Applied Biosciences

Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) is widely used to investigate human corticospinal and cortical physiology, yet individual physiological measures provide only partial information about cortical function. This systematic review aimed to synthesize evidence on human physiological responses evoked by spTMS, with particular emphasis on resting and active motor thresholds, motor-evoked potentials (MEPs), corticospinal silent periods (CSPs), and biological and technical determinants of response variability. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 and searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, supplemented by citation tracking. Evidence was synthesized qualitatively because of substantial heterogeneity in stimulation protocols, populations, recording methods, and outcomes. Across the included literature, no single measure fully characterized corticospinal excitability: motor thresholds primarily reflected membrane/axonal excitability, MEPs reflected integrated corticospinal output, and CSPs provided information on intracortical inhibitory processes. Age, sex-related anatomical and hormonal factors, cortical anatomy, coil position and orientation, pulse waveform, stimulation intensity, muscle state, attention, fatigue, sleep, and medication contributed to response variability. The findings support an integrated interpretation of spTMS measures, standardized protocols, and individualized electric field modeling. TMS-evoked EEG potentials (TEPs) methodology is discussed only as complementary contextual information; TEPs were not systematically targeted by the original search strategy and were therefore not included among the outcomes of the systematic synthesis. The exact historical search date could not be reconstructed from the available documentation and is reported transparently as a limitation.

Hilsa muscle biomass was hydrolyzed to recover bioactive proteins and peptides using subcritical water hydrolysis (SWH) with ultrasound pretreatment at various temperatures (150–250 °C) and pressures (40–80 bar). Hydrolysis yield was increased with rising temperature and pressure, with the highest yield (98.70 ± 0.60%) observed at 250 °C and 80 bar using SWH with ultrasound pretreatment (UPT). The properties of the hydrolysates—including pH, taurine content, and color values—were influenced by the hydrolysis conditions. Additionally, total protein content, reducing sugar levels, antioxidant activity, foaming capacity (FC), and foaming stability (FS) increased at higher temperatures and pressures. Hydrolysates prepared at 225 °C and 70 bar, as well as at 250 °C and 80 bar, contained highly bioactive peptides and molecules that exhibited inhibitory effects on hydroxyl radicals and prevented λ DNA degradation. The highest 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) activities were observed in hydrolysates obtained at 225 °C and 70 bar with ultrasound pretreatment, reaching 96.88 ± 0.26% and 76.36 ± 2.84%, respectively. Amino acid profile analysis showed that the greatest number of amino acids (eight) was detected in hydrolysates produced through SWH at 250 °C and 80 bar. Overall, SWH combined with ultrasound pretreatment markedly enhanced yield and biofunctional properties of hilsa protein hydrolysates, highlighting their potential applications in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

Water contamination by heavy metals is a major global concern resulting from anthropogenic activities and natural geological processes. Their removal and recovery are important for protecting water resources and addressing the depletion of critical metals. This study evaluated wild sugarcane (WSC) biochar as an adsorbent for Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ removal from aqueous media, providing a potential valorization pathway for this biomass. WSC biochars were produced at airflow rates of 8, 12, 16, and 20 L min⁻¹ and characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ adsorption data were analyzed using the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherm models. The characterization results indicated the presence of oxygen-, carbon-, and hydrogen-containing surface functional groups that may contribute to metal adsorption. Under the investigated batch conditions, BP12 achieved removal efficiencies of approximately 70–90% for Cu²⁺ and 83–94% for Zn²⁺. For BP12, the Langmuir expression yielded an apparent maximum Cu²⁺ adsorption capacity of 42.3 mg g⁻¹, while Zn²⁺ uptake reached 26.9 mg g⁻¹ and was best described by the Freundlich expression among the models evaluated; the Langmuir model did not converge for Zn²⁺. These results demonstrate the potential of WSC biochar for Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ removal from aqueous media and support the valorization of wild-sugarcane biomass as a minimally processed adsorbent.