Polysaccharide-Enriched Bakery and Pasta Products: Advances, Functional Benefits, and Challenges in Modern Food Innovation

Abstract

The increasing consumer demand for healthier food choices has stimulated research into functional bakery products enriched with bioactive ingredients. This review summarizes recent developments in the application of key polysaccharides—such as inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), β-glucan, arabinoxylan, pectin, cellulose derivatives, resistant starch, maltodextrins, and dextrins—in bread, pasta, and fine bakery systems. Their incorporation affects dough rheology, fermentation behavior, and gas retention, leading to modifications in texture, volume, and shelf-life stability. Technologically, polysaccharides function as hydrocolloids, fat and sugar replacers, or water-binding agents, influencing gluten network formation and starch gelatinization. Nutritionally, they contribute to higher dietary fiber intake, improved postprandial glycemic response, enhanced satiety, and favorable modulation of gut microbiota. From a sensory perspective, optimized formulations can maintain or even improve product acceptability despite structural changes. However, challenges remain related to dosage optimization, interactions with the gluten–starch matrix, and gastrointestinal tolerance (particularly in FODMAP-sensitive individuals). This review summarizes current knowledge and future opportunities for creating innovative bakery products that unite technological functionality with nutritional and sensory excellence.

1. Introduction

Bakery and pasta products are staple foods worldwide, often accounting for more than one-third of daily caloric intake in many populations. However, their traditional formulations—typically low in dietary fibre—are associated with increased prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic non-communicable diseases [1,2]. Recent umbrella reviews and meta-analyses confirm that higher dietary fibre intake significantly reduces the risk of chronic diseases, systemic inflammation, and overall mortality [1,3]. Given their broad consumption and cultural relevance, breads, pastries, and pasta represent ideal vehicles for fiber enrichment and functional food reformulation [4,5].

Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers composed of monosaccharide units, which may function as structural, storage, or functional biopolymers. When non-digestible by human enzymes, they are classified as dietary fibres, while hydrocolloids represent polysaccharides (or proteins) with high water-binding capacity used as thickeners, stabilizers, or gelling agents. Consequently, polysaccharides have gained considerable interest as multifunctional ingredients capable of improving both technological performance and nutritional quality. They occur naturally in cereals, legumes, fruits, and microbial sources, and are recognised for their dual role: enhancing dough rheology, water-binding, gas retention, crumb structure, and cooking quality, while also acting as dietary fibres and prebiotics [6,7]. From a technological point of view, the incorporation of polysaccharides significantly modifies dough viscoelastic properties, increases water absorption, and affects gluten aggregation and starch gelatinisation, leading to changes in dough stability, gas retention, and baking yield. Their action depends on molecular weight, charge, and branching, which determine whether they reinforce or weaken the gluten–starch matrix [8]. In breads, polysaccharides can improve loaf volume, texture, and shelf life; in pasta and noodles, they reduce cooking losses and increase firmness; and in fine bakery products such as cakes, biscuits, and muffins, they act as fat or sugar replacers and moisture retainers, supporting healthier formulations without compromising sensory quality [7,9]. Polysaccharides such as xanthan gum, guar gum, and cellulose derivatives enhance gas-holding capacity and delay staling, while soluble fibres such as inulin or β-glucan can increase dough elasticity, improve crumb softness, and reduce hardness during storage [10].

Nutritionally, polysaccharides reduce starch digestibility, improve postprandial glycaemic control, enhance satiety, have cholesterol-lowering effects, and beneficially modulate the gut microbiota [6]. They slow glucose release by forming viscous matrices that limit starch hydrolysis and, upon fermentation in the colon, generate short-chain fatty acids that contribute to gut health, lipid metabolism, and immune regulation [11]. Clinical trials with reformulated breads enriched in functional fibres have demonstrated reductions in fasting blood glucose and improved consumer acceptance, underlining their translational potential in daily diets [12]. In addition to health-promoting benefits, polysaccharide incorporation can modify key sensory attributes—improving softness, moisture retention, and overall mouthfeel—while maintaining or even enhancing consumer acceptance when optimal concentrations are applied [13]. Nevertheless, their technological and nutritional outcomes are strongly influenced by structural characteristics such as molecular weight, degree of polymerisation, and solubility, as well as by processing and formulation conditions [7].

Previous reviews have addressed hydrocolloids or dietary fibres in bakery products, yet few have systematically compared individual polysaccharides across breads, pasta, and fine bakery matrices, integrating their technological, sensory, nutritional, and functional effects. The selection of the major polysaccharide classes discussed herein (inulin, β-glucan, arabinoxylan, pectin, cellulose derivatives, resistant starch, and maltodextrins) was based on their documented technological and physiological importance in bakery systems, frequency of appearance in recent scientific literature (2015–2024), and relevance to both industrial formulation and nutritional functionality. These polysaccharides are also among those with established or emerging health claim recognition (e.g., inulin and β-glucan) and proven applicability in improving dough rheology, product structure, and overall nutritional quality. Special emphasis is given to their mechanisms of action, potential to improve product quality and nutritional value, and innovative strategies to overcome formulation challenges.

2. Methods

A structured literature search was conducted to identify studies on the technological, nutritional, and functional effects of polysaccharides in bakery and pasta systems. Scientific articles were retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. The search covered primarily the period 2015–2024, with earlier key references included where necessary to explain fundamental mechanisms in dough rheology and polymer interactions. Search terms included “polysaccharides”, “dietary fibre”, “hydrocolloids”, “exopolysaccharides”, “bread”, “bakery”, “pasta”, “dough”, “inulin”, “FOS”, “β-glucan”, “arabinoxylan”, “pectin”, “resistant starch”, “modified starch”, “maltodextrin”, “HPMC”, “CMC”, “xanthan gum”. Articles were screened by title, abstract, and full text. Relevant data were synthesised qualitatively to summarise current knowledge and trends in polysaccharide applications in cereal products.

3. Major Classes of Polysaccharides in Bakery and Pasta Products

Polysaccharides in bakery and pasta systems exhibit diverse structures and functionalities, and their classification depends on both biochemical origin and technological behaviour in cereal matrices. In this review, polysaccharides are categorised into five functional–structural groups relevant to dough development, gluten replacement, and product quality:

(1)

Soluble fibres (inulin, FOS, β-glucan);

(2)

Complex non-starch polysaccharides (arabinoxylan, pectin);

(3)

Starch-based polysaccharides, including native, resistant, and modified starches, as well as maltodextrins and dextrins;

(4)

Cellulose-based technological polysaccharides (HPMC, CMC);

(5)

Microbial exopolysaccharides (xanthan gum and related exopolysaccharides).

Although pectin is nutritionally defined as a soluble dietary fibre, it is grouped here with arabinoxylan due to shared structural features and similar functional behaviour in cereal matrices. A similar classification principle is applied throughout this review for polysaccharides that may nutritionally fall under dietary fibres (e.g., resistant starch or microbial exopolysaccharides) but are discussed within technology-aligned groups to reflect their predominant role in dough systems. This grouping reflects biochemical characteristics, processing origin, and shared technological functions in bakery and pasta systems, enabling meaningful comparison of hydration behaviour, rheological effects, structural contributions, and nutritional roles.

3.1. Soluble Fibres

3.1.1. Fructans—Inulin and Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)

Fructans, including inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), are fructose-based polymers naturally found in thousands of plant species, with chicory root being the main industrial source [14]. Chemically, they are composed of β-(2→1)-linked fructose units that may terminate with a glucose molecule, forming linear or slightly branched chains of variable length. Their molecular size and degree of branching determine solubility and gel-forming ability [15]. Their structural diversity depends on their degree of polymerisation (DP): short-chain fructans (FOS, DP < 10) are more soluble and sweeter, while long-chain inulin (DP > 23) forms gels with low sweetness but a pronounced textural impact [16]. Both types act as prebiotics, bypassing digestion in the small intestine and undergoing fermentation in the colon, where they promote beneficial gut microbiota and support mineral absorption. From a technological perspective, inulin and FOS contribute to water retention, dough softness, and delayed staling; however, excessive addition may weaken gluten and reduce loaf volume [8]. Physiological effects include improved glycaemic control, lipid regulation, satiety and antioxidant activity. However, fructans belong to the FODMAP group and, when rapidly fermented, may cause gastrointestinal discomfort in sensitive individuals, limiting their use in high-fibre or low-FODMAP formulations [17].

Short-Chain Fructans (FOS)

FOS are technically oligosaccharides but are discussed briefly due to their close functional and structural relationship with inulin-type polysaccharides. FOS are increasingly recognised as valuable ingredients in probiotic and synbiotic breads. They are short-chain β-(2→1)-linked fructose oligomers (DP < 10), usually derived from sucrose through enzymatic synthesis or extracted from chicory root and Jerusalem artichoke [18]. Their prebiotic activity supports Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, enhancing probiotic survival and functionality. In synbiotic applications, FOS synergistically interact with probiotics, improving dough rheology, crumb softness, and moisture retention [19]. Beyond bread, FOS function as sugar replacers in cakes, cookies, and sweet doughs, lowering caloric value and glycaemic impact while maintaining sensory quality [20]. They have been incorporated into low-carbohydrate pound cakes, increasing fibre by 200%, reducing carbohydrates by 24%, and preserving sensory attributes. In biscuits, maltitol–FOS blends have been tested as fat replacers with positive results [21]. In pasta, FOS improve fibre content and preserve cooking quality, particularly when combined with hydrocolloids or proteins [22]. Recent studies have also investigated innovative production and application strategies. Innovative strategies include enzymatic synthesis from sucrose via invertase, yielding cost-effective bakery products with reduced glycaemic index and preserved moisture [23]. Similarly, the addition of FOS in combination with Bacillus coagulans during sourdough fermentation of whole wheat flour significantly enhanced technological and sensory quality. The FOS–probiotic combination yielded breads with the highest loaf and specific volume, improved crumb elasticity, and favorable sensory attributes, while also ensuring probiotic stability—thus achieving a synbiotic effect [24].

Beyond conventional roles as prebiotics and sugar replacers, FOS are emerging as multifunctional hydrocolloids. Maillard conjugates of cricket protein and FOS displayed excellent emulsifying properties, kinetic stability, and protective effects during simulated gastrointestinal digestion [25]. These conjugates were particularly effective for vitamin D₃ delivery in emulsified systems and may be applicable in bakery products for the stabilization of fat-soluble bioactives, enhanced moisture retention, and improved crumb structure. In tortillas, combining inulin with FOS (50:50) improved dough elasticity, increased moisture retention, lowered glycaemic potential, and maintained consumer acceptance, showing that such fibre systems can be successfully translated to a wide range of bakery matrices [26].

Long-Chain Fructans (Inulin)

Based on its degree of polymerisation (DP), inulin is categorised into short-chain (DP < 10), long-chain (DP > 23), and native (DP 2–60) types. Short-chain inulin is more soluble and sweeter, suitable as a sugar substitute and texture modifier, while long-chain inulin, with higher viscosity and lower solubility, is used as a fat replacer and bulking agent [16].

Inulin contributes to bakery products both nutritionally and technologically. As a prebiotic, it improves gut microbiota composition and supports calcium and magnesium absorption, while regulating glucose and lipid metabolism [27]. Consuming bread with 30% added inulin would provide approximately 23 g/day, which is close to the recommended value of 25–30 g/day [28]. Technologically, inulin enhances mouthfeel and texture, acts as a fat mimetic, and retains moisture, particularly in cakes and fillings [20]. In dough, it reduces water absorption, competes with starch during gelatinisation, and weakens the gluten network, leading to firmer crumbs. Long-chain inulin delays staling, maintains softness, and increases crumb brightness [29]. Crust colour is also affected: short-chain inulin promotes darker crusts due to higher reducing sugars, while long-chain inulin leads to lighter colouration [8]. Specific volume results vary: in gluten-free breads, inulin increases loaf volume and porosity [30], but in wheat doughs, it can reduce volume due to gluten weakening. Gel forms of inulin offset these effects better than powder. Shelf-life improvements have been observed in breads enriched with 5–20% inulin [13]. At higher levels (30–40%), structural instability occurs, requiring adjustments in formulation and processing [31]. In frozen doughs, long-chain inulin (2.5%) better preserved gluten structure and reduced ice crystal damage compared to 5% short-chain inulin [29,32].

In sugar-reduced bakery products, inulin has shown dual benefits. Replacing 50% of sugar with inulin-enriched honey powder in biscuits resulted in optimal sensory and nutritional outcomes, while higher substitution (75%) negatively impacted texture and flavour. Inulin’s performance also depends on matching its DP to product type. When tested as a sugar replacer in cakes and biscuits, low-DP inulin preserved rheological and sensory quality, while high-DP forms caused thicker batters and firmer crumbs [33]. Thus, selecting the appropriate DP range is essential to achieve the desired texture.

Despite these advantages, fructans belong to the FODMAP group (low in fermentable short-chain carbohydrates) and may cause gastrointestinal discomfort in sensitive individuals, such as those with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) [17]. Rapid fermentation of FOS is a primary concern, requiring careful formulation in low-FODMAP products. Overall, fructans—encompassing both FOS and inulin—are multifunctional prebiotic ingredients that enhance fibre content, lower glycaemic response, support gut health, and improve sensory and technological properties in bakery and pasta products. Their effects depend strongly on chain length and concentration: FOS serve primarily as sweeteners and prebiotic enhancers, while inulin acts as a fat replacer, texture improver, and freshness stabiliser. Together, they represent versatile tools for clean-label, reduced-calorie, and health-oriented bakery innovations, though formulation must account for gastrointestinal tolerance in sensitive populations.

3.1.2. β-Glucan

β-glucans are soluble dietary fibres composed of glucose units linked by β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) glycosidic bonds, naturally present in cereals (2.1–6.1%), fungi, and algae [34,35]. Their molecular weight (35–2300 kDa) and the ratio between β-(1→3) and β-(1→4) linkages define solubility and viscosity, which are key for both technological and physiological functionality [36,37]. Clinically, β-glucans lower postprandial glycaemia, reduce cholesterol [38], and decrease colon cancer risk [39]. Health authorities recommend ≥3 g/day for beneficial effects [40]. The global β-glucan market, valued at USD 1.23 billion in 2022, is projected to reach USD 2.3 billion by 2033 [41].

The technological and nutritional effects of β-glucan addition in bakery and pasta products are summarised in

Table 1. Technological and nutritional effects of β-glucan addition in bakery and pasta products.

Product Category	Positive Effects	Negative Effects	Recommendations
Bread (wheat-based)	Enhanced nutritional profile; improved moisture retention; softer crumb at moderate levels [42,43,44]	Reduced loaf volume; denser texture; firmer crumb at high levels [42,43]	≈2–5% (higher > 10% compromises quality)
Bread (gluten-free)	Improved hydration and softness; delayed staling; higher moisture retention [45,46,47]	Inconsistent loaf volume and texture depending on dose and molecular weight [45]	1–2% (high-molecular-mass fractions most effective)
Pasta	Increased dough hardness and resilience; acceptable sensory quality at moderate levels [48,49,50,51]	Higher cooking loss; darker colour; weaker gluten network [48,49,50]	1–3% (higher levels impair structure)
Cakes/Cookies/Biscuits	Improved batter viscosity; softer texture; fat replacement; extended freshness [52,53]	Excessive thickening > 4%; reduced aeration and volume [52]	2–3% (optimal texture–moisture balance)

. Due to their high water-binding and gel-forming capacity, β-glucans alter dough rheology by increasing viscosity and competing with gluten for water. In wheat bread, higher inclusion levels reduce loaf volume, increase crumb hardness, and create denser textures [42,43]. These effects are caused by water competition and gluten interference, which reduce gas retention and cell expansion. At moderate levels (~2%), β-glucans improve fibre content without major technological drawbacks [44]. Gluten or vital wheat gluten supplementation can mitigate negative impacts. In gluten-free systems, oat β-glucans at 1–2% improve moisture retention, softness, and shelf life, especially when high-molar-mass fractions are used [45]. They also delay staling by slowing retrogradation [46,47]. Results for loaf volume are mixed, depending on dosage, flour type, and β-glucan molecular weight. High-molar-mass fractions (~1.7 MDa) increased loaf volume and reduced crumb hardness by up to 69% [45].

In pasta, β-glucan enrichment increases dough hardness and resilience but reduces cohesiveness and elasticity. It weakens gluten networks, raises water absorption, and increases cooking loss at higher levels [48,49,50]. Structurally, β-glucan disrupts the protein–starch matrix, producing less cohesive cooked pasta. However, at moderate levels (~3 g per 100 g serving), sensory acceptance remains high [51]. In cakes, β-glucans improve batter viscosity and moisture retention, yielding softer crumbs at 2–3% addition, while higher levels (>4%) cause excessive thickening that reduces aeration and loaf volume [52]. In cookies and biscuits, oat β-glucans act as fat replacers at ≤5% without compromising sensory acceptance, while improving freshness and moisture retention [53]. Barley flours enriched with β-glucan and anthocyanins also produced fibre- and colour-enhanced biscuits with good consumer acceptance [54]. In contrast, yeast β-glucans, due to low solubility, showed limited success.

Overall, β-glucans enhance cohesiveness, water-binding capacity, and crumb uniformity, which is particularly beneficial in gluten-free and reduced-fat systems [55]. In addition, β-glucan-rich oat fibre preparations have been shown to reduce acrylamide formation in bread [56], while whole-oat breads have been shown to modulate starch digestibility, supporting glycaemic control [57]. β-glucans thus represent multifunctional hydrocolloids with clinically proven health benefits and significant technological impact on bakery and pasta products. Their successful application, however, requires careful balancing of dosage, molecular weight, and formulation parameters to fully exploit their health benefits while maintaining product quality.

3.2. Complex Non-Starch Polysaccharides

3.2.1. Arabinoxylan (AX)

Arabinoxylan (AX) is one of the most extensively studied non-starch polysaccharides, widely investigated for its nutritional and technological potential in cereal-based foods. It is naturally present in the cell walls of cereal grains such as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, and its content and structure depend on the botanical source and extraction method [58]. Structurally, AX consists of a β-(1→4)-linked xylose backbone with random O-2, O-3, or O-2/O-3 arabinose substitutions [59]. Ferulic acid residues may be ester-linked to arabinose units, allowing cross-linking between AX chains and with other cell-wall components, which affects solubility and technological functionality. AX can be classified into water-extractable (WEAX) and water-unextractable (WUAX) fractions, with WUAX comprising nearly 90% of total wheat bran AX, while WEAX represents less than 10% [60].

AX exhibits multiple health-promoting properties, including regulation of the gut microbiota, reduction of type 2 diabetes risk [61], and immunomodulatory activity [62,63]. AX intake of 3–15 g/day significantly reduced postprandial glucose and insulin responses without impairing starch digestion [64]. These benefits were attributed to increased intestinal viscosity and AX fermentation into short-chain fatty acids, which also contributed to favourable modulation of the gut microbiota. Long-term consumption of AX-enriched products has been further associated with improved glycaemic control indicators, including reductions in HbA1c and fructosamine levels [64]. Although effects on satiety hormones remain inconsistent, AX supplementation shows promise for promoting satiety and regulating appetite [65]. Collectively, these findings support the application of AX as a functional dietary fibre in bakery products designed for glycemic management.

From a technological perspective, the effects of AX in bread and other cereal-based foods depend strongly on its solubility and molecular weight. WEAX, particularly high-molecular-weight fractions, improve gluten viscoelasticity, loaf volume, and crumb texture, whereas WUAX and low-molecular-weight AX can disrupt gluten structure, reduce elasticity, and deteriorate bread quality [58,66,67,68]. To mitigate the adverse effects of WUAX, enzymatic hydrolysis and ultrasonic treatment have been applied, resulting in improved dough rheology and enhanced quality of whole-wheat baked goods [69]. Importantly, AX remains stable during baking, resists digestion by human enzymes, and exerts prebiotic effects through gut microbiota modulation [70].

The technological effects of different AX fractions in bakery systems, including WEAX and WUAX, are summarised in

Table 2. Comparison of WEAX and WUAX effects in bakery products.

AX Fraction	Positive Effects	Negative Effects	Recommendations
WEAX (water-extractable arabinoxylan)	Improves gluten viscoelasticity and dough handling Increases loaf volume and crumb softness Enhances moisture retention and extends freshness [71,72]	At very high molecular weight may cause excessive viscosity and reduced gas cell expansion	Use moderate levels (1–2%) Target high-molecular-weight but soluble fractions
WUAX (water-unextractable arabinoxylan)	Increases dietary fibre content Potential prebiotic effects after fermentation	Disrupts gluten network continuity Decreases elasticity and loaf volume Leads to denser crumbs and reduced bread quality [58,66,68]	Apply enzymatic hydrolysis or ultrasonic treatment to reduce molecular size and improve solubility [64] Optimal inclusion ≤ 5% with modification strategies [72]

. Several studies demonstrate that AX can be incorporated into bread without major negative impacts on dough development, loaf volume, or sensory acceptability. AX-enriched breads exhibited slightly higher firmness but maintained acceptable softness, while colour, flavour, and overall acceptability remained comparable to control breads [70].A broader review emphasised that AX functionality in bread, pasta, cookies, and cakes is strongly influenced by structural features such as molecular weight, degree of branching, and solubility [71]. Low-molecular-weight, soluble fractions improve hydration, texture, and shelf-life, while high-molecular-weight AX can weaken gluten and produce denser crumbs. Recent studies show that hydrolysed, feruloylated AX, at levels up to 5%, helps maintain loaf volume and quality, enhances fibre and moisture content, but further strategies are needed to fully control staling during storage [72].

3.2.2. Pectin

Pectin, a heteropolysaccharide composed mainly of α-(1→4)-linked D-galacturonic acid with variable degrees of esterification, is widely applied as a hydrocolloid and dietary fibre in bakery and pasta systems. It naturally occurs in plant cell walls, particularly in citrus peels, apple pomace, sugar beet pulp, and other fruit by-products, making it a sustainable and renewable source of functional polysaccharides [73]. Its functionality depends strongly on the degree of esterification (DE): a high-methoxyl (HM) pectin (DE > 50%) gel forms in the presence of high sugar and low pH, whereas low-methoxyl (LM) pectins (DE < 50%) form Ca²⁺-mediated gels and exhibit stronger water-binding properties at lower sugar levels [74,75]. The presence of neutral sugars such as rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose also affects branching, solubility, and interactions with proteins or starch [76]. This structural diversity underpins the role of pectin in modulating dough rheology, loaf volume, texture, shelf-life, nutritional profile, and sensory acceptance. In addition, supplementation with plant-derived pectin sources aligns with the sustainable and safe use of vegetable raw materials in bread production [75].

In wheat bread, pectin primarily interacts with gluten and starch. At 1–3% (flour basis), HM-pectins stabilise gluten networks and improve gas retention, leading to higher loaf volume [74,77]. Conversely, LM-pectins can stiffen the structure through calcium cross-linking, sometimes increasing crumb firmness when overdosed [78,79]. Recent studies have further highlighted that pectin–gluten interactions reduce the enzyme accessibility of starch, thereby lowering starch digestibility and the predicted glycaemic index [80].

In gluten-free breads, pectin is particularly valuable as a structure-building and moisture-retaining agent. At 2–4%, LM-pectin enhances crumb softness and reduces gumminess, while HM-pectin helps maintain freshness. Apple pectin and citrus fibres increased loaf volume, improved crust colour, and enriched dietary fibre [81,82]. Studies with sourdough breads fortified with nutraceutical ingredients from food by-products confirmed that pectin contributed to extended freshness and consumer acceptance [83,84]. Comparative trials demonstrated that pectin performed competitively with hydrocolloids such as HPMC or raisin juice concentrate in gluten-free breads based on rice and millet, with significant improvements in texture and acceptance [85]. Research on steamed bread quality also demonstrated positive outcomes. In steamed breads, adding 1–2% pectin improved elasticity, specific volume, and crumb texture [86].

In fine bakery products, pectin functions both as a fat replacer and a dietary fibre source. Additions of 2–5% improve spread, moisture retention, and texture, while fruit-derived pectins contribute bioactives and antioxidant capacity. For example, lemon IntegroPectin increased fibre and antioxidant activity [87], pistachio-derived pectin supported the development of functional low-phenylalanine cookies [88], and citrus peel pectin contributed to fibre enrichment and fat replacement [89]. In meat-based sugar snap cookies, structurally different pectins modified water distribution and dough rheology, resulting in improved structural properties [90]. The use of pectin-containing flour confectionery with reduced gluten also confirmed positive textural effects [91]. Fibre-enriched cookies containing pectin lowered acrylamide formation and bioaccessibility by modifying Maillard reaction pathways [92]. More recently, pectin from cocoa pod husk extract improved the physical and chemical properties of cookies and contributed to lower starch digestibility [93].

Pectin application in pasta and noodles is less common than in breads, but recent findings show promising effects. Enrichment with apple pomace, a pectin-rich by-product, improved fibre and bioactive compound content while maintaining acceptable cooking quality [94]. Other studies confirmed that fibre enrichment using agro-industrial by-products, including pectin, can improve the nutritional and sensory profile of pasta, although higher levels (>5%) may raise cooking loss. This effect is attributed to pectin’s strong water-binding capacity and interference with starch gelatinization [95]. Overall, these findings suggest that pectin, particularly when combined with other soluble and insoluble fibres, can enhance the nutritional value of pasta products while preserving desirable textural and cooking properties [96].

Pectin is also applied in edible films and coatings. Studies showed that pectin–carrageenan films prolonged the freshness of baked goods, while blends with tomato paste stabilised volatile compounds and improved flavour retention [97,98]. Such applications extend the functional role of pectin beyond dough systems, positioning it as a multifunctional packaging and encapsulation material.

Pectin contributes to bakery and pasta innovation through multiple mechanisms: (i) gluten–pectin interactions affecting dough rheology and loaf volume; (ii) water binding and viscosity control improving crumb softness and delaying staling; (iii) starch–pectin complexation lowering digestibility and glycaemic response; (iv) fibre enrichment and fat replacement in cookies and cakes; and (v) functional uses in pasta, edible films, and coatings. Reported usage typically ranges from 1 to 3% in wheat breads, 2 to 4% in gluten-free breads, and 2 to 5% in cookies and pasta, with effects dependent on HM vs. LM type and product matrix. Nevertheless, concentrations above optimal ranges may increase firmness or affect dough handling, requiring careful formulation. Overall, current studies confirm that pectin is not only a hydrocolloid improver but also a sustainable functional fibre that enhances both the technological and nutritional quality of bakery products.

3.3. Cellulose-Based Polysaccharides

Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose (HPMC) and Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC)

Cellulose derivatives, primarily hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and methylcellulose (MC), play key roles in gluten-free bakery systems and, to a lesser extent, in specialised pasta formulations [99,100,101,102]. They are obtained by chemical modification of natural cellulose, composed of β-(1→4)-linked D-glucose units, through partial substitution of hydroxyl groups with hydroxypropyl, methyl, or carboxymethyl groups, which increases water solubility and viscosity. These materials are typically produced from plant-based sources such as wood pulp or cotton linters, ensuring a renewable and sustainable origin [102,103].

In gluten-free breads, HPMC effectively mimics gluten’s structural function by stabilising gas retention and improving dough viscosity, which leads to higher loaf volume and a softer, more uniform crumb [31,104,105]. In rice–buckwheat gluten-free doughs, the addition of HPMC or CMC increases elasticity, with storage modulus (G′) higher than loss modulus (G″) during heating—an indicator of elastic-dominated behaviour [106]. New approaches, such as microwave treatment of rice flour, can reduce the required HPMC level by approximately 50% while still maintaining acceptable bread texture. This effect is attributed to structural modifications in starch and proteins induced by microwave heating, which enhance water retention and dough stability, thereby partially substituting the technological functionality of hydrocolloids [107].

When resistant starch is added at high levels, loaf volume and crumb quality often deteriorate; adding modified celluloses such as HPMC or CMC counteracts these effects by improving proofing performance, water retention, and crumb softness [108]. Cellulose derivatives also improve proofing tolerance and freeze–thaw stability in steamed and frozen dough products, reinforcing their technological relevance across diverse bakery applications [109]. However, excessive inclusion levels (>2%) can cause undesirably high dough viscosity and reduced gas expansion, leading to denser crumb structure. Therefore, concentration and hydration optimisation are essential to balance elasticity and expansion [110].

In gluten-free pasta, CMC has been evaluated as a structuring additive: incorporation at approximately 1% reduced cooking losses and improved firmness in rice–corn pasta, with rheological measurements confirming an elastic-dominated behaviour (G′ > G″) that helps maintain product integrity after cooking [111].

In fine bakery products such as cookies, biscuits, cakes, and muffins, cellulose derivatives play complementary roles. They increase moisture retention and delay staling, thereby producing softer texture during storage [31,99]. HPMC can act as a fat replacer by forming gels that mimic the softening effect of lipids, enabling lower-fat formulations without compromising sensory acceptance [31,101]. By increasing batter viscosity and stabilising air incorporation, these polymers can also improve volume and crumb structure in cakes and muffins [99].

Overall, cellulose derivatives are indispensable multifunctional hydrocolloids across bakery and pasta categories. They improve technological stability, rheology, and textural quality, support nutritional reformulation strategies such as fat reduction and fibre enrichment, and help maintain consumer acceptance in breads, pasta, and fine bakery products.

3.4. Starch-Based Polysaccharides

3.4.1. Native Starch

Starch is a glucose polymer composed of amylose (linear α-(1→4)-linked D-glucose) and amylopectin (branched α-(1→4) and α-(1→6) linkages), occurring naturally in cereal grains, tubers, and legumes. Native, waxy, high-amylose, pre-gelatinized, cross-linked, and damaged starches, or combined with proteins or lipids, play a central role in determining bakery quality. It governs dough hydration, gelatinisation, and retrogradation, which in turn affect gas retention, loaf volume, staling, and digestibility in breads, pastries, and pasta [112,113,114].

In yeast-leavened breads, partial flour replacement with starch-rich ingredients such as potato flour, or adjustment of starch gelatinisation degree, can optimise pasting behaviour and improve loaf volume, crumb structure, and crust colour when used at appropriate levels [115,116]. Differences among cultivars in starch content, granule size, and molecular structure also influence bread and noodle quality [117,118]. High-amylose starches, in particular, slow retrogradation and starch digestibility, thereby improving texture stability and lowering glycaemic impact during storage [119].

In gluten-free bread, waxy starch acts as a key structure-forming and anti-staling component. When combined with physical or chemical modifications such as pre-gelatinisation or cross-linking, it helps delay retrogradation and extend product freshness [120,121]. Under frozen or freeze–thaw conditions, starch–protein interactions (or starch–gluten interactions in conventional doughs) become critical for maintaining structural integrity and post-bake quality [122,123].

In biscuits and cookies, starch-centred strategies include the incorporation of resistant dextrin, high-amylose or native starches, and starch-based bigels as fat replacers. These ingredients maintain spread, crispness, and sensory acceptance while reducing the predicted glycaemic response [124,125,126]. Starch also has application in edible films, coatings, and encapsulation systems. Such uses can extend shelf-life, lower crust acrylamide, and serve as carriers of bioactive compounds such as curcumin or resveratrol [127,128,129,130]. Porous or modified starches can entrap essential oils, providing antifungal protection and prolonged freshness [128,129,130,131].

In pasta and noodles, native, pre-gelatinised, or cross-linked starches are incorporated to control cooking loss, firmness, and chewiness. Excessive inclusion, however, can weaken the protein–starch matrix and reduce quality [131,132,133,134,135,136]. Advanced formulations also employ starch–lipid complexes that lower the glycaemic index and increase the fraction of slowly digestible or resistant starch.

Overall, starch and its derivatives remain fundamental to the texture, shelf-life, and nutritional functionality of bakery and pasta products. Collectively, these approaches highlight starch as a versatile structuring and nutritional component, integral to advancing quality and health attributes in contemporary cereal-based foods.

3.4.2. Resistant Starch (RS)

Resistant starch (RS), including RS2 from high-amylose sources, heat- and moisture-derived RS3, chemically cross-linked RS4, and lipid–amylose complexes classified as RS5, is increasingly incorporated in bakery systems to enhance dietary-fibre levels and attenuate starch digestibility, thereby lowering glycaemic response to [137,138].

In yeast-leavened breads, RS consistently lowers the in vitro starch digestion rate and increases RS content. However, because it dilutes gluten and modifies pasting and gelatinisation, it often reduces loaf volume and increases crumb firmness when added above ~10–15% of flour weight. At moderate levels (5–10%), RS can enhance nutritional quality with only minor effects on dough handling and sensory properties. The main mechanisms involve the formation of retrograded amylose (RS3), which increases matrix rigidity and water immobilisation, and the partial replacement of starch fractions available for gelatinisation, leading to lower gas retention. To mitigate these effects, hydrocolloids or modified celluloses improve water distribution, enzymes such as amylases weaken rigid RS domains, and optimised mixing/fermentation/cooling protocols restore machinability and delay staling, thereby maintaining consumer acceptance [139,140,141,142]. For par-baked and frozen doughs, controlling retrogradation and cooling regimes is key because RS3 formation accelerates during storage [137]. Approaches such as slow cooling and controlled hydration have been suggested to limit excessive retrogradation, reduce crumb firming, and help maintain bread quality in formulations containing 5–8% RS [143].

In fine bakery products such as cakes and cookies, incorporation of RS-rich flours or physically modified high-amylose starches at levels of 5–20% can substantially lower predicted and measured glycaemic index. Successful formulations require rebalancing of fat, sugar, and water to compensate for the higher water-binding capacity and reduced spreadability of RS-enriched doughs. When optimally reformulated, RS-enriched cookies exhibit desirable fracture behaviour, crispness, and flavour, whereas cakes preserve volume and moisture, demonstrating the feasibility of low-GI product development in fine bakery systems [144,145].

In pasta and noodles, up to 10% RS substitution maintains firmness and acceptable cooking quality. At higher levels (≥15–20%), RS increases cooking loss and softens texture due to weaker gluten–starch matrices, unless die design, extrusion shear, and water content are carefully controlled. The mechanism reflects the reduced gelatinisation of resistant starch granules and their limited ability to integrate into the gluten–starch network [96,146].

Beyond technological aspects, RS fractions, especially RS3 and RS4, escape small-intestinal digestion and are fermented in the colon to short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate, which support gut microbiota and metabolic regulation. Human intervention studies with RS-fortified breads have demonstrated improved bowel regularity and glycaemic markers without sensory drawbacks [143,147,148].

3.4.3. Chemically Modified Starches

Chemically modified starches (CMS) are increasingly applied in bakery and pasta systems to overcome the limitations of native starch, such as low shear resistance, tendency to retrogradation, and poor freeze–thaw stability. Chemical modifications—including acetylation, oxidation, phosphorylation, and hydroxypropylation—alter gelatinisation, swelling, retrogradation, and water-binding properties, thereby broadening their functionality across breads, pastries, cookies, and pasta [149]. Among these, acetylated distarch adipate (ADA) shows strong cryoprotective effects in frozen dough and par-baked breads: it reduces free water migration, stabilises gluten–starch networks, and enhances viscoelasticity, resulting in loaves with greater volume and softer crumb after thawing [150,151]. Similarly, oxidised and cross-linked starches have been incorporated into sourdough breads, where they enhanced textural attributes while simultaneously increasing the proportions of slowly digestible and resistant starch fractions, thus lowering the estimated glycaemic index [152]. Resistant starch type IV (RS-IV; distarch phosphate) functions both as a technological aid and as a dietary fibre: studies confirm its ability to improve crumb softness, enrich fibre content, reduce starch digestibility, and lower predicted glycaemic index in both gluten-containing and gluten-free breads [137].

Hydroxypropyl starch (HPS) and hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (HDP) enhance crumb softness, reduce gumminess, and modulate viscoelastic behaviour in breads and cakes, although high inclusions (>10%) can decrease loaf or cake volume [149]. Beyond breads and cakes, modified starches are also applied in cookies, biscuits, and tortillas, where their water-binding and viscosity-controlling properties improve dough handling, maintain crispness, and prolong freshness without impairing sensory quality [149]. Furthermore, studies with chemically modified potato flour confirmed that such starch modifications can improve both chemical characteristics and sensory properties of biscuits, supporting their use in fine bakery products [153].

From a regulatory and safety perspective, chemically modified starches are approved food additives (E1400–E1452) under Codex Alimentarius and EFSA evaluations, provided that substitution levels and residual reagents remain within specified limits [154]. Taken together, these findings indicate that acetylated, oxidised, phosphorylated, and hydroxypropylated starches—including RS-IV as a chemically derived resistant starch—serve as multifunctional ingredients that enhance cryoprotection, texture, and nutritional value in bakery and pasta products.

3.4.4. Maltodextrins and Dextrins

Although maltodextrins are partially hydrolysed starch derivatives with lower degrees of polymerisation, they are considered low-molecular-weight polysaccharides due to their polymeric nature and technological relevance in bakery matrices. Maltodextrins consist mainly of α-(1→4)-linked D-glucose units, occasionally containing α-(1→6) branch points, produced enzymatically from corn, potato, wheat, or tapioca starch. They form, together with dextrins, a continuum of starch-derived ingredients with diverse technological and nutritional roles. Digestible MDs act primarily as multifunctional carriers, bulking agents, and cryoprotectants in bakery and pasta systems, whereas resistant dextrins contribute to increased fibre content, satiety, and improved glycaemic control. Their combined application enables for tailoring of both product quality and nutritional profile, but optimal outcomes depend on careful matching of DE value, branching structure, and dosage to the food matrix. With a typical dextrose equivalent (DE) range of 5–20, maltodextrins are valued in bakery and pasta formulations due to their solubility, low sweetness, and multifunctionality as bulking agents, carriers, cryoprotectants, and fat replacers [155]. Their structural features—particularly chain length and branching—determine water-binding and plasticisation capacity as well as interactions with starch and protein matrices, which in turn affect dough rheology, product stability, and quality [156,157,158].

In yeast-leavened breads, incorporation of MDs at low levels (~1–3% on a flour basis) improves water absorption, dough stability, and loaf volume, while also delaying crumb firming during storage by partially inhibiting starch retrogradation [153,155]. Depending on their fine structure, MDs influence gas production and retention differently: low-polymerised types accelerate CO₂ release but may impair loaf volume, whereas short-clustered or branched MDs improve stability and post-bake crumb quality, particularly under frozen storage conditions [156,157,158]. Recent studies with potato-derived maltodextrins in triticale breads confirmed that loaf volume, crumb softness, and sensory acceptance were strongly dependent on DE value, with higher-DE MDs yielding improved specific volume, softer crumb structure, and enhanced consumer acceptance [158].

In cakes and other fine bakery products, MDs function mainly as viscosity modulators and fat replacers. Partial substitution of fat (≈40–60%), when combined with proteins, inulin, or emulsifiers, maintains desirable aeration and sensory acceptance, while higher levels increase crumb density and stickiness [159,160]. MD-based nanoemulsions and spray-dried carriers have also been applied successfully for antioxidant and probiotic delivery, ensuring structural and sensory quality while enhancing functional value [161].

The role of MDs in frozen dough is particularly relevant, as freezing causes gluten damage, yeast stress, and ice recrystallisation. By binding water and modifying its mobility, MDs act as cryoprotectants, with short-clustered structures providing superior protection of yeast membrane integrity and improving gas retention after thawing [156,157,158]. The combination of MDs with trehalose further enhances yeast survival, loaf volume, and crumb softness in frozen bread products. In gluten-free bakery systems, maltodextrins are frequently employed as bulking agents, cryoprotectants, and viscosity modulators, where they compensate for the absence of gluten and improve batter stability. At low-to-moderate levels, MDs contribute to higher loaf volume, softer crumb, and extended freshness by enhancing water distribution and delaying retrogradation. Their functionality is strongly influenced by the DE value: higher-DE maltodextrins tend to provide better softness and consumer acceptance, whereas very low-DE types may compromise volume and texture [162].

In pasta and extruded noodle systems, low inclusions of MDs (~0.5–2% w/w) improve the ordering of starch gel network, reduce cooking loss, and enhance hardness and chewiness through hydrogen bonding with starch polymers, while excessive levels weaken structure and increase cooking loss [163,164]. Maltodextrins are generally considered sensorially neutral, contributing mainly to mouthfeel and perceived fullness rather than sweetness, though perceptual differences linked to degree of polymerisation have been reported [165].

Dextrins, including resistant dextrin (RD), isomaltodextrin, and branched-limit dextrin, are low-digestible starch derivatives that enhance processing tolerance, extend shelf-life, and improve the nutritional profile of bakery and pasta systems. In yeast-leavened breads, RD increases water absorption and dough stability, slows amylopectin retrogradation, and delays crumb firming, resulting in softer crumbs and prolonged freshness [166,167,168]. Branched-limit dextrin, in particular, modifies starch gelatinisation and setback behaviour, helping the structure withstand thermal–mechanical stress, while wheat dextrin can improve extrusion expansion [169,170].

In biscuits and short-dough systems, partial sugar or fat replacement with RD or soluble dextrin fibres maintains spread, fracture, and crunch while reducing glycaemic potential. Optimal results are observed when RD is combined with native or high-amylose starches, or with inulin and emulsifiers, which help restore structure and texture [124,171,172,173,174]. In noodle and pasta matrices, moderate additions of dextrin or isomaltodextrin improve dough handling and firmness, and reduce cooking loss. However, excessive doses may weaken the gluten–starch matrix and increase cooking loss, highlighting the need for moisture and the need for type- and DE-specific optimisation [132,166,169,175].

Sensory studies describe dextrins as neutral in flavour but note that they contribute positively to body and mouthfeel. Nutritionally, RD functions as a soluble fibre that promotes satiety, moderates postprandial glucose responses, and supports gut microbiota balance [175,176,177,178]. Beyond bakery applications, protein–dextrin conjugates act as clean-label stabilisers or fat replacers in fillings and creams, helping retain smoothness and prevent lipid oxidation [179,180].

Overall, the functional performance of dextrins in bakery and pasta products depends on their molecular type (RD, isomaltodextrin, branched-limit), dextrose equivalent, branching pattern, and water activity. Tailoring these parameters allows manufacturers to balance processing tolerance, nutritional improvement, and sensory quality [169,181].

3.5. Microbial Exopolysaccharides

Xanthan Gum and Other Exopolysaccharides

Xanthan gum (XG) is one of the most widely used microbial exopolysaccharides, produced by Xanthomonas campestris through aerobic fermentation of carbohydrate substrates such as glucose or sucrose. Chemically, it consists of a β-(1→4)-linked D-glucose backbone, similar to cellulose, with trisaccharide side chains containing mannose–glucuronic acid–mannose units, partly acetylated and pyruvylated [182]. It is applied as a stabiliser, emulsifier, and thickener in the food industry.

The addition of xanthan gum to whole-wheat dough has emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate technological and sensory limitations typically associated with whole-grain formulations. Studies have shown that xanthan gum significantly modifies the viscoelastic properties of the dough, enhancing water absorption, increasing mixing time, and improving elasticity and stability, thus promoting better gas retention during fermentation [183]. As a result, bread with added xanthan exhibits a higher specific volume compared to control samples without the hydrocolloid. Moreover, the bread crumb demonstrates reduced firmness both immediately after baking and during storage, suggesting a delay in staling. Such effects directly counter two persistent drawbacks of whole-wheat bread—low loaf volume and faster staling—thereby improving consumer acceptability. Overall, xanthan gum contributes to the development of high-fibre, functional bakery products that offer enhanced texture, prolonged freshness, and greater sensory appeal.

Beyond whole-wheat bread, XG has shown notable efficacy in frozen dough systems. Even at low levels (0.16%), it preserved loaf volume, appearance, crumb elasticity, and sensory scores after six months of freezing [184]. Supplementation in frozen/thawed dough improved bread height and oven-spring, in some cases surpassing unfrozen controls [185]. XG interacts with gluten to form hydrophilic complexes that retain water and inhibit ice crystallisation, thereby stabilising the gluten network and maintaining dough quality post-thaw [186]. In composite formulations, such as sorghum–wheat bread, additions near 1% improve volume, texture, and crumb uniformity [187]. Overall, XG functions as a protective hydrocolloid that slows staling and reinforces dough structure during freezing and baking.

Numerous studies (2018–2025) on gluten-free bakery products confirm that modest XG additions (0.2–1.5% w/w) enhance dough viscoelasticity, leading to higher loaf volumes, finer crumb structures, and slower firming [188,189,190,191]. Comparative work positions XG as a benchmark hydrocolloid: while HPMC or psyllium husk can match or surpass certain textural attributes, complete removal of XG usually compromises crumb cohesion and loaf resilience [31,104,192]. Encina-Zelada et al. [193] showed that XG functionality is strongly dependent on water content—around 1% XG combined with 95–100% hydration yielded the best batter viscosity, gas retention, and loaf quality, whereas excessive gum levels under restricted hydration conditions led to excessively rigid batters and impaired loaf development.

Beyond technological benefits, XG may also influence glycaemic response. Composite systems with XG, λ-carrageenan, and psyllium reduced glycaemic potency at 1–5% inclusion, although their individual effect remains weaker than that of psyllium. Recent studies confirm its positive impact on moisture retention, crumb softness, and shelf-life [178]. In vitro analyses further suggest that XG can reduce starch hydrolysis in gluten-free bread—from roughly 80% to about 57%—indicating a potential for glycaemic moderation [178]. Nevertheless, due to its high viscosity and limited digestibility, excessive consumption (>10 g day⁻¹) may cause gastrointestinal discomfort in sensitive individuals [194]. Xanthan gum acts as a multifunctional hydrocolloid that supports rheological stability, prolongs freshness, and maintains product quality in both wheat-based and gluten-free systems, with emerging evidence for modest metabolic benefits.

4. Comparative Overview and Future Trends

Polysaccharides are versatile ingredients in bakery and pasta systems. Their effects depend mainly on molecular structure, dosage, and interactions with the dough or pasta matrix. In bread dough, higher viscosity and water-binding capacity can weaken the gluten network and reduce gas retention, which, at excessive levels, lowers loaf volume and increases crumb firmness [43,44]. In gluten-free formulations, the same mechanisms can be beneficial by compensating for the absence of gluten, delaying staling through slower starch retrogradation and better moisture retention [45,47]. In pasta, stronger water-binding and altered protein–starch interactions may cause higher cooking loss and changes in texture [48,49,50]. From a sensory viewpoint, too much fibre often darkens colour or increases stickiness, but carefully optimised formulations—considering factors such as the degree of polymerisation of inulin or the molecular weight of β-glucan—can preserve or even improve consumer acceptability [29,30,51].

Combining polysaccharides with other ingredients can help balance technological and nutritional goals. For example, FOS paired with probiotics yields a synbiotic effect while improving rheology; inulin with HPMC or pectin stabilises gas cells in bread; and maltodextrin with trehalose protects yeast and gluten in frozen dough, maintaining loaf volume after thawing [32]. Moderate β-glucan fractions (≈1.7 MDa) improve hydration and softness but work best when combined with vital gluten to offset volume loss [44,45]. In cookies and biscuits, combinations of dextrin or maltodextrin with inulin or emulsifiers enable partial fat or sugar replacement without losing crispness.

Across product categories, goals differ. In bread, key priorities include maintaining volume, softness, and freshness; fructans and β-glucan improve freshness but may reduce loaf volume if the dose or molecular profile is unsuitable [22,43,98]. In pasta, the focus is on firmness and minimal cooking loss; ingredients like pectin or resistant starch offering nutritional enhancement but require controlled hydration to avoid stickiness [48,50]. In cakes and cookies, fructans and dextrins enable sugar or fat reduction while supporting moisture retention and structural stability [20,33,53].

Table 3. Consolidated overview of functional polysaccharides in bakery and pasta products.

Polysaccharide	Positive Effects	Negative Effects	Recommendations	Products	References
Fructans (FOS, inulin)	Prebiotic activity Sugar/fat replacer Improved moisture retention Delayed staling Lower GI	Excessive FODMAP load → GI distress in IBS Weakened gluten → reduced loaf volume	2–10% (bread, biscuits); up to 30% in GF breads (requires optimisation)	Bread, GF bread, cakes, biscuits, pasta	[13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,33]
β-Glucan	Lower GI and cholesterol High water-binding Improved moisture and shelf-life Softer crumbs (moderate levels)	High viscosity → reduced loaf volume, denser crumb Higher cooking loss in pasta	1–5% (bread/cakes); 5–15% (GF bread with adjustments); 1–2% (pasta)	Bread, GF bread, pasta, cookies, cakes	[43,44,45,46,48]
Arabinoxylans	Water retention Prebiotic potentia Improved fibre profile Structural reinforcement in GF matrices	Excess → sticky dough, darker crumb, reduced loaf volume	2–6% (bread, GF bread)	Bread, GF bread	[61,62,63,70,71,72]
Pectin	Fat replacer Moisture retention Acrylamide reduction Antioxidant carrier	High inclusion → excessive thickening, reduced gas retention and loaf volume	2–5% (bread, biscuits); ≤10% (cakes/pastry)	Bread, biscuits, cookies, fine bakery, pasta	[74,75,76,77,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99]
Cellulose derivatives (HPMC, CMC)	Gas cell stabilisation Shelf-life extension Gluten replacement in GF bread	Artificial/additive perception (clean-label concerns)	1–3% (GF bread)	GF bread, frozen doughs	[99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,120]
Resistant starch (RS)	Increased fibre Lower GI Delayed starch digestibility Improved metabolic outcomes	High levels → reduced loaf volume, firmer crumb, higher cooking loss (pasta/noodles)	5–20% (bread, biscuits); 5–15% (pasta/noodles)	Bread, biscuits, pasta, noodles	[136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146]
Chemically modified starches	Thermal stability Freeze–thaw stability Viscosity control Sugar/fat replacement	May weaken gluten network Regulatory acceptance varies	2–10% depending on type	Bread, GF bread, frozen doughs	[149,151]
Maltodextrins (MDs)	Bulking agent Fat replacer Cryoprotectant Moisture retention Carrier of probiotics/antioxidants	High-DE MDs → stickiness, reduced crumb volume Conventional MDs = high GI	1–3% (bread); 5–10% (cakes/cookies); 0.5–2% (pasta)	Bread, GF bread, frozen dough, cakes, cookies, pasta	[155,156,157,158,159,160,163,164]
Dextrins (resistant, isomaltodextrin, branched-limit)	Soluble fibre Lower GI Enhanced dough stability Partial sugar/fat replacement	Excessive inclusion → weakened gluten–starch network, increased cooking loss (pasta)	5–15% (bread, biscuits); 0.5–2% (pasta)	Bread, GF bread, biscuits, pasta	[166,167,168,171,172,173,175,179,180]

summarises their major effects and practical recommendations.

Future trends point to several innovations. Valorising agro-industrial by-products provides sustainable sources of pectin (citrus or apple pomace), arabinoxylan (bran), and resistant starch (corn or banana). Nano- and micro-encapsulation using maltodextrins and fructans enhances the stability and delivery of antioxidants, vitamins, and probiotics without altering texture [20]. Maillard conjugates such as protein–FOS complexes, improve emulsifying capacity and protect vitamins during digestion [25]. Enzyme-aided design also opens new paths: fibres like inulin, β-glucan, or arabinoxylan can be combined with cereal or pulse proteins and cross-linking enzymes to fine-tune dough networks. In gluten-free systems, hydrocolloids (HPMC, CMC) are gradually being replaced by natural fibres and proteins to achieve similar rheological properties and extended freshness [45]. Finally, personalised and clinical nutrition concepts are gaining attention: β-glucan (≥3 g/day) and resistant starch are validated for lowering blood glucose and cholesterol [40,57], while low-FODMAP formulations adjust FOS and inulin types to support individuals with IBS. Synbiotic breads and process-tailored recipes illustrate how functional polysaccharides can move from laboratory innovation to consumer-ready products.

5. Conclusions

Polysaccharides are multifunctional ingredients that offer a dual benefit in bakery and pasta systems, simultaneously addressing technological and nutritional goals. Technologically, they contribute to the control of rheology, volume, texture, and freshness, while nutritionally, they enable lower glycaemic responses, higher dietary fibre intake, prebiotic effects, and improved lipid and glycaemic profiles [29,45,46,57]. Their functionality depends on structural factors such as molecular weight, degree of polymerisation, and branching, as well as on the applied dose and the characteristics of the food matrix. Among the most promising applications, fructans (inulin and FOS), β-glucan, and arabinoxylan stand out in bread, while gluten-free breads benefit from high-molecular-weight β-glucan, carefully dosed fructans, cellulose derivatives, and resistant starch. In pasta and noodles, resistant starch, moderate levels of pectin or β-glucan, and maltodextrins or dextrins at low concentrations (0.5–2%) can improve both structure and nutritional quality, whereas in cakes and cookies, fructans and maltodextrins/dextrins support sugar and fat reduction and enable the incorporation of bioactives, with β-glucan providing additional fibre enrichment at moderate levels (≤3–5%). Future progress in the application of polysaccharides depends on clinical studies with real-world products, standardisation of structural parameters, and the valorisation of sustainable sources. Clean-label approaches and digital tools open new opportunities for more efficient product development. Altogether, polysaccharides not only optimise processing performance but also serve as drivers of functional and sustainable innovation, bridging consumer demands for quality, health, and environmental responsibility.