion. These changes coincided with enhanced TRPV4 activation and MAPK signaling, particularly p38MAPK and JNK, while ERK1/2 remained unaffected. A lower PM2.5 concentration (35 μg/m3) combined with 90% humidity had a weaker impact. Blocking TRPV4 with HC-067047 effectively mitigated asthma exacerbation caused by combined exposure. These findings demonstrate that co-exposure to PM2.5 and high humidity dose-dependently exacerbates allergic asthma, an effect likely mediated by TRPV4-MAPK pathway activation. Targeting TRPV4 may offer a potential therapeutic strategy to mitigate asthma exacerbation in environments with high humidity and PM2.5. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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29 pages, 22342 KB  
Article
Investigating the Effects of Long-Term Fine Particulate Matter Exposure on Autism Spectrum Disorder Severity: Evidence from Multiple Analytical Approaches
by Jianrui Dou, Kaiyue Zhang, Ruijin Xie, Hua Xu, Qiyang Pan, Xue Xiao, Yufan Luo, Shengjie Xu, Wei Xiao, Dongqin Wu, Bing Wang, Linpei Zhang, Chenyu Sun and Yueying Liu
Toxics 2025, 13(11), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110922 - 28 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1892
Abstract
With rapid industrial expansion, air pollution’s adverse neurological effects have gained increasing attention. Children face a greater risk of neurological damage because of their higher breathing rates, developing brains, and limited ability to detoxify harmful substances. Fine particulate matter has been identified as [...] Read more.
With rapid industrial expansion, air pollution’s adverse neurological effects have gained increasing attention. Children face a greater risk of neurological damage because of their higher breathing rates, developing brains, and limited ability to detoxify harmful substances. Fine particulate matter has been identified as a primary neurotoxic contributor affecting developing brains. Strong evidence connects environmental pollutant exposure to the prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a neurodevelopmental condition marked by lasting difficulties with social communication and interaction. This study explores the association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and ASD symptom exacerbation, investigating underlying mechanisms. We hypothesize that long-term PM2.5 exposure exacerbates ASD symptoms through neuroinflammatory activation, leading to neuronal damage and impaired synaptic plasticity. Our investigation employs three complementary approaches: First, integrated analysis combining Global Burden of Disease data with Mendelian randomization demonstrates a significant association between PM2.5 exposure and increased ASD severity risk. Second, utilizing the China High-Resolution Air Pollution Database in conjunction with cohort studies, we provide evidence that ambient air pollution substantially influences autism severity, with PM2.5 identified as the predominant environmental determinant. Third, through network toxicology, single-cell transcriptomics, and animal experimentation, we demonstrate that chronic PM2.5 exposure exacerbates valproic acid-induced autism-like behaviors in murine models, identifying CTNNB1, PTEN, CCR2, AKT1, and mTOR as potential core mediating genes. Importantly, these findings represent preliminary results. Several potential confounding factors such as co-exposure to other pollutants and socioeconomic variables have not been fully addressed. While our multi-modal approach provides converging lines of evidence, further validation in larger, more diverse populations with refined control of confounders will be essential to establish causality and elucidate mechanisms. Nonetheless, these early insights advance our understanding of PM2.5-induced neurotoxicity in the context of ASD and offer timely, albeit preliminary, evidence to inform public health policy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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18 pages, 5295 KB  
Article
Characterization of the Chemical Composition, Cytotoxicity, and Metabolomic Effects of PM2.5 in a Plateau City, China
by Mengying Li, Lijuan Qi, Xinyi Xu, Rong Zhao, Xiaotong Wang, Yanhui Ha, Zhe Lin, Sujin Lu, Rong Chen and Junchao Zhao
Toxics 2025, 13(9), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13090729 - 29 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1363
Abstract
The health impacts of atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in plateau regions have attracted concerns, along with local population growth and rapid urbanization. This study collected PM2.5 samples at summer and winter in Xining, a city located in the northeastern [...] Read more.
The health impacts of atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in plateau regions have attracted concerns, along with local population growth and rapid urbanization. This study collected PM2.5 samples at summer and winter in Xining, a city located in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The chemical composition of PM2.5 and its cytotoxicity on human lung epithelial cells (A549) are characterized, and composition–cytotoxicity correlation is discussed. The toxic mechanisms of PM2.5 in different seasons were further investigated through metabolomic analysis using high-resolution mass spectrometry. The average PM2.5 mass concentration in Xining during winter was 2.10 times higher than that during summer. The carbonaceous components in PM2.5 were dominated by OC, while the main water-soluble ions were SO42−, NO3−, and NH4+, with Mg, Al, Fe, and Ca also present in high concentrations in metal elements. LDH and ROS emerged as the most PM2.5-affected toxicity indices in summer (34.59 ± 4.86 ng/L, 1.19× control) and winter (8.62 ± 1.25 ng/mL, 1.77× control), respectively. OC, Cl−, F−, Sn, Cr, SO42−, Pb, Zn, Mg, NO3−, and NH4+ may synergistically exacerbate oxidative stress and inflammatory responses on A549 cells in Xining. Furthermore, glutathione metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and sphingolipid metabolism were identified as key pathways influencing cellular oxidation and inflammation. Thimonacic, 9-(2,3-dihydroxypropoxy)-9-oxononanoic acid, and hypoxanthine were common metabolites in both seasons. Our findings greatly enhance the understanding of health risks associated with PM2.5 in the plateau city. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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17 pages, 3467 KB  
Article
Opposite Interactive Effects of Heat Wave and Cold Spell with Fine Particulate Matter on Pneumonia Mortality
by Yi Zheng, Ruijun Xu, Yuling Chen, Yingxin Li, Yuxin Bi, Xiaohong Jia, Sirong Wang, Lu Luo, Jing Wei, Rui Wang, Chunxiang Shi, Ziquan Lv, Suli Huang, Gongbo Chen, Hong Sun, Bochao Sun, Nongping Feng and Yuewei Liu
Toxics 2025, 13(8), 702; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13080702 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1640
Abstract
Exposure to extreme temperature events (ETEs) and ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been linked to an increased risk of pneumonia mortality, but their interactive effects remain largely unknown. We investigated 50,196 pneumonia deaths from 2015 to 2022 in Jiangsu province, [...] Read more.
Exposure to extreme temperature events (ETEs) and ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been linked to an increased risk of pneumonia mortality, but their interactive effects remain largely unknown. We investigated 50,196 pneumonia deaths from 2015 to 2022 in Jiangsu province, China, with a time-stratified case-crossover design. An individual-level exposure to heat wave, cold spell, and PM2.5 was assessed at each subject’s residential address using validated grid datasets. Conditional logistic regression models integrated with a distributed lag nonlinear model were used to quantitatively estimate both independent and interactive effects. With different ETE definitions, the cumulative odds ratio (OR) of pneumonia mortality associated with heat wave and cold spell ranged from 1.22 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14, 1.31) to 1.60 (1.40, 1.81), and from 1.08 (1.002, 1.17) to 1.18 (1.01, 1.38), respectively, while the OR for PM2.5 ranged from 1.013 (1.006, 1.021) to 1.016 (1.009, 1.024). We observed a synergistic effect (relative excess risk due to interaction [RERI] ranging from 0.40 [0.06, 0.76] to 1.16 [0.41, 2.09]) of co-exposure to heat wave and PM2.5, as well as an antagonistic effect (RERI ranging from −0.20 [−0.40, −0.03] to −1.02 [−1.78, −0.38]) of co-exposure to cold spell and PM2.5 on pneumonia mortality. It was estimated that up to 6.49% of pneumonia deaths were attributable to heat wave and PM2.5 exposures. We found that heat wave and cold spell interacted oppositely with PM2.5 to increase the odds of pneumonia mortality, highlighting the needs to reduce co-exposures to heat wave and PM2.5. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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22 pages, 2424 KB  
Article
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Atmospheric PM2.5 and PM10 of Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia: Levels, Temporal Variation, and Health Impacts
by Hattan A. Alharbi, Ahmed I. Rushdi, Abdulqader Bazeyad and Khalid F. Al-Mutlaq
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060424 - 23 May 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2375
Abstract
Background: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmospheric particulate matter (PM) are high in Saudi cities due to industry and traffic, often exceeding safety limits. This study assesses PM2.5 and PM10 and health risks in Riyadh’s desert environment. Method: High-purity chemicals and [...] Read more.
Background: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmospheric particulate matter (PM) are high in Saudi cities due to industry and traffic, often exceeding safety limits. This study assesses PM2.5 and PM10 and health risks in Riyadh’s desert environment. Method: High-purity chemicals and PAH standards were used. Air samples were collected at King Saud University, extracted, cleaned, and analyzed by GC-MS. QA/QC ensured accuracy, with RSDs of 4.6–7.9%. Results: Seasonal temperature shifts in Riyadh influence PM and PAH levels. Higher summer temperatures raise PM/PAH, posing health risks, especially via inhalation. Winter favors PAH accumulation on particles. Conclusions: Seasonal temperature shifts significantly affect PM2.5, PM10, and PAH levels in Riyadh, with summer posing the highest health risks. Inhalation is the main exposure route, especially for PM2.5. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)
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