Textiles, Volume 6, Issue 3 (September 2026) – 40 articles

The melamine-formaldehyde (MF) fiber is recognized as a high-performance flame-retardant material. In this study, the phase separation behavior of MF prepolymer (pre-MF) was investigated using ionic liquids (ILs) as solvents, with the aim of establishing a process for MF fiber spinning. The cloud point titration method, in conjunction with a turbidity correlation equation, was employed to construct the ternary phase diagram of the IL/pre-MF/coagulator system across the entire compositional range. The effects of IL type (molecular weight of pre-MF), coagulator species, and regeneration temperature on the phase separation behavior during MF fiber fabrication were systematically examined. Furthermore, MF fibers were prepared to evaluate the influence of coagulation bath conditions on fiber formation, curing behavior, and properties. The structure and morphology of the MF fibers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area; the results show that the type of coagulation bath leads to significant differences in the structure and properties of the fibers. Fibers coagulated in water exhibit a dense architecture; the resulting fibers possess favorable mechanical properties, including a tensile strength of 150 MPa and a limiting oxygen index of 37.5%. This study is expected to promote the development of MF fibers. Full article

Many investigations of fabric-skin interaction have focused on transporting moisture away from the skin, but wet wrap therapy requires moisture to be transferred to and retained at the skin surface. In wet wrap therapies, a wet inner layer is covered by a dry outer layer to increase skin moisture content. Limited knowledge exists on factors affecting moisture transfer to the skin and through a layered fabric system. Using changes in mass of the ‘skin’ (Vitro-skin^® 19) and fabric layers, moisture transfer (i) from a wet fabric layer to the ‘skin’ and (ii) outwards through a dry layer to the ambient environment were examined and the effects of fiber type, fabric structure, and exposure time on moisture transfer identified. A wet fabric layer, formed from one of two fiber types (wool/polyester, wool), and one of three fabric structures (single jersey, rib 1 × 1, interlock 1 × 1) was wet to 180% of its dry fabric weight before being placed on a synthetic skin (Vitro-skin^® 19) for 1–3 h. The wet layer was then either covered with a dry outer layer (nylon, wool, wool/polyester in rib 1 × 1) or had no dry layer. Moisture transfer to the ‘skin’ was greatest and most prolonged when the wet layer was wool interlock and covered with a wool/polyester rib dry layer. Exposure time and the structure of the wet layer strongly influenced moisture transfer. The critical role of the dry layer was confirmed, with greater moisture transfer to the ‘skin’ occurring, regardless of the fiber type of the dry layer, while the absence of a dry layer facilitated moisture loss to the ambient environment. Full article

Enzymatic recycling offers a promising route for recovering fibres from textile waste; however, processes developed predominantly on single-fabric model substrates have rarely been validated using authentic post-consumer garments. In this study, 110 post-consumer children’s garments (15.6 kg) were collected and characterised, revealing a fibre composition of 84.0% cotton, 12.8% polyester, and 3.2% other fibres. Cellulases produced by Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma reesei were first evaluated using a bead-assisted hydrolysis approach. Although efficient textile disintegration was achieved for an in-house woven polycotton fabric (84% cotton, 16% polyester), resulting in separation yields of up to 92%, the same process performed poorly on post-consumer cotton garments, with more than 78% of the textile structure remaining intact after treatment. These results identified substrate accessibility as a major limitation to the enzymatic processing of real textile waste. To address this challenge, an optimised mechano-enzymatic process incorporating intermittent grinding during hydrolysis was developed. A grinding duration of 4 min combined with 4 h of hydrolysis produced the highest separation yield, and the integrated treatment consistently outperformed grinding alone by 12–14% across all hydrolysis times investigated. The optimised process was subsequently validated using twenty post-consumer garments comprising ten cotton-rich textiles (98–100% cotton) and ten cotton–polyester blends containing 35–85% cotton. Separation yields of 91.7–99.7% (mean 97.1%) and recoverable fibre yields of 85.6–97.4% (mean 90.7%) were achieved across all garments. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, optical microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis of model cotton and polycotton fabrics before and after treatment demonstrated selective hydrolysis of cellulose while preserving polyester fibres. Cellulose-associated FTIR bands decreased by 10–98%, whereas characteristic polyester ester and aromatic bands remained unchanged. Microscopy further confirmed the physical separation of intact polyester filaments from liberated cotton fibres. Overall, the results demonstrate that substrate accessibility is a critical barrier to enzymatic textile recycling and show that intermittent grinding substantially enhances fibre liberation from post-consumer textiles. The recovered fibre fractions represent a promising feedstock for textile recycling; however, detailed assessment of compositional purity and fibre quality is required to determine their suitability for closed-loop applications. Full article

Textile coatings are widely used in the textile industry; however, the increasing demand for advanced functionalities such as electrical conductivity and thermal regulation poses significant challenges. At the same time, sectors such as the aerospace and energy industries face growing sustainability concerns due to the limited recyclability of carbon fiber-based products. In this study, recycled carbon fiber (rCF) recovered from industrial waste is incorporated as a functional filler in polyurethane-based textile coatings at loadings ranging from 1 to 5 wt%. The resulting coatings are evaluated in terms of their electrical resistance, Joule heating performance, and rubbing fastness. SEM analysis reveals that low rCF contents lead to fiber alignment along the coating direction, limiting conductive network formation, whereas higher loadings promote more random fiber distributions and interconnected pathways. Electrical measurements confirm the presence of a percolation threshold, with a pronounced decrease in electrical resistance at higher rCF contents. Joule heating experiments demonstrate that coatings with higher rCF contents achieve the best performance, with temperature increases of up to 25 °C at 5 V. Although the coatings generally show good rubbing fastness, mechanical wear significantly reduces their heating efficiency at higher filler loadings. Recycled carbon fibers prove to be effective functional additives for enabling electrical and thermal conductivity, highlighting the potential of this waste as an additive in textile coatings. Full article

Directional liquid transport (DLT) is a useful and efficient strategy for liquid transport in nature and in numerous wearable, separation, and energy-related applications. Recent advances in surface-chemistry modification and hierarchical textile structuring have enabled unprecedented control over through-thickness liquid transport, while multimodal characterization approaches have expanded the quantitative assessment of fluid migration across fibrous systems. Although DLT textiles share common features, including asymmetric wetting, capillary-driven liquid migration, and one-way transport, their characterization and optimization priorities vary with the use scenario; differences in measurement methods and testing conditions further complicate the interpretation of reported metrics across studies. In this Review, we present an overview of performance characterization and application-specific optimization of DLT textiles, illustrating how testing methods, evaluation metrics, and practical requirements can guide the translation of laboratory materials toward real-use products. We compare representative gravimetric, optical, and electrical approaches, and discuss how these measurements can be interpreted under different testing conditions. We also highlight the importance of application-relevant testing conditions, standardized evaluation protocols, and long-term robustness, providing a framework for interpreting DLT performance and guiding the optimization of DLT textiles for practical use. Full article

Mechanically recycled cotton is heterogeneous, and nep counts obtained from different analytical platforms may not be numerically interchangeable. This study provides a preliminary cross-platform comparison of five industrial batches selected in the original industrial work to span the available production range of total nep count (TotNep). The batches differed in product category, color, supplier/feedstock designation, and production line; Batch was therefore treated as a composite material identity rather than an isolated structural-severity factor. USTER^® Neptester 720 measurements comprised three bales per batch and two technical determinations per bale; USTER^® LVI 920 used the same three bales and three determinations per bale; USTER^® AFIS Pro 2 used one of those bales per batch and ten determinations. Descriptive variability was reported as mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation. The primary inferential analysis compared Neptester 720 and LVI 920 on the 15 matched bales. Although the overall mean paired difference was +45.5 neps/g (95% CI: 14.0–76.9; p = 0.0078), batch-specific mean differences ranged from −13.6 to +101.4 neps/g and differed significantly among batches (p = 0.025), showing that +45.5 neps/g is not a transferable correction factor. A secondary exploratory analysis was restricted to the five bales measured by all platforms (one bale per batch). These deliberately range-spanning bales retained the Neptester-defined order (Spearman ρ = 1.00), but the coefficient is descriptive and does not constitute independent validation of cross-platform ranking. Exploratory Bland−Altman mean differences were +32.0, +99.3, and +67.2 neps/g for LVI 920-AFIS Pro 2, Neptester 720-AFIS Pro 2, and Neptester 720-LVI 920, respectively, with wide limits of agreement. Because no reference method was available and each platform was confounded with laboratory, operator, measurement date, and procedural conditions, these values describe cross-platform disagreement rather than instrument-specific measurement bias. The results support ordinal recognition of the selected batches but do not establish validated severity classes, numerical interchangeability, or formal interlaboratory reproducibility. Larger balanced studies using matched bales, documented conditioning, harmonized procedures, and fuller fiber characterization are required. Full article

Ultrasonic bonding offers a promising alternative to traditional sewing and other plastic bonding techniques, with several potential advantages. This paper comprehensively analyzes ultrasonic bond characteristics in PVC-coated hybrid textiles, prevalent in awnings and camping tents. Untreated samples were used as controls to compare the effects of ultrasonic bonding on various characteristics. Developed experimental designs were applied using a 12 mm welding width in a lapped seam, with carefully selected parametric levels to achieve higher bond strength based on preliminary test results. Mechanical properties (tensile, cyclic, and tear strength, including thickness reduction) were thoroughly examined to assess ultrasonic bond seam efficiency. The analysis covered thermal, chemical, morphological, and weight loss aspects before and after ultrasonic welding. Results showed that the weld seam tensile efficiency ranged from 68.27% to 96.13%, indicating enhanced durability. Cyclic efficiency exceeded 95%, tear efficiency surpassed 70%, and both treated and untreated samples showed strengths above standard thresholds. Thermal findings indicated a 3% increase in crystallinity after ultrasonic treatment, enhancing thermal stability with lower weight loss and causing shifts in glass transition and melting temperatures. FTIR spectra revealed that ultrasonic bonding had no significant impact on the material’s chemical properties. Morphological analysis identified pre-existing microvoids, with no significant increase in their number and/or size following ultrasonic treatment. Overall, the study demonstrates the efficacy of ultrasonic welding in improving the mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties of PVC-coated hybrid textiles, providing valuable insights for applications like awnings, camping tents, and roofing materials for short- and long-term use. Full article

The valorization of agricultural residues as alternative lignocellulosic fiber resources may improve biomass utilization. This study comparatively evaluated Corchorus olitorius L. bast fibers recovered from Egyptian Molokhia stem residues using biological water retting, cold alkaline extraction, and manual scraping. The fibers were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), chemical composition analysis, elongation-at-break measurements, moisture content determination, extraction-related weight-loss assessment, and thermogravimetric/derivative thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG). Cold alkaline extraction produced the highest measured cellulose content (72.0 ± 3.98%) and the lowest measured lignin content (3.0 ± 1.98%). Biological retting produced the highest empirical Segal crystallinity index (75.2%), whereas chemically extracted fibers exhibited the highest elongation at break (1.8 ± 0.17%). Extraction-related weight loss reached 71.4 ± 0.4% after 21 days of biological retting and 80.7 ± 0.5% after 9 days of cold alkaline extraction; these values reflect overall mass reduction during extraction and should not be interpreted solely as removal of specific non-cellulosic constituents. TGA/DTG showed the highest measured onset degradation temperature and maximum degradation-rate temperature for biologically retted fibers (344.4 and 379.6 °C, respectively), while chemical extraction produced the highest residual mass at 600 °C (9.85%). Overall, the extraction route influenced the measured chemical, morphological, structural, mechanical, and thermal characteristics, with no single method exhibiting the highest values across all evaluated parameters. These findings provide comparative baseline data for further evaluation and optimization of Corchorus olitorius bast fibers recovered from Egyptian Molokhia stem residues. Full article

This research examined the impact of ozone surface alteration on the dye absorption of Tencel textiles using natural dyes devoid of mordants. Fabric specimens received ozonation at two distinct gas flow rates (5 L/min and 15 L/min) for two different durations (30 min and 60 min) before being dyed with madder and barberry root dyes. Dye uptake, oxycellulose content, color properties, and staining-based fastness of the dyed fabrics were examined. Chemical and morphological changes were characterized by FTIR and SEM analyses. The results revealed that ozone surface modification altered the surface properties of the fabrics, leading to an increase in dye uptake and an improvement in color strength. For both natural dyes, the highest color yield was observed at the ozonation condition of 15 L/min for 30 min. Under optimum conditions, the maximum K/S value was determined as 1.61 for madder dyeing and 3.28 for barberry root dyeing. Furthermore, it was determined that the mechanical and staining-based fastness properties of the fabrics remained within acceptable limits under the selected optimum conditions. This enhancement is consistent with the increase in surface roughness observed in SEM analyses and the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups identified in FTIR spectra. The morphological irregularities formed on the fiber surface as a result of ozone treatment increased the effective surface area, while the increase in carbonyl and hydroxyl groups enhanced fiber polarity, thereby strengthening the intermolecular interactions between the dye and the fiber. The research findings show that ozone-based surface modification is an environmentally friendly pretreatment method that reduces chemical consumption while improving the dyeability of cellulose-based fabrics with natural dyes, and holds promise for future sustainable textile applications and natural dyeing research. Full article

The growing demand for sustainable textile materials has increased interest in the utilization of natural and regenerated cellulosic fibers in blended yarn structures. In this study, ring-spun yarns produced from Tencel, Modal, Viscose, Bamboo, Cotton, and their binary blends were evaluated in terms of yarn tenacity, imperfection index (IPI), and coefficient of mass variation (CVm). A novel Yarn Quality Index (YQI), incorporating yarn strength and regularity characteristics (IPI and CVm), was proposed to provide an integrated assessment of yarn performance. Synergy and fiber-impact heatmaps, fiber interaction network analysis, and sensitivity analysis were further employed to investigate blend behavior and fiber compatibility. The results showed that pure Tencel exhibited the highest tenacity (27.38 cN/tex) and a very low IPI (15.6), resulting in the highest YQI (14.61), while Cotton exhibited the highest IPI (137) and the lowest YQI (1.03). Among the blends, Tencel exhibited the highest tenacity, whereas several Tencel-containing blends achieved YQI values statistically comparable with other intermediate-performing yarn systems. One-way ANOVA confirmed significant effects of yarn type on tenacity, IPI, CVm, and YQI (p < 0.001), with Tukey–Kramer analysis identifying distinct groups of statistically comparable yarn systems. Synergy analysis showed that most blends exhibited neutral or negative synergy relative to expected performance, indicating that superior parent-fiber properties do not necessarily translate into positive blend interactions. Fiber-impact analysis revealed that Cotton:Tencel and Cotton:Modal produced the greatest improvements relative to pure Cotton, demonstrating the potential of highly uniform regenerated fibers to compensate for the poorer regularity of Cotton. Sensitivity analysis identified IPI as the dominant contributor to YQI variation (72.2%), followed by tenacity (22.4%) and CVm (5.4%). Overall, the proposed YQI, combined with statistical and fiber-interaction analyses, provides an integrated framework for evaluating blended yarn quality and highlights the importance of controlling yarn imperfections and optimizing fiber compatibility in the development of high-performance cellulosic yarns. Full article

This study investigates the influence of wool yarn variants and relaxation state on the bending and drape behavior of double-jersey Milano rib knitted fabrics. The fabrics were produced from commercially available wool yarns (100% conventional wool, 22 × 2 tex; 100% organic wool, 20 × 2 tex). The use of these yarns enabled a comparative evaluation of how commercially available wool yarn variants influence the structural response, dimensional changes after washing, bending, and drape properties of Milano rib knitted fabrics. The analysis was conducted on fabrics subjected to dry and wash relaxation, with particular emphasis on the drape coefficient, drape profile parameters, bending stiffness, and bending modulus in both the wale and course directions. The results showed that organic wool fabric had a lower drape coefficient than conventional wool fabric, indicating improved drapeability, a softer handle, and increased flexibility. Wash relaxation further enhanced the drapeability of both fabrics, with a slightly greater effect observed in the organic wool fabric. The bending analysis confirmed the anisotropic behavior of Milano rib knitted fabrics, with higher bending stiffness and bending modulus noted in the wale direction relative to the course direction. Organic wool fabric generally exhibited lower bending stiffness, particularly in the course direction and following wash relaxation, suggesting a more flexible structural response. Overall, the findings indicate that the investigated commercial organic wool yarn provided favorable bending and drape behavior in Milano rib knitted fabrics and may be considered for knitted apparel applications where comfort, softness, and aesthetic appeal are important. Full article

The electrical response of conductive textile structures to liquid exposure was investigated as a basis for electrical resistance-based haemorrhage detection. The sensing principle relies on changes in the electrical resistance of the conductive network following liquid exposure, with the resulting resistance variation used as the sensing parameter. Nine conductive textile variants were developed and evaluated, comprising three knitted structures (K1–K3) and six woven structures produced in raw and finished states (W1–W3). The structures incorporated silver-coated polyamide and stainless-steel conductive yarns and were exposed to water, acidic perspiration (pH 5.5), alkaline perspiration (pH 8.0), and saline solution. Saline solution was used as a controlled conductive aqueous medium for comparison and does not reproduce the physical, chemical, rheological, cellular, or biochemical properties of whole blood. Electrical resistance measurements, together with physical and mechanical characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), were performed to assess structural stability and electrical response. Saline solution produced the largest resistance variations among the tested liquids, whereas water and perspiration resulted in lower responses. Localized mechanical deformation further induced pronounced resistance changes in several woven structures. Among the evaluated variants, W2 exhibited the most favorable combination of structural stability and electrical responsiveness. These results support further investigation of W2 (conductive yarn: Filix DA5393 yarn) as an electrical resistance-based sensing structure for potential haemorrhage-related liquid detection applications. Full article

The growing demand for multifunctional textile materials has stimulated extensive research into the development of antimicrobial finishing agents capable of providing long-term protection against pathogenic microorganisms while preserving the performance characteristics of fabrics. In this study, cotton fabrics were functionalized using a nitrogen- and sulfur-containing antiseptic composition based on sulfosalicylic acid, copper acetate treated fabrics were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG) to investigate their structural, morphological, and thermal properties. The antimicrobial activity of the modified fabrics was evaluated against representative microorganisms. In addition, the influence of the antiseptic treatment on the functional properties of the cotton fabrics, including tensile strength, elongation at break, wrinkle resistance, abrasion resistance, hygroscopicity, air permeability, color fastness, and water permeability, was assessed. The results demonstrated successful incorporation of the antiseptic composition onto the fiber surface, improved thermal stability, and pronounced antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, the treated fabrics retained satisfactory mechanical and hygienic properties, indicating the suitability of the developed composition for the production of protective and hygienic textile materials. The proposed approach offers a promising route for the fabrication of multifunctional cellulose-based textiles with enhanced performance and biological protection. Full article

Thermal protective clothing (TPC) plays an important role in safeguarding firefighters exposed to high-temperature hazards. However, existing TPC systems lack the ability to address the comprehensive safety needs of working in a hazardous thermal environment. Limitations such as poor breathability, unstable insulation under different exposure conditions, and limited capability to mitigate carcinogenic particle exposure often contribute to heat stress, burn-related injuries, and cancer-related health effects among firefighters. In recent years, nanotechnology has attracted growing attention as a possible route toward more advanced TPC systems. Nanoscale materials offer significant pathways to engineer the thermal, moisture-management, and particle-filtration attributes of textile systems, making them highly relevant for improving TPC performance. This review analyzes current nanotechnology in terms of composition, processing, structure, properties, and performance. A total of 88 selected studies were reviewed and classified according to the nanosystem used to achieve relevant TPC functions. The performance domains investigated include flame retardancy, thermal management, moisture transport, filtration, and additional functions, to evaluate their potential for TPC applications. Nanotechnology can expand the TPC design space through multidomain protection and performance optimization; however, research remains largely fragmented. This review integrates findings and identifies design challenges and limitations, providing a coherent basis for comparing and guiding future TPC material design. Full article

Human thermophysiological responses differ greatly between individuals. However, textile and clothing systems are usually designed using average population data. They also follow the idea that one product can provide acceptable comfort for most users. This perspective paper introduces the concept of thermophysiological comfort classes (CCs). The aim is to group continuous physiological differences into a small number of practical categories. Similar to anthropometric sizing, each CC includes people who show similar physiological responses and comfort perceptions under defined environmental and activity conditions. The proposed framework combines physiological measurements, environmental and behavioural factors, subjective evaluations, and individual characteristics. Data science and artificial intelligence can support data processing, feature selection, clustering, and validation. At first, the development of CCs will require detailed questionnaires and several types of measurements. The long-term goal, however, is to identify a small set of reliable indicators for a practical assessment protocol. The concept may support textile products designed for representative thermophysiological profiles rather than for an average user. Comfort-class assignment may also change over time. Thermophysiological classification is therefore proposed as a complement to anthropometric sizing and as a basis for personalised and industrially scalable textile design. Full article

This study investigates the thermal performance of additive-free bacterial cellulose (BC) aerogels and cryogels produced by Acetobacter xylinus under controlled static cultivation conditions. The influence of supercritical CO₂ (ScCO₂) drying and freeze-drying on the multiscale structure and functional properties of BC materials was evaluated. Since BC is biosynthesized by a living microbial system, minor biological variations in fibril organization and network formation may occur even under standardized cultivation conditions. To minimize variability, all samples were produced, purified, and processed using identical procedures prior to drying. The materials were characterized using SEM, DSC, and Alambeta thermal analysis, while environmental temperature and relative humidity were monitored during testing. The two drying routes produced differences in fibrillar organization, accessible pore characteristics, and thermal transport. ScCO₂-dried aerogels showed a more homogeneous nanofibrillar morphology, whereas the lyophilized cryogels exhibited thermal conductivity values of 0.032–0.041 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, comparable to those of the ScCO₂-dried specimens (0.040–0.042 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). Overall, the results demonstrate that controlled lyophilization can produce additive-free porous BC with thermal performance comparable to ScCO₂ drying under the investigated conditions. The lightweight, highly porous, fibrous character of these materials further supports their relevance for functional textile systems, including bio-based nonwoven or layered thermal-insulation structures, while lyophilization offers a comparatively simple processing route. Full article

Automated cotton-percentage identification underpins sustainable textile recycling, but established near-infrared and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy systems cost USD 10,000–25,000 per unit and remain inaccessible to small recyclers. We address this on the CottonFabricImageBD dataset (1300 RGB originals, 13 ordinal cotton classes from 30% to 99%) and report three contributions. First, the Learnable Residual LBP stem, which retains the pretrained ResNet50 first convolution intact and adds a fully differentiable Local Binary Pattern branch as an additive contribution gated by a single learnable scalar $\alpha$ initialized to zero, ensuring the model is numerically equivalent to the baseline at initialization (verified to a maximum absolute logit difference below ${10}^{-4}$). Second, a controlled six-variant comparison (vanilla baseline, CLBP, LBP-Conv, LBP-Residual, LBP+SVM, LBP+ANN) under identical stratified five-fold cross-validation on the 1300 dataset originals. Third, the isolation of pretraining preservation as the dominant architectural variable: the 7.08 pp top-1 gap between LBP-Conv (43.77%) and LBP-Residual (50.85%), both embedding the identical learnable LBP module, is statistically significant ($p=0.004$, uncorrected paired t-test, $df=4$) and consistent across all five folds. This gap mainly reconfirms, in the LBP setting, the established cost of discarding pretrained early-layer filters; by contrast, the improvement of LBP-Residual over the vanilla baseline (1.31 pp top-1) is consistent in direction but not statistically significant at the five-fold level ($p=0.229$), so LBP-Residual, CLBP (50.23% top-1), and the baseline (49.54% top-1) are statistically tied on aggregate accuracy and the ranking among them is exploratory. Classical LBP+SVM and LBP+ANN baselines reach 31.85% and 34.46% top-1, confirming a genuine but limited cotton-density signal in hand-crafted descriptors. Compared to the concurrent triplet-architecture approach of Wiedemann et al. (2025), which achieves 48.15% top-1 accuracy on the same dataset under identical five-fold cross-validation, LBP-Residual attains 50.85% top-1 using a single lightweight backbone rather than an ensemble of three. These results support the design principle: augment, do not replace. Full article

The development of multifunctional textiles with enhanced ultraviolet (UV) protection has attracted increasing attention due to the growing demand for protective and high-performance clothing. In this study, cotton fabrics dyed with reactive dyes at three dye concentrations (0.5%, 1.5%, and 3.0% owf) were functionalised with titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles using a pad-dry-cure process. The influence of TiO₂ concentration and washing on colour strength, colour fastness, UV protection, fabric stiffness, and pad–dry–cure immediate washing resistance was investigated through colorimetric measurements, FTIR spectroscopy, SEM analysis, and ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) evaluation. TiO₂ treatment produced only minor changes in colour strength, while colour fastness and fabric stiffness were largely preserved. FTIR and SEM analyses provided evidence consistent with the deposition of TiO₂-containing material and its partial removal after washing. The most significant improvement was observed in UV protection, with TiO₂-treated fabrics exhibiting substantially higher UPF values than untreated samples, while maintaining enhanced protection after laundering. These findings demonstrate that TiO₂ nanoparticle pad–dry–cure treatment is an effective post-dyeing strategy for improving the UV-protective performance of reactive-dyed cotton fabrics without compromising their colour durability or handling characteristics. Full article

Cotton fiber length is a key determinant of yarn quality, and High Volume Instrument (HVI) measurements are widely used to assess fiber length characteristics. Recent research has shown that the complete HVI fibrogram contains substantially more information than the conventional HVI-reported parameters, enabling reconstruction of the full fiber-length distribution and calculation of additional length-related parameters. Before these measurements can be adopted for routine use, calibration procedures are needed to ensure agreement among instruments. This study developed and evaluated calibration procedures for fibrogram-derived length parameters calculated from reconstructed fiber-length distributions. Three calibration reference cottons representing short, medium, and long fiber lengths were established and tested on four HVIs over a six-month period. Calibration equations were generated using two-point and three-point linear regressions between reference and observed measurements and applied to USDA evaluation cottons and commercial samples. Instrument stability, calibration frequency, and the use of comb checks were also investigated. Stability analysis showed that measurement drift within individual HVIs was small over the study period, indicating that frequent calibration is unnecessary under well-maintained operating conditions. Calibration improved agreement among HVIs for both conventional HVI-reported parameters and fibrogram-derived length parameters. Two-point and three-point calibration produced similar results, suggesting limited benefit from the additional medium-length calibration standard. Calibration frequency and comb checks had minimal impact on calibration efficacy. Overall, the proposed procedures improve consistency among HVIs and support practical implementation of new fibrogram-derived length measurements. Full article

The accumulation of discarded denim waste in landfills is causing environmental pollution, creating an urgent need for sustainable solutions. This study demonstrates the recycling of denim by extracting the indigo dye and fabricating the treated fabric into a composite to develop eco-friendly and high-performance materials. The waste denim was treated with sodium borohydride under controlled conditions without damaging the fibers. To utilize the denim waste, the decolorized fabric was shredded into fibers and incorporated into two polymer matrices i.e., ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and vinyl acetate, (VA) to fabricate a fiber-reinforced composite. The prepared recycled denim composites were compared with composites based on raw cotton fibers. The surface morphology of the composites was studied through optical microscopy and SEM analysis to examine the structural properties. Mechanical tests including tensile, charpy impact, flexural bending and drop-weight tests were performed to evaluate performance. The results showed that the raw composite had a higher impact strength of 11.5 kJ/m², while the recycled composite had 9.89 kJ/m², showing a slight reduction but maintaining good mechanical strength and lightweight properties suitable for applications such as table tennis rackets, a sustainable sports product, thereby supporting a closed-loop denim recycling approach within a circular economy framework. Full article

Sustainable textile care formulations based on renewable and waste vegetable oils represent environmentally responsible alternatives to conventional laundry products while supporting circular bioeconomy strategies. However, the influence of formulation composition on EO transfer, textile persistence and multifunctional performance remains poorly understood. This study investigated the influence of formulation design on the physicochemical properties, encapsulation efficiency, EO transfer, textile persistence, washing performance and antibacterial activity of sustainable textile care formulations prepared from virgin and waste vegetable oils. All formulations exhibited appropriate physicochemical characteristics, including alkaline pH values (9.84–10.64), good foaming capacity and encapsulation efficiencies of 95.6–98.2%. Although encapsulation efficiency remained consistently high, formulation composition influenced EO transfer and persistence on textile substrates. Formulation V1-D exhibited the most balanced overall performance. Waste vegetable oil formulations achieved washing efficiencies of 86–92%, comparable to those of virgin oil formulations, while maintaining EO persistence on textile substrates. The developed soap formulations also exhibited pronounced antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. These findings indicate that rational formulation design, rather than encapsulation efficiency alone, primarily determines the overall performance of sustainable multifunctional textile care formulations by balancing washing efficiency, EO transfer, textile persistence, and the antibacterial activity of the developed soap formulations. Full article

Despite the rapid growth of global polyester production over the past two decades, the transition toward circular textile systems remains limited, particularly in emerging economies where industrial waste streams hold significant untapped potential for closed-loop recycling. This study investigates the structural barriers to textile-to-textile (T2T) recycling of post-industrial polyester waste in Indonesia, employing an integrated ISM–MICMAC approach and following expert-based content validation using the IOC. From an initial set of sixteen literature-derived barriers, nine core variables were retained for structural analysis. The results reveal that a lack of regulatory frameworks and limited fiscal incentives emerge as foundational drivers shaping technological readiness and stakeholder collaboration. These factors subsequently influence operational conditions, including collection, sorting, traceability, and standardization, ultimately affecting feedstock quality and availability. The findings further highlight that reliance on lower-value recovery pathways constrains the retention of material value, reflecting structural misalignment within the recycling system rather than material limitations. Accordingly, effective interventions should be staged and coordinated, prioritizing stronger regulatory frameworks and targeted fiscal incentives to support technological development and cross-sector collaboration. This study contributes to circular economy research by advancing a system-level understanding of the hierarchical and structural relationships among barriers and providing context-specific insights to support scalable T2T recycling systems in emerging economies. Full article

Polyester–cotton (PES/CO) blends represent one of the most widely used textile classifications globally, yet their fibre-to-fibre recycling remains technically challenging due to the chemical dissimilarity of the two fibres. Existing reviews typically address textile recycling in broad terms, leaving a gap in critically evaluating the specific separation chemistries, recovered-fraction quality, and industrial maturity of PES/CO recycling routes. This review addresses that gap by providing a focused and comparative assessment of technologies designed for PES/CO fractionation. The paper analyses both polyester-removal and cellulose-removal routes, covering depolymerisation (hydrolysis, glycolysis, methanolysis, aminolysis), dissolving systems (NMMO, ionic liquids, DES, cold alkaline), and enzymatic or acid-based degradation. Each route is evaluated using technical criteria including fraction purity, cellulose degree of polymerisation, polyester monomer recovery, fibre quality, chemical consumption and energy requirement, solvent recovery, reaction conditions, and scalability. The review finds that chemical depolymerisation of PES and selective dissolution of cellulose currently show the strongest potential for high-quality fibre-to-fibre recycling, particularly when solvent recovery systems are integrated. However, significant barriers remain, including incomplete fraction purity, degradation of cellulose DP, limited recovery of high-quality polyester intermediates, high chemical consumption, and insufficient industrial-scale demonstrations. Overall, this review provides a differentiated and critical synthesis of PES/CO recycling technologies, clarifying their readiness levels and outlining the key scientific and industrial challenges that must be addressed to enable circularity in blended textile waste streams. Full article

Clothing pressure is a critical design parameter in compression garments, yet its estimation in three-dimensional (3D) digital environments remains challenging because it depends on fabric mechanics, garment deformation, body geometry, and garment–body contact. This study developed a calibrated 3D vector-projection method for estimating clothing pressure from digital garment-mesh deformation. The method was based on the mechanical premise that garment extension generates in-plane tensile forces, whereas interface pressure is associated with the component of those forces acting normal to the body surface. Accordingly, corresponding flat and deformed garment meshes from CLO 3D were used to calculate edge-length strain and internal force; resultant forces were projected onto local avatar-normal directions and normalized by vertex-associated surface area to obtain uncalibrated pressure-related values. Five tricot fabrics and two pattern-reduction levels were used to produce ten compression tops, and pressure measured at five body locations was used for modulus-group-specific linear calibration to account for stiffness-dependent differences in deformation-to-pressure conversion. Under leave-one-garment-out cross-validation, the final linear model achieved an overall R² of 0.563, an RMSE of 0.587 kPa, and an MAE of 0.427 kPa. A 1–15 mm contact-distance analysis identified 10 mm as a conservative numerical stabilization point, with normalized means remaining within ±2% of the 15 mm reference and adjacent-threshold changes below 0.1 from 10 to 15 mm. The proposed method provides a transparent, mechanics-informed mesh-level procedure that converts digital garment deformation into calibrated body-normal pressure estimates and 3D spatial maps without treating commercial virtual-fitting pressure maps as direct physical predictions. Full article

Microencapsulation has become an indispensable technique across various industries that require the controlled release and stability of bioactive agents. In this study, the encapsulation of cinnamon essential oil (CEO), known for its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, was study to enable controlled release when applied to textile substrates. This procedure involves defining and examining several steps to establish a stable, scalable complex coacervation methodology. To form a stable microcapsule matrix, CEO was emulsified using a combination of surfactants (Span 80, Tween 20, and Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate). After forming micelles containing CEO, two biopolymers (chitosan and gum Arabic) were used at various proportions to form a microcapsule shell via a layer-by-layer approach. Advanced characterization techniques, such as spectrophotometry and laser scattering, were used to evaluate microcapsule stability, size, and release kinetics, as well as to assess potential antibacterial activity. The presence of oil-containing microcapsules was confirmed using fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results demonstrate that Span 80 concentrations of 0.4 and 0.7 g/L provided the most stable encapsulation environment and enabled a controlled CEO release profile after being applied to cotton substrates. In addition, the influence of the fabric’s chemical characteristics was clearly illustrated in the drug delivery experiments. However, antibacterial efficacy was limited due to the low CEO concentration within the microcapsules, indicating the need for further optimization. These findings provide valuable insights into the broader application of essential oil encapsulation, particularly within the pharmaceutical, textile, and cosmetic sectors. Full article

This study comparatively examines the combined influence of hemp blend ratio, weft count and dual-core weft architecture on selected transport-related comfort indicators of hemp-blended denim fabrics. Eleven 3/1 twill denim fabrics were produced using two warp families, namely 100% cotton and cotton/hemp (69/31), together with rigid, single-core and dual-core weft yarns incorporating cotton, hemp, lyocell, elastane and PET/PTT T400^®. Air permeability was measured according to ASTM D737, and the water vapour transmission factor (WVPf) was determined using a wet-cup gravimetric procedure based on ASTM E96. Air permeability ranged from 96.68 to 252.96 mm/s, while mean WVPf values ranged from 102.89 to 204.28. The results indicated that weft architecture and fabric structure were more strongly associated with comfort behaviour than fibre composition alone. In particular, dual-core weft constructions generally promoted higher air permeability, whereas water vapour transmission remained dependent on a combined effect of fabric mass, sett and yarn design. Fabrics containing hemp contributed to moisture transfer performance, although the magnitude of this effect varied with constructional parameters. Multivariate evaluation further indicated that fabric mass, ends/cm and picks/cm were key variables governing the observed comfort response. Overall, the findings suggest that hemp-blended denim fabrics can be optimised through an appropriate balance of hemp content, weft count and dual-core yarn design to achieve improved breathability and moisture transport. Full article

Arc-flash protective textiles are specialized technical fabrics designed to endure extreme thermal energy and inhibit ignition during electrical faults. It is an industry driven by the enhanced use of machine learning models, autonomous technologies, and advanced analytics. Key sectors, including healthcare, automotive, retail, financial services, and technology, are making considerable investments in high-quality training datasets to improve AI performance. Consequently, there is an escalating demand for scalable and accurate data annotation services. This review has as its main objective to demonstrate the recent advances on arc-flash protective textiles, including arc-flash environment, material failure mechanisms, structural design, performance characterization, and new materials breakthrough. Full article

Developing durable multifunctional clothing with enhanced mechanical and comfort properties utilizing eco-friendly, cost-effective hybrid nano finishes is highly challenging. The reason behind the nondurable functionality is the lack of bonding ability of nanoparticles (NPs) with cotton fabric, and this additional coating has a great impact on the mechanical, thermo-physiological, and sensorial comfort properties of cotton fabric. Focusing on these issues, this paper attempts to develop biogenic chitosan-loaded CuO-SiO₂ hybrid nano finishes with three distinct formulations, namely Chi-CuO-SiO_2(5g/L), Chi-CuO-SiO_2(10g/L), and Chi-CuO-SiO_2(20g/L) hybrid nanofluids, to incorporate on cotton fabric by pad-dry-cure method. These hybrid nanofluids from biogenic Chi-CuO and rice husk SiO₂ NPs have been newly introduced for textile application. The NPs CuO and SiO₂ are synthesized from lemon peel zest extract and rice husk, respectively. Characterization of CuO NPs by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDX), and X-ray diffractometers (XRD) evidences that spherical-shaped, amorphous, and 60–80 nm sized NPs are synthesized. The hydrodynamic performance of hybrid nanofluids measured by Zeta Sizer shows that the chitosan-loaded CuO-SiO_2(5g/L) hybrid nanofluid is the most stable among the three, and the value is +29.4 mV. The presence of CuO NPs, SiO₂ NPs, and chitosan on cotton fabric was confirmed by FTIR, FESEM, and EDX spectra of the hybrid nanofluid-deposited fabric. The cotton fabric coated with chitosan-loaded CuO-SiO₂ hybrid nanofluids exhibits better durable antimicrobial efficacy, UV-protective properties, and thermo-physiological comfort properties than that of the uncoated fabric. More specifically, CuO-SiO_2(20g/L)-coated fabric demonstrates approximately 99.99% bacterial efficacy against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria even after 15 washing cycles, and excellent UV-protective properties. In addition, CuO-SiO_2(5g/L)-coated fabric displays around 75% enhancement of overall moisture management properties and 1.22% and 0.53% enhancement of tensile strength in warp and weft directions with excellent elongation compared to the pristine one. Moreover, assessment of the mechanical sensorial comfort properties of this fabric depicts that it is smoother, and has better thermal conductivity than that of the control one. In addition, CuO-SiO_2(5g/L) hybrid nanofluid-treated cotton fabric exhibited cell viability above 95%, which confirms its non-cytotoxicity. The outcomes of this study suggest that chitosan-loaded CuO-SiO_2(5g/L) hybrid nanofluid-treated cotton fabric can be considered as optimum and employed as biomedical textiles with better mechanical and comfort properties. Full article

Conventional cotton bleaching relies on hydrogen peroxide under high temperatures and alkaline conditions, leading to high water and energy consumption. This study evaluates ozone as a sustainable alternative oxidizing agent to improve process efficiency. An ozone-based process was investigated by analyzing the influence of pH, fabric moisture content, and chemical additives, including stabilizers and surfactants. Performance was assessed using CIELab coordinates together with evaluation of substrate integrity through degree of polymerization to ensure suitability for subsequent dyeing. Results indicate that bath composition is critical, with both acidic and alkaline media outperforming neutral conditions. Fabric moisture was identified as a key parameter, where periodic renewal of the impregnation bath significantly enhanced bleaching efficiency. Under optimal conditions, the process achieved notable bleaching levels within short treatment times and with low energy requirements. These findings demonstrate that ozone bleaching represents a promising, energy-efficient alternative for cotton pre-treatment, capable of providing substrates suitable for high-quality and sustainable textile colouration. Full article

Natural dyes are attracting increasing attention owing to their environmental compatibility and safety profile, particularly in contrast to synthetic dyes, which may contain hazardous compounds posing risks to human health and ecosystems. In this study, crude phycocyanin extract from the cyanobacterium Limnothrix planctonica (KU.B3) was evaluated as a natural blue color for textile screen printing. The investigation encompassed the optimization of curing temperatures and assessment of colorfastness under simulated-use conditions, including washfastness, lightfastness, and rubfastness. The results indicated that a curing temperature of 110 °C represented the practical upper limit for maintaining phycocyanin chromophore stability during the screen printing process. Among the additive compound evaluated, copper sulfate conferred the greatest resistance to UV-induced fading; the compound-treated fabric retained a K/S value of 0.83 ± 0.03 following 5 h of UV exposure, representing a decline of approximately 16% compared with approximately 25% in the untreated control. However, washfastness was poor across all treatment conditions (grey scale score 1), indicating that under the binder system investigated in this study phycocyanin may be more suitable for decorative rather than washable textile applications. Full article