Applied Sciences

34 pages, 3562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unknown IoT Device Identification Models and Algorithms Based on CSCL-Siamese Networks and Weighted-Voting Clustering Ensemble

by Junhao Qian, Wenyu Zheng, Xulin Lu and Zhihua Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5274; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105274 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

Current methods for identifying unknown Internet of Things (IoT) devices are relatively limited. Most approaches can identify only one type of the unknown IoT devices at a time and with a relatively low accuracy. Herein, we propose a method for unknown IoT device [...] Read more.

Current methods for identifying unknown Internet of Things (IoT) devices are relatively limited. Most approaches can identify only one type of the unknown IoT devices at a time and with a relatively low accuracy. Herein, we propose a method for unknown IoT device identification (UDI) based on cost-sensitive contrastive loss (CSCL)-Siamese networks and a weighted-voting clustering ensemble (WVE). First, we integrate data visualization techniques with a permutation sample-pairing strategy to generate a complete and nonredundant set of positive–negative sample pairs. Then, we present an algorithm to generate permutation positive–negative sample pairs to provide a rich set of contrastive training data. To overcome the bias in the decision boundary caused by an insufficient number of positive sample pairs, we developed a Siamese network based on CSCL. The CSCL-Siamese network is used to identify known IoT devices and establish an embedded vector database for known IoT devices. Next, we extract the embedding vectors of unknown IoT devices using the trained CSCL-Siamese network and the embedded vector database. Finally, combining weighting factors with a voting ensemble strategy, we develop a UDI algorithm based on a WVE. This presented algorithm integrates the clustering capabilities of multiple unsupervised clustering algorithms to perform clustering on the extracted embedding vectors of unknown IoT devices, thereby enhancing the identification capability of the CSCL-WVE-UDI method. Experimental results demonstrate that the CSCL-WVE-UDI method can effectively identify multiple types of unknown IoT devices at the same time. Full article

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22 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aligning EMR Structure with Treatment Cycles: Enhancing Data Management and CDSS Functionality

by Ali Azadi and Francisco José García-Peñalvo

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5273; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105273 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

Electronic medical records (EMRs) are fundamental to clinical decision support systems (CDSS). Conventional EMR structures still fail to capture the cyclical nature of treatment plans, leading to fragmented data representation and reduced decision accuracy. This study addresses this gap by proposing a cycle-based [...] Read more.

Electronic medical records (EMRs) are fundamental to clinical decision support systems (CDSS). Conventional EMR structures still fail to capture the cyclical nature of treatment plans, leading to fragmented data representation and reduced decision accuracy. This study addresses this gap by proposing a cycle-based EMR framework that systematically integrates treatment cycles, enabling structured, sequential data organization. Treatment cycles categorize patient data into iterative phases, reflecting disease progression and repeated interventions, ensuring data continuity and analytical precision. A dataset inspired by MIMIC-III was developed to empirically evaluate this approach, incorporating treatment cycle fields to enhance data continuity and analytical precision. The results indicate that cycle-based structuring preserves critical variations in patient responses, improves treatment outcome predictions, and strengthens CDSS recommendations. While this approach offers substantial benefits, challenges such as workflow adaptation, usability, and interoperability must be addressed to facilitate seamless integration into clinical practice. Despite these challenges, this study establishes a scientifically validated foundation for cycle-based EMRs, aligning data structures with real-world clinical workflows. By rectifying data organization, this approach elevates diagnostic accuracy, optimizes treatment planning, and enhances patient outcomes, contributing to the future of precision medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Medical Data Analytics)

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13 pages, 7097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the Pyrolysis Properties of Environmentally Friendly PMVE/N₂ Gas Mixtures: A Collaborative Analysis Based on Density Functional Theory and Reaction Kinetics

by Haibo Dong, Haonan Chu, Yunhao Liu, Shicheng Liu, Wenyu Ye and Jiaming Yan

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5272; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105272 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

With growing environmental concerns, the search for alternative gases to replace SF₆ has become a key focus in the power industry. Perfluoromethyl vinyl ether (PMVE), with its low global warming potential (GWP) and excellent insulation properties, is a promising candidate. When mixed [...] Read more.

With growing environmental concerns, the search for alternative gases to replace SF₆ has become a key focus in the power industry. Perfluoromethyl vinyl ether (PMVE), with its low global warming potential (GWP) and excellent insulation properties, is a promising candidate. When mixed with N₂, PMVE not only decreases the liquefaction temperature but also enhances insulation performance, making the gas mixture more suitable for engineering applications. In this study, reactive molecular dynamics (ReaxFF-MD) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were combined to investigate the influence of temperature on the decomposition characteristics of a PMVE/N₂ mixture. The reaction pathways and reaction enthalpy of PMVE and its major decomposition products were analyzed in detail. The results showed that, as temperature increases, the decomposition intensity of PMVE is enhanced, leading to a higher reaction rate and accelerated formation of decomposition products. Moreover, the main decomposition products of the PMVE/N₂ mixture include C, C₂F₂, CF₂, CN, CO, CF₂O, F, O, and other small molecules and free radicals. The dynamic balance between the generated free radicals helps maintain the system’s insulation capacity. However, toxic decomposition byproducts such as CF₂O, C₂N₂, and CO were also detected. This study provides valuable insights into the engineering applications of PMVE/N₂ mixtures. Full article

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22 pages, 3649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Analysis of Soil Parameters Affecting the Bearing Capacity and Settlement Behaviour of Gravel Soils

by Ayşe Bengü Sünbül Güner and Ercan Özgan

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5271; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105271 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

Understanding the geotechnical behavior of soils is fundamental for the safe design and performance of engineering structures. This study investigates the bearing capacity and settlement behavior of gravel soils using extensive field and laboratory data collected from 27 boreholes in Düzce, northwest Türkiye. [...] Read more.

Understanding the geotechnical behavior of soils is fundamental for the safe design and performance of engineering structures. This study investigates the bearing capacity and settlement behavior of gravel soils using extensive field and laboratory data collected from 27 boreholes in Düzce, northwest Türkiye. Key soil parameters, including excavation depth, groundwater levels, unit weight, water content, particle size distribution, internal friction angles, and cohesion coefficients, were analyzed. Correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between bearing capacity and the No. 200 sieve value, while relationships with other parameters were less pronounced. Predictive models for bearing capacity and settlement were developed using multiple linear regression, quadratic, and cubic models. The cubic model demonstrated the highest accuracy, predicting bearing capacity with an R² of 0.79 and settlement with an R² of 0.904. These results underscore the potential of advanced statistical models to reliably estimate geotechnical properties based on measurable soil parameters. The findings emphasize the importance of combining field and laboratory analyses with robust statistical approaches to accurately predict soil behavior. This methodology provides a foundation for improving geotechnical design practices and may be extended to other soil types and regions, thereby enhancing the reliability and efficiency of soil parameter estimation for engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)

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25 pages, 19961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Sandstone Damage Model Based on the Correlation Between Energy Dissipation and Plastic Strain

by Tianbai Zhou, Xiaoyu Zhang, Yongbo Cai, Long Wang and Qixian Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5270; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105270 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

The process of rock damage and failure is accompanied by the dissipation of energy and an increase in plastic strain. This study attempts to determine the relationship between dissipated energy and plastic strain in sandstone during the damage and failure process. A conventional [...] Read more.

The process of rock damage and failure is accompanied by the dissipation of energy and an increase in plastic strain. This study attempts to determine the relationship between dissipated energy and plastic strain in sandstone during the damage and failure process. A conventional triaxial cyclic loading and unloading test was conducted on sandstone samples to analyze the energy evolution and plastic strain characteristics of rock during the mechanical performance degradation and deformation failure process. The analysis results indicate that the evolution law of rock energy dissipation and plastic growth during the whole stress–strain process is highly consistent. Before the peak stress, dissipated energy and plastic strain increased linearly with input energy and axial strain, respectively. In the residual stress stage, there is an approximate linear evolution relationship between dissipated energy and plastic strain. Based on the correlation characteristics of energy dissipation and plastic growth, a modified damage model was established by characterizing plastic deformation by damage. In addition, a numerical program was developed using the Finite Volume Method (FVM) based on the damage model. The rock damage model has been validated by experimental results and numerical test. The research findings may provide valuable insights into the correlation mechanism between energy dissipation and plastic growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in the Mechanism and Prevention of Coal-Rock Dynamic Disaster and Rock Engineering)

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21 pages, 4379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interpretability Study of Gradient Information in Individual Travel Prediction

by Ziheng Su, Pengfei Zhang, Xiaohui Song and Yifan Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5269; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105269 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

With the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), individual travel prediction has become a key technology for optimizing urban transportation. However, deep learning models are limited in decision-sensitive scenarios due to their lack of interpretability. To address the shortcomings of existing XAI methods [...] Read more.

With the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), individual travel prediction has become a key technology for optimizing urban transportation. However, deep learning models are limited in decision-sensitive scenarios due to their lack of interpretability. To address the shortcomings of existing XAI methods in analyzing the dynamic features of historical travel sequences, this paper introduces an alternative interpretability method based on gradient information, overcoming the interpretability bottleneck of travel prediction models. This method calculates the gradient information of input features relative to the prediction result, breaking through the limitations of traditional interpreters that only analyze static features. It can trace the contribution weights of key time points in historical travel sequences while maintaining low computational cost. The experimental results show that features with higher gradients significantly affect predictions—masking the maximum-gradient feature reduces accuracy by approximately 30%. Descending-order masking strategies exhibit the strongest impact, highlighting nonlinear interactions among features. Contribution maps visualize how gradients capture regular patterns and anomalies. The method proposed in this paper provides a valuable tool for understanding the underlying principles of travel prediction models, bridging the gap in existing methods for temporal sequence analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Computing and Artificial Intelligence)

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20 pages, 3345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of a Novel Training Game with Eye Tracking and Electromyography for Autonomous Wheelchair Control

by Peter Smith, Matt Dombrowski, Viviana Rivera, Maanya Pradeep, Delaney Gunnell, John Sparkman and Albert Manero

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5268; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105268 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

A novel electromyography (EMG)-based wheelchair interface was developed that uses contractions from the temporalis muscle to control a wheelchair. To aid in the training process for users of this interface, a serious training game, Limbitless Journey, was developed to support patients. Amyotrophic [...] Read more.

A novel electromyography (EMG)-based wheelchair interface was developed that uses contractions from the temporalis muscle to control a wheelchair. To aid in the training process for users of this interface, a serious training game, Limbitless Journey, was developed to support patients. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a condition that causes progressive motor function loss, and while many people with ALS use wheelchairs as mobility devices, a traditional joystick-based wheelchair interface may become inaccessible as the condition progresses. Limbitless Journey simulates the wheelchair interface by utilizing the same temporalis muscle contractions for control of in-game movements, but in a low-stress learning environment. A usability study was conducted to evaluate the serious-game-based training platform. A major outcome of this study was qualitative data gathered through a concurrent think-aloud methodology. Three cohorts of five participants participated in the study. Audio recordings of participants using Limbitless Journey were transcribed, and a sentiment analysis was performed to evaluate user perspectives. The goal of the study was twofold: first, to perform a think-aloud usability study on the game; second, to determine whether accessible controls could be as effective as manual controls. The user comments were coded into the following categories: game environment, user interface interactions, and controller usability. The game environment category had the most positive comments, while the most negative comments were primarily related to usability challenges with the flexion-based controller. Interactions with the user interface were the main topic of feedback for improvement in future game versions. This game will be utilized in subsequent trials conducted at the facility to test its efficacy as a novel training system for the ALS population. The feedback collected will be implemented in future versions of the game to improve the training process. Full article

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20 pages, 12806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Buffeting Response and Stay Cable Fatigue Damage in Super-Long-Span Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Cable-Stayed Bridges

by Yuanqing Nie, Zhitian Zhang, Jiadong Zeng and Feiyu Han

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5267; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105267 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

Abstract

As the span of cable-stayed bridges continues to increase, traditional steel cables face challenges such as excessive self-weight, significant sag effects, and sensitivity to wind-induced vibrations. This study proposes two super-long-span cable-stayed bridge schemes with a main span length of 1500 m and [...] Read more.

As the span of cable-stayed bridges continues to increase, traditional steel cables face challenges such as excessive self-weight, significant sag effects, and sensitivity to wind-induced vibrations. This study proposes two super-long-span cable-stayed bridge schemes with a main span length of 1500 m and identical girder cross-sections, employing steel cables and CFRP cables, respectively. Based on a discretized finite element model of stay cables, the global dynamic responses, cable vibration characteristics, and fatigue performance of both schemes were systematically evaluated using time-domain buffeting analysis and Miner’s linear fatigue damage accumulation theory. The results demonstrate that CFRP cables, benefiting from their lightweight and high-strength properties, significantly reduce the vertical, lateral, and torsional RMS responses of the main girder under the critical 3° angle of attack, achieving reductions of 31.6%, 28.5%, and 20.6% at mid-span, respectively. Additionally, CFRP cables suppress cable–girder internal resonance through frequency decoupling. Fatigue analysis reveals that the annual fatigue damage of CFRP cables under the design wind speed is far lower than that of steel cables and remains well below the critical threshold, highlighting their superior fatigue resistance. This research confirms that CFRP cables can effectively enhance the aerodynamic stability and long-term durability of super-long-span cable-stayed bridges, providing theoretical support for span breakthroughs. To further ensure long-term service safety, this study recommends implementing damping measures at critical cable locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)

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21 pages, 3763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Asset Reliability and Sustainability: A Comparative Study of Neural Networks and ARIMAX in Predictive Maintenance

by Salvador Perez-Garcia, Cristina Gonzalez-Gaya and Miguel A. Sebastian

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5266; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105266 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Organizations strive to maximize efficiency in their manufacturing processes, yet they must also consider broader repercussions, as industrial activity directly impacts the environment and society. The adoption of innovative technologies and initiatives to mitigate this impact is therefore essential. Traditional asset maintenance plays [...] Read more.

Organizations strive to maximize efficiency in their manufacturing processes, yet they must also consider broader repercussions, as industrial activity directly impacts the environment and society. The adoption of innovative technologies and initiatives to mitigate this impact is therefore essential. Traditional asset maintenance plays a critical role in ensuring high equipment availability, but there is a clear need to evolve toward predictive and sustainable maintenance strategies to enhance reliability, safety, and equipment lifespan. This shift redefines maintenance itself, aligning it with circular economy principles and Industry 4.0 solutions to prevent unplanned downtime, reduce failures, and improve personnel and facility safety. This research examines the transition from traditional preventive maintenance to predictive and sustainable maintenance in a real-world industrial context, comparing the design of a neural network with the ARIMAX technique to develop reliable predictive models. The study aims to facilitate a paradigm shift by proposing a predictive model that reduces unplanned shutdowns and optimizes spare parts and labor utilization. The practical application focuses on a hydrogen compressor in the petrochemical industry, demonstrating the model’s potential for operational and sustainability improvements. Full article

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19 pages, 2190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Viscoelastic-Plastic Creep Model for Initial Damaged Coal Sample Affected by Loading Rate

by Peng Huang, Yimei Wei, Meng Li, Erkan Topal, Xinyong Teng and Wei Wang

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5265; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105265 (registering DOI) - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Underground engineering rock masses are significantly affected by stress redistribution induced by mining or adjacent engineering disturbances, leading to initial damage accumulation in coal-rock masses. Under sustained geostress, these masses exhibit pronounced time-dependent creep behavior, posing serious threats to long-term engineering stability. Dynamic [...] Read more.

Underground engineering rock masses are significantly affected by stress redistribution induced by mining or adjacent engineering disturbances, leading to initial damage accumulation in coal-rock masses. Under sustained geostress, these masses exhibit pronounced time-dependent creep behavior, posing serious threats to long-term engineering stability. Dynamic loading effects triggered by adjacent mining activities (manifested as medium strain-rate loading) further exacerbate damage evolution and significantly influence creep characteristics. In this study, coal samples with identical initial damage were prepared, and graded loading creep tests were conducted at rates of 0.005 mm·s^-1(50 microstrains·s^-¹), 0.01 mm·s^-1(100 microstrains·s^-¹), 0.05 mm·s^-¹(500 microstrains·s^-¹), and 0.1 mm·s^-1(1000 microstrains·s^-¹) to systematically analyze the coupled effects of loading rate on creep behavior. Experimental results demonstrate that increased loading rates markedly shorten creep duration, with damage rates during the acceleration phase showing nonlinear surges (e.g., abrupt instability at 0.1 mm·s^-¹(1000 microstrains·s⁻¹)). Based on experimental data, an integer-order viscoelastic-plastic creep model incorporating stress-dependent viscosity coefficients and damage correlation functions was developed, fully characterizing four behaviors stages: instantaneous deformation, deceleration, steady-state, and accelerated creep. Optimized via the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, the model achieved correlation coefficients exceeding 0.96, validating its accuracy. This model clarifies the impact mechanisms of loading rates on the long-term mechanical behavior of initially damaged coal samples, providing theoretical support for stability assessment and hazard prevention in underground engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies and Methods for Exploitation of Geological Resources)

23 pages, 1540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Partial Reversible Data Hiding Using Enhanced Hamming Code

by Cheonshik Kim, Ching-Nung Yang and Lu Leng

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5264; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105264 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Traditional reversible data hiding (RDH) methods prioritize the exact recovery of the original cover image; however, this rigidity often hinders both capacity and design flexibility. This study introduces a partial reversible data hiding (PRDH) framework that departs from conventional standards by allowing reversibility [...] Read more.

Traditional reversible data hiding (RDH) methods prioritize the exact recovery of the original cover image; however, this rigidity often hinders both capacity and design flexibility. This study introduces a partial reversible data hiding (PRDH) framework that departs from conventional standards by allowing reversibility relative to a generated cover image rather than the original. The proposed system leverages a dual-image structure and an enhanced HC(7,4) Hamming code to synthesize virtual pixels, enabling efficient and low-distortion syndrome-based encoding. Notably, it achieves embedding rates up to 1.5 bpp with PSNR values exceeding 48 dB. While the proposed method avoids auxiliary data, its reliability hinges on paired image availability, which is a consideration for real-world deployment. Demonstrated resilience to RS-based steganalysis suggests viability in sensitive domains such as embedding structured metadata in diagnostic medical imagery. Nonetheless, further evaluation across more diverse image types and attack scenarios is necessary in order to confirm its generalizability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Image Processing: Technologies and Applications)

10 pages, 546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Efficacy of Elastodontic Devices and Aligners in Dentoalveolar Transverse Expansion: A Randomized Open Label Clinical Trial

by Eleonora Ortu, Mariano Lacarbonara, Samuele Cova, Elena Gigliozzi, Maria Ausilia D’Angelo, Annalisa Monaco and Davide Pietropaoli

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5263; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105263 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Background: A transverse discrepancy refers to a dimensional difference in the transverse component of the upper and lower dental arches with functional and esthetic implications. The main purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of transverse expansion movement of dentoalveolar [...] Read more.

Background: A transverse discrepancy refers to a dimensional difference in the transverse component of the upper and lower dental arches with functional and esthetic implications. The main purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of transverse expansion movement of dentoalveolar nature performed by two innovative orthodontic appliances: elastodontic devices and clear aligners. Specifically, it is intended to determine which of the two methods is more effective in terms of dentoalveolar expansion in a sample of children with mixed dentition. Methods: In total, 29 patients aged 8 to 13 years with mixed dentition were included in the present study and divided into two groups according to a case–control scheme. Of the subjects, 15 (8 females and 7 males) represented the test group and were treated with Eptamed elastodontic devices, while the control group, consisting of 14 patients (12 females and 2 males), received a Spark aligner. The efficacy of the devices was evaluated by comparing cross-sectional measurements of the arch scans at time T0 (before the start of treatment), T1 (6 months after the start of treatment) and T2 (one year after the start of treatment) by measurement in mm of the distance between the palatal cusps of the first upper premolar (if missing, of the corresponding deciduous molar). Statistical analysis was conducted using a nonparametric approach with the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The data resulting from the measurements were expressed as the mean (standard deviation). Results: No statistically significant difference was observed between the two groups at either T0 (p = 0.3), T1 (p = 0.78), or T2 (p = 0.66), thus allowing the conclusion that both treatment modalities are comparable. Conclusions: Both elastodontics and clear aligners proved to be effective devices in the treatment of transverse discrepancies of a dentoalveolar nature. Elastodontics also plays a crucial role in the rebalancing of stomatognathic and extrastomatognathic functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Pediatric Orthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry)

20 pages, 1428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on Two Innovative Solutions for Non-Invasive Phosphorus Removal from Aquatic Ecosystems

by Agnieszka Bańkowska-Sobczak, Dorota Pryputniewicz-Flis, Dorota Burska, Jakub Idźkowski, Łukasz Kozłowicz, Wiktoria Leśniewska and Grzegorz Brenk

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5262; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105262 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) excess in the aquatic environment is a source of eutrophication leading to the deterioration of water quality and biodiversity loss. Methods of in situ controlling P in lakes and reservoirs mostly require the addition of chemical substances to a water body [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) excess in the aquatic environment is a source of eutrophication leading to the deterioration of water quality and biodiversity loss. Methods of in situ controlling P in lakes and reservoirs mostly require the addition of chemical substances to a water body without the possibility of controlling their future interactions with the environment. This study compared the performance of two solutions, laminates and modules, developed for non-invasive P removal from aquatic ecosystems with the use of calcite mineral as a P-reactive material. Both techniques enable reductions in the orthophosphate (OP) availability in lake water, and its removal from the ecosystem, without the permanent deposition of the P binding agent in the environment. In a laboratory mesocosm experiment, both, laminates and modules, lowered the OP concentration in lake water for at least 6 weeks compared to no treatment; the efficiency of modules was, however, much higher. They effectively eliminated the OP initially available in the system and further captured the OP newly supplied by the decomposition processes, showing continuous OP uptake, while laminates appeared to exhaust their capacity after about 1 week. This was mostly because of technical design—the calcite dose per m² of the surface area was 168 times higher in modules compared to laminates. Treatment using both techniques caused a slight pH decrease compared to no treatment with a minor change of up to 0.2 point. Modules have the most potential for the implementation in practice as they are able to decrease the OP concentration for relatively long time periods of weeks to months without the need to be exchanged. They offer a refillable and reusable system for P control, removal, and recovery. Field tests should be performed to verify the performance of modules and laminates under in-lake conditions and complex interactions with the aquatic organisms to check for possible limitations and/or synergies between the non-invasive P removal techniques and native processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Water Treatment: Challenges and Trends)

17 pages, 4690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pedestrian Perceived Risk of Construction Obstructions and Barriers Identified via Image Segmentation

by Taegwan Yoon, Minji Choi and Seulbi Lee

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5261; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105261 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Pedestrian safety near construction sites is increasingly threatened by sidewalk obstructions such as materials and equipment. Despite growing attention to pedestrian-friendly environments, few studies have quantified how such visual encroachments affect the perceived risk. This study introduces a novel image-based framework that integrates [...] Read more.

Pedestrian safety near construction sites is increasingly threatened by sidewalk obstructions such as materials and equipment. Despite growing attention to pedestrian-friendly environments, few studies have quantified how such visual encroachments affect the perceived risk. This study introduces a novel image-based framework that integrates the Segment Anything Model (SAM) for the object-level segmentation of sidewalks, obstructions, and barriers in 61 real-world street images. The results revealed significant differences in the perceived risk across four sidewalk environment types, defined by the presence or absence of obstructions and barriers. In addition, the proportion of sidewalk occupied by obstructions was strongly correlated with the perceived risk, whereas the relative size of barriers had no significant effect. This study provides a practical understanding of how temporary obstructions and barriers affect pedestrians’ perceived risk, supporting more effective safety management in urban construction environments. It also contributes to advances in research by providing an objective method for assessing visible hazards using advanced image segmentation techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)

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17 pages, 3965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Discrete Element Simulations of Damage Evolution of NiAl-Based Material Reconstructed by Micro-CT Imaging

by Arnas Kačeniauskas, Ruslan Pacevič, Eugeniuš Stupak, Jerzy Rojek, Marcin Chmielewski, Agnieszka Grabias and Szymon Nosewicz

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5260; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105260 (registering DOI) - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Sintered porous materials present challenges for any modeling approach applied to simulate their damage evolution because of their complex microstructure, which is crucial for the initialization and propagation of microcracks. This paper presents discrete element simulations of the damage evolution of a NiAl-based [...] Read more.

Sintered porous materials present challenges for any modeling approach applied to simulate their damage evolution because of their complex microstructure, which is crucial for the initialization and propagation of microcracks. This paper presents discrete element simulations of the damage evolution of a NiAl-based material reconstructed by micro-CT imaging. A novel geometry reconstruction procedure based on micro-CT images and the adapted advancing front algorithm fills the solid phase using well-connected irregular and highly dense sphere packing, which directly represents the microstructure of the porous material. Uniaxial compression experiments were performed to identify the behavior of the NiAl sample and validate the discrete element model. Discrete element simulations based on micro-CT imaging revealed a realistic representation of the damage evolution and stress–strain dependency. The stress and strain of the numerically obtained curve peak differed from the experimentally measured values by 0.1% and 4.2%, respectively. The analysis of damage evolution was performed according to the time variation rate of the broken bond count. Investigation of the stress–strain dependencies obtained by using different values of the compression strain rate showed that the performed simulations approached the quasi-static state and achieved the acceptable accuracy within the limits of the available computational resources. The proposed stress scaling technique allowed a seven times increase of the size of the time step, which reduced the computing time by seven times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mechanical Engineering)

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36 pages, 4700 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrification in Maritime Vessels: Reviewing Storage Solutions and Long-Term Energy Management

by Ahmet Aksöz, Burçak Asal, Saeed Golestan, Merve Gençtürk, Saadin Oyucu and Emre Biçer

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5259; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105259 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Electric and hybrid marine vessels are marking a new phase of eco-friendly maritime transport, combining electricity and traditional propulsion to boost efficiency and reduce emissions. The industry’s advancements in charging infrastructure and strict regulations help these vessels lead the way toward a sustainable [...] Read more.

Electric and hybrid marine vessels are marking a new phase of eco-friendly maritime transport, combining electricity and traditional propulsion to boost efficiency and reduce emissions. The industry’s advancements in charging infrastructure and strict regulations help these vessels lead the way toward a sustainable and economically viable future in shipping. In this review, electric and hybrid marine vessels are discussed, including past applications and trend demonstrations. This paper systematically analyzes maritime vessels’ energy management and battery systems, highlighting advances in lithium-based and alternative battery technologies. Additionally, the review examines the impact of these technologies on sustainability and operational efficiency in the maritime industry. This paper contributes to the field by presenting a holistic view of the challenges and solutions associated with the electrification of maritime vessels, aiming to inform future developments and policymaking in this dynamic sector. Unlike many existing reviews that focus exclusively on battery chemistries or energy management algorithms, this manuscript integrates multiple aspects of maritime electrification—including propulsion types, charging infrastructure, grid systems (MVDC), EMS, BMS, and AI applications—into one cohesive systems-level review. This cross-sectional integration is particularly rare in the literature and enhances the practical value of the review for designers, policymakers, and shipbuilders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewable Energy Integration for Decarbonization in Green Ports and Shipping)

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40 pages, 13328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Accessibility Parameters in Education Software That Supports Three-Dimensional Interactions

by Ana Kešelj Dilberović, Krunoslav Žubrinić, Mario Miličević and Mihaela Kristić

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5258; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105258 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

This paper analyzes and evaluates different types of interactions in educational software that uses three-dimensional (3D) interactions and visualization technologies, with a focus on accessibility in such environments. To determine the accessibility parameters based on 3D user interactions, a two-phase pilot study was [...] Read more.

This paper analyzes and evaluates different types of interactions in educational software that uses three-dimensional (3D) interactions and visualization technologies, with a focus on accessibility in such environments. To determine the accessibility parameters based on 3D user interactions, a two-phase pilot study was conducted. In the first phase, the GeometryGame research instrument was tested, in which objective metrics were collected. In the second phase, subjective metrics were collected in the form of participants’ opinions on certain aspects of accessibility and interactions implemented in the GeometryGame. The most important interaction parameters were evaluated, including the size of the objects, the presence of distractions, the intuitiveness of the user interface, and the size and distance of the interaction elements from the virtual hand. The results provide insight into user preferences and highlight the importance of customizing the user interface to ensure effective and accessible 3D interactions. Based on objective measurements and subjective user feedback, recommendations were developed to improve the accessibility of educational software that supports 3D interactions; to increase usability, reliability, and user comfort; and to enhance future research in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Computing and Artificial Intelligence)

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18 pages, 3385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kriging-Based Time-Variant Reliability Analysis Incorporating Error Distance Function and First Crossing Time Point

by Fuhong Yu, Xiao Wu and Shui Yu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5257; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105257 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

To address the time-variant reliability (TVR) issue during a structure’s life cycle, we propose an innovative Kriging method named EDFK-FCTP. This active-learning TVR analysis is based on an error distance function (EDF) and the first crossing time point (FCTP). We employ Latinized partially [...] Read more.

To address the time-variant reliability (TVR) issue during a structure’s life cycle, we propose an innovative Kriging method named EDFK-FCTP. This active-learning TVR analysis is based on an error distance function (EDF) and the first crossing time point (FCTP). We employ Latinized partially stratified sampling (LPSS) to estimate the first four-order origin moments of the FCTP surrogate model. The convergence condition for establishing the optimal surrogate model for the FCTP is determined by the geometric mean of the probability density of training samples and the maximum error of the first four-order origin moments across two adjacent iterations. Utilizing the optimal surrogate model, the probability density function (PDF) of the FCTP is solved using kernel density estimation (KDE), thereby deriving the failure probability of the structure throughout its life cycle. Example analyses demonstrate that the calculation accuracy of our proposed method fulfills engineering requirements. Notably, it presents certain advantages over alternative methods, particularly in regions of low failure probability. For complex performance functions, our method offers significant computational efficiency benefits compared to other approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Enhanced Engineering Structural Integrity Assessment and Design)

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27 pages, 6827 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Design Considerations and Connection Techniques in Modular Composite Construction

by Manivannan Thulasirangan Lakshmidevi, K. S. K. Karthik Reddy, Riyadh Al-Ameri and Bidur Kafle

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 5256; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105256 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Precast concrete structures have become increasingly popular in the construction industry due to their ability to enhance efficiency, structural soundness, quality, and sustainability. Among these, modular construction has emerged as a transformative approach that fully leverages precast technology by manufacturing 3D modules off-site [...] Read more.

Precast concrete structures have become increasingly popular in the construction industry due to their ability to enhance efficiency, structural soundness, quality, and sustainability. Among these, modular construction has emerged as a transformative approach that fully leverages precast technology by manufacturing 3D modules off-site and assembling them on-site using inter-module connections. This study reviewed current literature trends on precast concrete structures and modular construction, analysing how modular construction distinguishes itself from other precast systems. This review further emphasises the role of composite connections—grouted, bolted, and hybrid systems—critical in ensuring structural integrity, efficiency in load transfer, and seismic resilience in modular construction. Advancements in composite connections have demonstrated significant promise, particularly in seismic performance, with reported energy dissipation improvements of up to 30% in hybrid connection systems. Yet limitations still exist, necessitating improvements in load transfer efficiency, ductility, and reliability under dynamic loads. Additionally, design considerations for modular construction, such as modular configurations, handling stresses, and transportation challenges, are explored to highlight their influence on system performance. This review underscores the feasibility and potential of modular construction in fostering sustainable and resilient infrastructure, as studies indicate that modular construction can reduce project timelines by up to 50% while minimising material waste by approximately 30%. The role of Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques and intelligent monitoring systems in assessing and enhancing the lifecycle performance of composite connections is also emphasised. This review further advocates for continued research to refine composite connections and support the broader adoption of modular construction in modern building practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation and Intelligent Monitoring for Composite Materials)

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