Agronomy

21 pages, 16254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Winter Wheat Yield and Interpretable Accuracy Under Different Water and Nitrogen Treatments Based on CNNResNet-50

by Donglin Wang, Yuhan Cheng, Longfei Shi, Huiqing Yin, Guangguang Yang, Shaobo Liu, Qinge Dong and Jiankun Ge

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1755; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071755 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 397

Abstract

Winter wheat yield prediction is critical for optimizing field management plans and guiding agricultural production. To address the limitations of conventional manual yield estimation methods, including low efficiency and poor interpretability, this study innovatively proposes an intelligent yield estimation method based on a [...] Read more.

Winter wheat yield prediction is critical for optimizing field management plans and guiding agricultural production. To address the limitations of conventional manual yield estimation methods, including low efficiency and poor interpretability, this study innovatively proposes an intelligent yield estimation method based on a convolutional neural network (CNN). A comprehensive two-factor (fertilization × irrigation) controlled field experiment was designed to thoroughly validate the applicability and effectiveness of this method. The experimental design comprised two irrigation treatments, sufficient irrigation (C) at 750 m³ ha⁻¹ and deficit irrigation (M) at 450 m³ ha⁻¹, along with five fertilization treatments (at a rate of 180 kg N ha⁻¹): (1) organic fertilizer alone, (2) organic–inorganic fertilizer blend at a 7:3 ratio, (3) organic–inorganic fertilizer blend at a 3:7 ratio, (4) inorganic fertilizer alone, and (5) no fertilizer control. The experimental protocol employed a DJI M300 RTK unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with a multispectral sensor to systematically acquire high-resolution growth imagery of winter wheat across critical phenological stages, from heading to maturity. The acquired multispectral imagery was meticulously annotated using the Labelme professional annotation tool to construct a comprehensive experimental dataset comprising over 2000 labeled images. These annotated data were subsequently employed to train an enhanced CNN model based on ResNet50 architecture, which achieved automated generation of panicle density maps and precise panicle counting, thereby realizing yield prediction. Field experimental results demonstrated significant yield variations among fertilization treatments under sufficient irrigation, with the 3:7 organic–inorganic blend achieving the highest actual yield (9363.38 ± 468.17 kg ha⁻¹) significantly outperforming other treatments (p < 0.05), confirming the synergistic effects of optimized nitrogen and water management. The enhanced CNN model exhibited superior performance, with an average accuracy of 89.0–92.1%, representing a 3.0% improvement over YOLOv8. Notably, model accuracy showed significant correlation with yield levels (p < 0.05), suggesting more distinct panicle morphological features in high-yield plots that facilitated model identification. The CNN’s yield predictions demonstrated strong agreement with the measured values, maintaining mean relative errors below 10%. Particularly outstanding performance was observed for the organic fertilizer with full irrigation (5.5% error) and the 7:3 organic-inorganic blend with sufficient irrigation (8.0% error), indicating that the CNN network is more suitable for these management regimes. These findings provide a robust technical foundation for precision farming applications in winter wheat production. Future research will focus on integrating this technology into smart agricultural management systems to enable real-time, data-driven decision making at the farm scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection for Low-Nitrogen Tolerance Using Multi-Trait Genotype Ideotype Distance Index (MGIDI) in Poplar Varieties

by Jinhong Niu, Dongxu Jia, Zhenyuan Zhou, Mingrong Cao, Chenggong Liu, Qinjun Huang and Jinhua Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1754; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071754 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 253

Abstract

The screening of poplar varieties that demonstrate tolerance to low nitrogen (N) represents a promising strategy for improving nitrogen-use efficiency in trees. Such an approach could reduce reliance on N fertilizers while mitigating environmental pollution associated with their cultivation. In this study, a [...] Read more.

The screening of poplar varieties that demonstrate tolerance to low nitrogen (N) represents a promising strategy for improving nitrogen-use efficiency in trees. Such an approach could reduce reliance on N fertilizers while mitigating environmental pollution associated with their cultivation. In this study, a total of 87 poplar varieties were evaluated in a controlled greenhouse pot experiment. Under both low-nitrogen (LN) and normal-nitrogen (NN) conditions, 18 traits spanning four categories—growth performance, leaf morphology, chlorophyll fluorescence, and N isotope parameters were measured. For 13 of these traits (growth, leaf morphology, chlorophyll fluorescence), genetic variation and parameters, including genotypic values, were analyzed using best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) within a linear mixed model (LMM). LN tolerance of tested poplar varieties was comprehensively assessed with three MGIDI strategies by integrating means, BLUPs, and low-nitrogen tolerance coefficient (LNindex) to rank poplar varieties. The results exhibited highly significant differences across all traits between LN and NN experiments, as well as among varieties. LN stress markedly inhibited growth, altered leaf morphology, and reduced chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in young poplar plants. Among the selection strategies, the MGIDI_LNindex approach demonstrated the highest selection differential percent (SD% = 10.5–35.23%). Using a selection intensity (SI) of 20%, we systematically identified 17 superior genotypes across all three strategies. In a thorough, comprehensive MGIDI-based evaluation, these varieties exhibited exceptional adaptability and stability under LN stress. The selected genotypes represent valuable genetic resources for developing improved poplar cultivars with enhanced low-nitrogen tolerance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Dark Tea Fertilization Enhances the Growth and Flower Quality of Tea Chrysanthemum by Improving the Soil Nutrient Availability in Simultaneous Precipitation and High-Temperature Regions

by Jiayi Hou, Jiayuan Yin, Lei Liu and Lu Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1753; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071753 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 288

Abstract

The simplex strategies of fertilizer management and problems caused by simultaneous precipitation and high-temperature (SPH) climate were the main factors that led to yield loss and quality decline in the continuous cropping of tea chrysanthemum (Dendranthema morifolium ‘Jinsi Huang’). In this study, [...] Read more.

The simplex strategies of fertilizer management and problems caused by simultaneous precipitation and high-temperature (SPH) climate were the main factors that led to yield loss and quality decline in the continuous cropping of tea chrysanthemum (Dendranthema morifolium ‘Jinsi Huang’). In this study, with sustainable biofertilizers being proposed as a potential solution. However, their effects under such constraints are underexplored. In this study, we compared different proportions of a sustainable dark tea biofertilizer, made with two commonly used fertilizers, by their contributions to the morphological, photosynthetic, and flowering traits of D. morifolium ‘Jinsi Huang’. The results showed that increasing the dark tea biofertilizer application to 4.5 kg·m⁻² significantly enhanced the soil alkali hydrolyzed nitrogen (596.53% increase), available phosphorus (64.11%), and rapidly available potassium (75.56%) compared to the levels in yellow soil. This nutrient enrichment in soil caused D. morifolium ‘Jinsi Huang’ to produce more leaves (272.84% increase) and flower buds (1041.67%), along with a strengthened photosynthetic capacity (higher Fv/Fm values and light saturation point). These improvements alleviated the photoinhibition caused by SPH climate conditions, ultimately leading to significantly higher contents of chlorogenic acid (38.23% increase) and total flavonoids (80.28%) in the harvested flowers compared to the control group. Thus, dark tea biofertilizer is a cost-effective and efficient additive for growing tea chrysanthemum in SPH regions due to improving soil quality and causing nutritional and functional components to accumulate in harvest flowers, which greatly promotes the commercial value of rural revitalization industries centered around tea chrysanthemum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3758 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metagenomic Sequencing Revealed the Effects of Different Potassium Sulfate Application Rates on Soil Microbial Community, Functional Genes, and Yield in Korla Fragrant Pear Orchard

by Lele Yang, Xing Shen, Linsen Yan, Jie Li, Kailong Wang, Bangxin Ding and Zhongping Chai

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1752; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071752 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 330

Abstract

Potassium fertilizer management is critical for achieving high yields of Korla fragrant pear, yet current practices often overlook or misuse potassium inputs. In this study, a two-year field experiment (2023–2024) was conducted with 7- to 8-year-old pear trees using four potassium levels (0, [...] Read more.

Potassium fertilizer management is critical for achieving high yields of Korla fragrant pear, yet current practices often overlook or misuse potassium inputs. In this study, a two-year field experiment (2023–2024) was conducted with 7- to 8-year-old pear trees using four potassium levels (0, 75, 150, and 225 kg/hm²). Metagenomic sequencing was employed to assess the effects on soil microbial communities, sulfur cycle functional genes, and fruit yield. Potassium treatments significantly altered soil physicochemical properties, the abundance of sulfur cycle functional genes, and fruit yield (p < 0.05). Increasing application rates significantly elevated soil-available potassium and organic matter while reducing pH (p < 0.05). Although alpha diversity was unaffected, NMDS analysis revealed differences in microbial community composition under different treatments. Functional gene analysis showed a significant decreasing trend in betB abundance, a peak in hpsO under K150, and variable patterns for soxX and metX across treatments (p < 0.05). All potassium applications significantly increased yield relative to CK, with K150 achieving the highest yield (p < 0.05). PLS-PM analysis indicated significant positive associations between potassium rate, nutrient availability, microbial abundance, sulfur cycling, and yield, and a significant negative association with pH (p < 0.05). These results provide a foundation for optimizing potassium fertilizer strategies in Korla fragrant pear orchards. It is recommended that future studies combine metagenomic and metatranscriptomic approaches to further elucidate the mechanisms linking potassium-driven microbial functional changes to improvements in fruit quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Transcriptome Analysis and Comparative Genomics to Identify Key Components of the Lignin Biosynthesis Gene Network in Sorghum bicolor

by Hao Niu, Yanbo Wang, Ruizhen Liu, Xiaoqiang Cheng, Yao Wang, Yubin Wang, Xin Lv, Fangfang Fan, Lan Ju, Jianqiang Chu, Haisheng Yan, Hongru Wang, Hetan Chang, Yancong Zhang, Yongfu Tao and Junai Ping

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1751; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071751 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Sorghum is a versatile crop that serves as a major source of food, feed, fodder and biofuel globally. Lignin content in sorghum affects multiple important traits, including lodging resistance, forage digestibility and the efficiency of bioenergy production. However, the genetic regulation of lignin [...] Read more.

Sorghum is a versatile crop that serves as a major source of food, feed, fodder and biofuel globally. Lignin content in sorghum affects multiple important traits, including lodging resistance, forage digestibility and the efficiency of bioenergy production. However, the genetic regulation of lignin content in sorghum remains poorly understood. In this study, we combined transcriptomic and comparative genomic approaches to uncover the genetic network underlying lignin biosynthesis in sorghum. Through comparative genomic analysis, we identified 104 candidate genes involved in lignin biosynthesis. Transcriptome analysis of four sorghum accessions with contrasting lignin contents identified 6132 differentially expressed genes with an enrichment of genes related to phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and cell wall biogenesis. The 104 lignin biosynthesis candidates were significantly enriched (p-value < 0.01) in these differentially expressed genes, with most differentially expressed candidate genes related to monolignol biosynthesis and polymerization being up-regulated in high-lignin accessions. These up-regulated genes are related to all key enzymes involved in lignin biosynthesis, suggesting that the elevated lignin content in these accessions results from a collective increase in enzyme activity. Sequence analysis revealed a significant reduction in genetic diversity across lignin biosynthesis genes in cultivated sorghum compared to wild sorghum. Moreover, selection signals during domestication were identified in 30 lignin biosynthesis genes, 22 of which were differentially expressed, further supporting the functional relevance of these differentially expressed genes in lignin biosynthesis. Overall, our findings uncover the lignin biosynthesis gene network in sorghum and offer potential targets for future functional studies and trait manipulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Limited Short-Term Impact of Annual Cover Crops on Soil Carbon and Soil Enzyme Activity in Subtropical Tree Crop Systems

by Abraham J. Gibson, Lee J. Kearney, Karina Griffin, Michael T. Rose and Terry J. Rose

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1750; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071750 - 21 Jul 2025

Viewed by 253

Abstract

In wet subtropical environments, perennial groundcovers are common in horticultural plantations to protect the soil from erosion. However, there has been little investigation into whether seeding annual cover crops into the perennial groundcovers provides additional soil services including carbon and nutrient cycling in [...] Read more.

In wet subtropical environments, perennial groundcovers are common in horticultural plantations to protect the soil from erosion. However, there has been little investigation into whether seeding annual cover crops into the perennial groundcovers provides additional soil services including carbon and nutrient cycling in these systems. To investigate this, farmer participatory field trials were conducted in commercial avocado, macadamia, and coffee plantations in the wet Australian subtropics. Cover crops were direct-seeded into existing inter-row groundcovers in winter (cool season cover crops), and into the same plots the following summer (warm season cover crops). Inter-row biomass was quantified at the end of winter and summer in the control (no cover crop) and cover crops treatments. Soil carbon and nutrient cycling parameters including hot water extractable carbon, water soluble carbon, autoclavable citrate-extractable protein and soil enzyme activities were quantified every two months from early spring (September) 2021 to late autumn (May) 2022. Seeded cover crops produced 500 to 800 kg ha⁻¹ more total inter-row biomass over winter at the avocado coffee sites, and 3000 kg ha⁻¹ biomass in summer at the coffee site. However, they had no effect on biomass production in either season at the macadamia site. Soil functional parameters changed with season (i.e., time of sampling), with few significant effects of cover crop treatments on soil function parameters across the three sits. Growing a highly productive annual summer cover crop at the coffee site led to suppression and death of perennial groundcovers, exposing bare soil in the inter-row by 3 weeks after termination of the summer cover crop. Annual cover crops seeded into existing perennial groundcovers in tree crop systems had few significant impacts on soil biological function over the 12-month period, and their integration needs careful management to avoid investment losses and exacerbating the risk of soil erosion on sloping lands in the wet subtropics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 8540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of N-P-K Ratio in Root Nutrient Solutions on Ectomycorrhizal Formation and Seedling Growth of Pinus armandii Inoculated with Tuber indicum

by Li Huang, Rui Wang, Fuqiang Yu, Ruilong Liu, Chenxin He, Lanlan Huang, Shimei Yang, Dong Liu and Shanping Wan

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071749 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 319

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis is a cornerstone of ecosystem health, facilitating nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and biodiversity maintenance in trees. Optimizing Pinus armandii–Tuber indicum mycorrhizal synthesis enhances the ecological stability of coniferous forests while supporting high-value truffle cultivation. This study conducted a pot [...] Read more.

Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis is a cornerstone of ecosystem health, facilitating nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and biodiversity maintenance in trees. Optimizing Pinus armandii–Tuber indicum mycorrhizal synthesis enhances the ecological stability of coniferous forests while supporting high-value truffle cultivation. This study conducted a pot experiment to compare the effects of three root nutrient regulations—Aolu 318S (containing N-P₂O₅-K₂O in a ratio of 15-9-11 (w/w%)), Aolu 328S (11-11-18), and Youguduo (19-19-19)—on the mycorrhizal synthesis of P. armandii–T. indicum. The results showed that root nutrient supplementation significantly improved the seedling crown, plant height, ground diameter, biomass dry weight, and mycorrhizal infection rate of both the control and mycorrhizal seedlings, with the slow-release fertilizers Aolu 318S and 328S outperforming the quick-release fertilizer Youguduo. The suitable substrate composition in this experiment was as follows: pH 6.53–6.86, organic matter content 43.25–43.49 g/kg, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen 89.25–90.3 mg/kg, available phosphorus 83.69–87.32 mg/kg, available potassium 361.5–364.65 mg/kg, exchangeable magnesium 1.17–1.57 mg/kg, and available iron 33.06–37.3 mg/kg. It is recommended to mix the Aolu 318S and 328S solid fertilizers evenly into the substrate, with a recommended dosage of 2 g per plant. These results shed light on the pivotal role of a precise N-P-K ratio regulation in fostering sustainable ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, offering a novel paradigm for integrating nutrient management with mycorrhizal biotechnology to enhance forest restoration efficiency in arid ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Obstacles: Microbial Communities in the Journey of Soil Remediation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 7168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Soil Phosphorus Availability in Intercropping Systems: Roles of Plant Growth Regulators

by Chunhua Gao, Weilin Kong, Fengtao Zhao, Feiyan Ju, Ping Liu, Zongxin Li, Kaichang Liu and Haijun Zhao

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1748; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071748 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 287

Abstract

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) enhance crop stress resistance but their roles in microbial-mediated phosphorus cycling within intercropping systems are unclear. Thus, We conducted a two-year field study using corn (Zea mays L. cv. Denghai 605) and soybean (Glycine max L. cv. [...] Read more.

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) enhance crop stress resistance but their roles in microbial-mediated phosphorus cycling within intercropping systems are unclear. Thus, We conducted a two-year field study using corn (Zea mays L. cv. Denghai 605) and soybean (Glycine max L. cv. Hedou 22) in fluvisols and luvisols soil according to World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) standard. Under a 4-row corn and 6-row soybean strip intercropping system, three treatments were applied: a water control (CK), and two plant growth regulators—T1 (EC: ethephon [300 mg/L] + cycocel [2 g/L]) and T2 (ED: ethephon [300 mg/L] + 2-Diethyl aminoethyl hexanoate [10 mg/L]). Foliar applications were administered at the V7 stage (seventh leaf) of intercropped corn plants to assess how foliar-applied PGRs (T1/T2) modulated the soil phosphorus availability, microbial communities, and functional genes in maize intercropping systems. PGRs increased the soil organic phosphorus and available phosphorus contents, and alkaline phosphatase activity, but not total phosphorus. PGRs declined the α-diversity in fluvisols soil but increased the α-diversity in luvisols soil. The major taxa changed from Actinobacteria (CK) to Proteobacteria (T1) and Saccharibacteria (T2) in fluvisols soil, and from Actinobacteria/Gemmatimonadetes (CK) to Saccharibacteria (T1) and Acidobacteria (T2) in luvisols soil. Functional gene dynamics indicated soil-specific regulation, where fluvisols soil harbored more phoD (organic phosphorus mineralization) and relA (polyphosphate degradation) genes, whereas phnP gene dominated in luvisols soil. T1 stimulated organic phosphorus mineralization and inorganic phosphorus solubilization in fluvisols soil, upregulating regulation genes, and T2 enhanced polyphosphate synthesis and transport gene expression in luvisols soil. Proteobacteria, Nitrospirae, and Chloroflexi were positively correlated with organic phosphorus mineralization and polyphosphate cycling genes, whereas Bacteroidetes and Verrucomicrobia correlated with available potassium (AP), total phosphorus (TP), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. Thus, PGRs activated soil phosphorus by restructuring soil type-dependent microbial functional networks, connecting PGRs-induced shifts with microbial phosphorus cycling mechanisms. These findings facilitate the targeted use of PGRs to optimize microbial-driven phosphorus efficiency in strategies for sustainable phosphorus management in diverse agricultural soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 9617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disruption of FW2.2-like Genes Enhances Metallic Micronutrient Accumulation in Brown Rice

by Qingsong Gao, Rumeng Sun, Jiayi Ding, Xingdang Xu, Xun Ma, Xi Liu and Hao Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1747; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071747 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 283

Abstract

Micronutrient deficiencies adversely affect human health and pose a significant global threat. Enhancing the accumulation of micronutrients in the edible parts of crops through genetic breeding is a promising strategy to mitigate micronutrient deficiencies in humans. FW2.2-like (FWL) genes play [...] Read more.

Micronutrient deficiencies adversely affect human health and pose a significant global threat. Enhancing the accumulation of micronutrients in the edible parts of crops through genetic breeding is a promising strategy to mitigate micronutrient deficiencies in humans. FW2.2-like (FWL) genes play crucial roles in regulating heavy metal homeostasis in plants. We previously obtained two allelic mutants for each of the rice OsFWL1 (osfwl1a and osfwl1b) and OsFWL2 (osfwl2a and osfwl2b) genes. In this study, we showed that disruption of either OsFWL1 or OsFWL2 significantly enhanced the accumulation of metallic micronutrients in brown rice. Compared with that in the wild type, the iron (Fe) concentration in brown rice was higher in the osfwl1a (+166.7%), osfwl1b (+24.3%), and osfwl2a (+99.2%) mutants; the manganese (Mn) concentration was elevated in all four mutants (+25.1% to 35.6%); the copper (Cu) concentration increased in osfwl2a (+31.0%) and osfwl2b (+29.0%); and the zinc (Zn) concentration increased in osfwl2a (+10.2%). Additionally, disruption of OsFWL1 or OsFWL2 affected the homeostasis of metallic micronutrients in seedlings. Transcriptome analysis suggested that OsFWL1 and OsFWL2 might regulate cell wall polysaccharide metabolism and the expression of heavy metal transporter genes. Protein interaction analysis revealed that OsFWL1 interacted with OsFWL2 on the cell membrane. These findings suggest that OsFWL1 and OsFWL2 can serve as genetic biofortification tools to increase the concentrations of metallic micronutrients in rice grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Research on Rice Breeding and Genetics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Melatonin Enhances Tomato Salt Tolerance by Improving Water Use Efficiency, Photosynthesis, and Redox Homeostasis

by Chen Ru, Yuxuan Liu, Xingjiao Yu, Chuanliu Xie and Xiaotao Hu

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071746 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 258

Abstract

Salinity stress is a primary abiotic constraint limiting global crop productivity, with progressive soil salinization inducing growth inhibition and physiological dysfunction in plants. Although melatonin (MT) has been extensively documented to enhance stress adaptation, the underlying mechanisms through which it mediates salt tolerance [...] Read more.

Salinity stress is a primary abiotic constraint limiting global crop productivity, with progressive soil salinization inducing growth inhibition and physiological dysfunction in plants. Although melatonin (MT) has been extensively documented to enhance stress adaptation, the underlying mechanisms through which it mediates salt tolerance by integrating physiological processes remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of varying MT concentrations on photosynthetic performance, plant water relations, water-use efficiency, and stress-responsive physiological parameters in tomatoes, aiming to identify the key physiological pathways for MT-mediated salt stress mitigation. The results showed that salt stress significantly reduced the leaf relative water content and root hydraulic conductivity, suppressed the photosynthetic rate, and ultimately caused significant reductions in the aboveground and root biomass. MT spraying effectively improved leaf water status and root water uptake capacity, enhancing the photosynthetic rate and water-use efficiency, thereby providing material and energy support for plant growth. Furthermore, MT spraying increased the total antioxidant capacity in leaves and promoted the synthesis of phenolic and flavonoid compounds, thereby reducing oxidative damage. Simultaneously, it stimulated the accumulation of osmolytes to enhance cellular osmotic adjustment capacity and optimized ion uptake to maintain cellular ion homeostasis. Among the tested concentrations, 100 μM MT showed the most significant alleviative effects. This concentration comprehensively enhanced the salt tolerance and growth performance of tomato plants by synergistically optimizing water use, photosynthetic function, antioxidant defense, and ion balance. In conclusion, these findings provide experimental evidence for elucidating the physiological mechanisms underlying MT-mediated salt tolerance in tomatoes and offer theoretical references for the rational application of MT in crop production under saline conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 6976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) Responses to Phosphorus Deficiency

by Zhufang Yao, Zhongxia Luo, Hongda Zou, Yiling Yang, Bingzhi Jiang, Lifei Huang and Zhangying Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1745; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071745 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 222

Abstract

Phosphorus deficiency poses a significant challenge to the growth and productivity of crops, particularly in nutrient-poor soils. This study investigates the effects of phosphorus deficiency on the growth, endogenous phytohormones, metabolome, and transcriptome of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) over a growth [...] Read more.

Phosphorus deficiency poses a significant challenge to the growth and productivity of crops, particularly in nutrient-poor soils. This study investigates the effects of phosphorus deficiency on the growth, endogenous phytohormones, metabolome, and transcriptome of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) over a growth period from 30 to 120 days. We found that low phosphorus conditions significantly reduced both above- and below-ground biomass, while tuber number remained unchanged. Endogenous phytohormone analysis revealed altered levels of abscisic acid (ABA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and cytokinins, indicating a complex hormonal response to phosphorus starvation. Transcriptomic analysis identified a total of 6324 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at 60 days, with significant enrichment in pathways related to stress response and phosphorus utilization (PAPs and PHO1). Metabolomic profiling revealed notable shifts in key metabolites, with consistent downregulation of several phosphorous-related compounds. Our findings highlight the intricate interplay between growth, hormonal regulation, metabolic reprogramming, and gene expression in response to phosphorus deficiency in sweet potato. This research underscores the importance of understanding nutrient stress responses to enhance sweet potato resilience and inform sustainable agricultural practices. Future research should focus on exploring the potential for genetic and agronomic interventions to mitigate the effects of phosphorus deficiency and optimize sweet potato productivity in challenging environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A YOLOv8n-T and ByteTrack-Based Dual-Area Tracking and Counting Method for Cucumber Flowers

by Liyang Su, Shujuan Zhang, Hongtu Zhang, Xiangsen Meng and Xiongkui He

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071744 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 362

Abstract

Accurate counting of cucumber flowers using intelligent algorithms to monitor their sex ratio is essential for intelligent facility agriculture management. However, complex greenhouse environments impose higher demands on the precision and efficiency of counting algorithms. This study proposes a dual-area counting algorithm based [...] Read more.

Accurate counting of cucumber flowers using intelligent algorithms to monitor their sex ratio is essential for intelligent facility agriculture management. However, complex greenhouse environments impose higher demands on the precision and efficiency of counting algorithms. This study proposes a dual-area counting algorithm based on an improved YOLOv8n-Track (YOLOv8n-T) and ByteTrack cascaded framework. This method accomplishes the cucumber flower counting task by detecting flower targets, tracking them frame-by-frame, and validating the count through dual-area counting. The YOLOv8n-T incorporates a Coordinate Attention (CA) mechanism and lightweight modules while optimizing the loss function, thereby improving floral feature extraction capabilities and reducing computational complexity. By integrating the ByteTrack tracking algorithm with a dual-area counting strategy, the robustness of flower counting in dynamic environments is strengthened. Experimental results show that the improved YOLOv8n-T achieves mAP and F1 scores of 86.9% and 82.1%, surpassing YOLOv8n by 3% and 2.6%, respectively, with a 0.3 G reduction in model parameters. The integrated framework achieves a detection accuracy of 82.4% for cucumber flower counting. This research provides a new method for monitoring cucumber flower sex ratios in facility agriculture, promoting the development of intelligent agricultural management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 3616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alleviating Soil Compaction in an Asian Pear Orchard Using a Commercial Hand-Held Pneumatic Cultivator

by Hao-Ting Lin and Syuan-You Lin

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1743; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071743 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 351

Abstract

Soil compaction is a critical challenge in perennial fruit production, limiting root growth, water infiltration, and nutrient uptake—factors essential for climate-resilient and sustainable orchard systems. In subtropical Asian pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) orchards under the annual top-working system, intensive machinery traffic exacerbates [...] Read more.

Soil compaction is a critical challenge in perennial fruit production, limiting root growth, water infiltration, and nutrient uptake—factors essential for climate-resilient and sustainable orchard systems. In subtropical Asian pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) orchards under the annual top-working system, intensive machinery traffic exacerbates subsurface hardpan formation and tree performance. This study evaluated the effectiveness of pneumatic subsoiling, a minimally invasive method using high-pressure air injection, in alleviating soil compaction without disturbing orchard surface integrity. Four treatments varying in radial distance from the trunk and pneumatic application were tested in a mature orchard in central Taiwan. Pneumatic subsoiling 120 cm away from the trunk significantly reduced soil penetration resistance by 15.4% at 34 days after treatment (2,302,888 Pa) compared to the control (2,724,423 Pa). However, this reduction was not sustained at later assessment dates, and no significant improvements in vegetative growth, fruit yield, and fruit quality were observed within the first season post-treatment. These results suggest that while pneumatic subsoiling can modify subsurface soil physical conditions with minimal surface disturbance, its agronomic benefits may require longer-term evaluation under varying moisture and management regimes. Overall, this study highlights pneumatic subsoiling may be a potential low-disturbance strategy to contribute to longer-term soil physical resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Its Impact on Crop Production: Enhancing Resilience and Environmental Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Conservation Tillage and Nitrogen Management on Yield, Grain Quality, and Weed Infestation in Winter Wheat

by Željko Dolijanović, Svetlana Roljević Nikolić, Srdjan Šeremešić, Danijel Jug, Milena Biljić, Stanka Pešić and Dušan Kovačević

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1742; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071742 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 285

Abstract

Choosing appropriate tillage methods and nitrogen application are important steps in the management of wheat production for obtaining high-yield and high-quality products, as well as managing the level of weed infestation. The aim of this research was to examine the impacts of three [...] Read more.

Choosing appropriate tillage methods and nitrogen application are important steps in the management of wheat production for obtaining high-yield and high-quality products, as well as managing the level of weed infestation. The aim of this research was to examine the impacts of three different tillage practices (conventional tillage—CT, mulch tillage—MT, and no tillage—NT), and two top dressing fertilization nitrogen levels (rational—60 kg ha⁻¹ and high—120 kg ha⁻¹) on the grain yield and quality of winter wheat, as well as on weed infestation. The present study was carried out in field experiments on chernozem luvic type soil at the Faculty of Agriculture Belgrade-Zemun Experimental field trial “Radmilovac”, in the growing seasons of 2020/2021–2022/2023. The C/N ratio in the soil was also assessed on all plots. The results showed that the number of weeds and their fresh and air-dry weights were higher on the MT and NT plots, compared to the CT plots. Therefore, the CT system has better effects on the yield (5.91 and 5.36 t ha⁻¹) and the protein content (13.3 and 13.1%). Furthermore, the grain weight per spike and the 1000-grain weight were higher in the wheat from the CT system (41.83 and 42.75 g) than from the MT (40.34 and 41.49 g) and NT (40.26 and 41.08 g) systems. Also, the crops from the CT system had higher values of grain density and grain uniformity compared to the crop from the MT and NT systems. Fertilization with a high nitrogen level (120 kg ha⁻¹) causes higher grain yield and more weediness compared with the rational level (60 kg ha⁻¹). Top dressing fertilization in each tillage system resulted in an increase in the number of weeds, but, at the same time, it also resulted in stronger competitive ability of the wheat crop against weeds. The most favorable C/N ratio occurred on the NT plots, and the least beneficial one on the CT ones. A correlation analysis showed strong negative correlations of number (r = −0.82) and fresh weed mass (r = −0.72) with yield. It is concluded that the conventional tillage practice with a low nitrogen dose manifests its superior performance in minimizing weed infestation and maximizing crop productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rare Earth Elements in Tropical Agricultural Soils: Assessing the Influence of Land Use, Parent Material, and Soil Properties

by Gabriel Ribeiro Castellano, Juliana Silveira dos Santos, Melina Borges Teixeira Zanatta, Rafael Souza Cruz Alves, Zigomar Menezes de Souza, Milton Cesar Ribeiro and Amauri Antonio Menegário

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071741 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 354

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are emerging soil contaminants due to increasing fertilizer use, mining activities, and technological applications. However, few studies have assessed their concentrations in soils or associated environmental risks. Here, we evaluate the influence of land cover types (Eucalyptus plantation, forest, [...] Read more.

Rare earth elements (REEs) are emerging soil contaminants due to increasing fertilizer use, mining activities, and technological applications. However, few studies have assessed their concentrations in soils or associated environmental risks. Here, we evaluate the influence of land cover types (Eucalyptus plantation, forest, and pasture), parent material, and soil physicochemical properties (predictor variables) on REE content in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and measure pseudo-total REE content using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Differences in REE content across land cover types, parent materials, and soil properties were assessed using similarity and variance analyses (ANOSIM, ANOVA, and Kruskal–Wallis) followed by post hoc tests (Tukey HSD and Dunn’s). We used model selection based on the Akaike criterion (ΔAICc < 2) to determine the influence of predictor variables on REE content. Our results showed that parent materials (igneous and metamorphic rocks) were the best predictors, yielding plausible models (Adj R² ≥ 0.3) for Y, δEu, and La_N/Sa_N. In contrast, Ca:Mg alone provided a plausible model (Adj R² = 0.15) for δCe anomalies, while clay content (Adj R² = 0.11) influenced the Sa_N/Yb_N ratio, though soil properties had weaker effects than parent materials. However, we found no evidence that Eucalyptus plantations or pastures under non-intensive management increase REE content in Brazilian Atlantic Forest soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Old Challenges and Modern Solutions in Farmland Soils: Addressing Heavy Metals, Microplastics, and GHG Emissions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method and Optimization of Key Parameters of Soil Organic Matter Detection Based on Pyrolysis Coupled with Artificial Olfaction

by Mingwei Li, Xiao Li, Xuexun Li, Wenjun Wang, Yulong Chen, Long Zhou and Xiaomeng Xia

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1740; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071740 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 298

Abstract

Accurate quantification of soil organic matter (SOM) is crucial for improving soil fertility and maintaining ecosystem health. The content of SOM affects soil nutrient availability and is closely linked to the global carbon cycle. The use of an electronic nose to detect SOM [...] Read more.

Accurate quantification of soil organic matter (SOM) is crucial for improving soil fertility and maintaining ecosystem health. The content of SOM affects soil nutrient availability and is closely linked to the global carbon cycle. The use of an electronic nose to detect SOM contents has the advantages of rapidity, accuracy, and low pollution to the environment. This study proposes a method for obtaining SOM contents via pyrolysis coupled with an artificial olfaction system. To improve the accuracy of SOM content determination, the effects of three parameters (pyrolysis temperature, pyrolysis time, and soil sample mass) related to the pyrolysis process on the distinguishability of pyrolysis gases were investigated. Firstly, single-factor experiments were conducted to determine the optimal values of three parameters that can improve the differentiation of pyrolysis gases. Secondly, a regression model based on the Box–Behnken experiment was established to analyze the interrelationships between the three parameters and the discrete ratio. The experimental results showed that the three parameters exerted significant influences on the discrete ratio, with pyrolysis time having the greatest impact, followed by soil sample mass and pyrolysis temperature. The optimal discrimination and minimal dispersion ratio of the pyrolysis gases were achieved at a pyrolysis temperature of 384 °C, with a pyrolysis time of 2 min 41 s and a soil sample mass of 1.68 g. Finally, the Back-Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) and Partial Least-Squares Regression (PLSR) algorithms were used to establish an SOM prediction model after obtaining soil pyrolysis gases under the optimal combination of pyrolysis parameters. The experimental results demonstrated that the SOM prediction model based on PLSR achieved the best accuracy and the highest generalization capability, with R² > 0.85 and RMSE < 7.21. This study could provide a theoretical basis for the prediction of SOM contents via pyrolysis coupled with an artificial olfaction system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Model-Based Approach to Crop Yield Forecasting and Predictive Mapping of Soil Properties in Precision Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

4 pages, 171 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Biological Pest Control in Agroecosystems

by Dirceu Pratissoli

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1739; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071739 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

In recent decades, the intensification of agriculture, driven mainly by the use of agrochemicals, monocultures and intensive mechanization, has led to a substantial increase in global agricultural productivity [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Pest Control in Agroecosystems)

20 pages, 2342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolomic Profiling of Desiccation Response in Recalcitrant Quercus acutissima Seeds

by Haiyan Chen, Fenghou Shi, Boqiang Tong, Yizeng Lu and Yongbao Shen

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071738 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 318

Abstract

Quercus acutissima seeds exhibit high desiccation sensitivity, posing significant challenges for long-term preservation. This study investigates the physiological and metabolic responses of soluble osmoprotectants—particularly soluble proteins and proline—during the desiccation process. Seeds were sampled at three critical moisture content levels: 38.8%, 26.8%, and [...] Read more.

Quercus acutissima seeds exhibit high desiccation sensitivity, posing significant challenges for long-term preservation. This study investigates the physiological and metabolic responses of soluble osmoprotectants—particularly soluble proteins and proline—during the desiccation process. Seeds were sampled at three critical moisture content levels: 38.8%, 26.8%, and 14.8%, corresponding to approximately 99%, 52%, and 0% germination, respectively. We measured germination ability, soluble protein content, and proline accumulation, and we performed untargeted metabolomic profiling using LC-MS. Soluble protein levels increased early but declined later during desiccation, while proline levels continuously increased for sustained osmotic adjustment. Metabolomics analysis identified a total of 2802 metabolites, with phenylpropanoids and polyketides (31.12%) and lipids and lipid-like molecules (29.05%) being the most abundant. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis showed that differentially expressed metabolites were mainly enriched in key pathways such as amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, and nitrogen metabolism. Notably, most amino acids decreased in content, except for proline, which showed an increasing trend. Tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates, especially citric acid and isocitric acid, showed significantly decreased levels, indicating energy metabolism imbalance due to uncoordinated consumption without effective replenishment. The reductions in key amino acids such as glutamic acid and aspartic acid further reflected metabolic network disruption. In summary, Q. acutissima seeds fail to establish an effective desiccation tolerance mechanism. The loss of soluble protein-based protection, limited capacity for proline-mediated osmotic regulation, and widespread metabolic disruption collectively lead to irreversible cellular damage. These findings highlight the inherent metabolic vulnerabilities of recalcitrant seeds and suggest potential preservation strategies, such as supplementing critical metabolites (e.g., TCA intermediates) during storage to delay metabolic collapse and mitigate desiccation-induced damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variation in Leaf Morphology and Agronomic Attributes of a Naturalized Population of Medicago polymorpha L. (Burr Medic) from New South Wales, Australia, and Relationships with Climate and Soil Characteristics

by David L. Lloyd, John P. Thompson, Rick R. Young, Suzanne P. Boschma and Mark O’Neill

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1737; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071737 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

As one component of a study to improve Medicago spp. germplasm in eastern Australia, fifteen phenotypic and agronomic attributes were recorded for 4715 plants grown from the seed of 90 accessions of the widely naturalized pasture legume Medicago polymorpha from 90 sites in [...] Read more.

As one component of a study to improve Medicago spp. germplasm in eastern Australia, fifteen phenotypic and agronomic attributes were recorded for 4715 plants grown from the seed of 90 accessions of the widely naturalized pasture legume Medicago polymorpha from 90 sites in eight regions of inland New South Wales. The species expressed wide polymorphism. However, many leaflet attributes were associated with specific climate and soil characteristics, which varied from east to west across the collection zone. Discriminant analysis showed that accessions from the four most northern (summer dominant rainfall) and western (arid–semiarid) regions (Group A) differed from accessions from the most southern, temperate (winter dominant rainfall) and eastern (higher rainfall) regions (Group B). Group A flowered earlier and had shorter pod spines. Group B had lower plant vigor. Regions from which Group A accessions were collected had higher soil pH, lower winter rainfall, and higher minimum winter temperature than Group B regions. The diversity in the population, particularly the difference in flowering times among accessions collected from drier, warmer regions and those from more mesic, cooler regions, and the wide variation in flowering time measured among plants grown from accessions within all collection regions, is likely to ensure the long-term persistence of M. polymorpha in a changing climate. Elite lines were subsequently identified and lodged in National and International Genebanks for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of Microplastics in Urban Compost-Amended Farmland Soil Using an Elutriation Device

by Luigi Paolo D’Acqui, Sara Di Lonardo, Martina Grattacaso, Alessandra Bonetti and Ottorino-Luca Pantani

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1736; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071736 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 214

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) present in farmland soils, where urban compost has been distributed since 2005, were extracted using a device based on elutriation, a method developed for marine sediments but not yet used in soil. Since (i) fine earth (diameter < 2 mm) is [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) present in farmland soils, where urban compost has been distributed since 2005, were extracted using a device based on elutriation, a method developed for marine sediments but not yet used in soil. Since (i) fine earth (diameter < 2 mm) is the standard fraction used for soil analysis and (ii) the size of MPs contained in urban compost may exceed that value, MP were recovered from both the entire soil and fine earth. The recovered MPs pieces were weighed, counted, and characterized using FTIR photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS). Both the mass and number of recovered MPs pieces (>34 µm) were comparable to those reported in the literature for soils. Polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene are the primary polymers. Nevertheless, some issues were highlighted: (i) the importance of sampling the soil by volume, and (ii) the need of analyzing the entire soil sample rather than just the fraction below 2 mm, commonly used in soil analysis; (iii) the necessity of breaking up (i.e., by ultrasonication and/or dispersion) soil aggregates that may withstand the elutriation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 2039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality and Physiology of Selected Mentha Genotypes Under Coloured Shading Nets

by Charlotte Hubert-Schöler, Saskia Tsiaparas, Katharina Luhmer, Marcel D. Moll, Maike Passon, Matthias Wüst, Andreas Schieber and Ralf Pude

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1735; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071735 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 299

Abstract

Improving the quality of compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants is crucial due to their uses in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food sectors. One way of influencing plant composition is through exposure to different light conditions. Therefore, a two-year field study (2023–2024) was [...] Read more.

Improving the quality of compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants is crucial due to their uses in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food sectors. One way of influencing plant composition is through exposure to different light conditions. Therefore, a two-year field study (2023–2024) was conducted to investigate the impact of coloured shading nets on the physiology, essential oil (EO) content, and composition of three Mentha genotypes: Mentha × piperita ‘Multimentha’, Mentha × piperita ‘Fränkische Blaue’, and Mentha rotundifolia ‘Apfelminze’. In addition to an unshaded control, the Mentha plants were grown under red and blue shading nets. Plant height and vegetation indices were collected weekly. Biomass accumulation, EO content, and composition were determined for each harvest. Both red and blue shading were found to influence the physiological responses and EO compositions of the plants, with red shading promoting slightly higher p-menthone levels in ‘Fränkische Blaue’ and ‘Multimentha’, while blue shading slightly increased carvone levels in ‘Apfelminze’. While EO content varied across harvest seasons (spring, summer, and autumn), ‘Fränkische Blaue’ responded to red shading, demonstrating an increased EO content. The findings suggest that targeted use of coloured shading nets can modulate EO quality. However, genotype-specific responses highlight the necessity of further research to define shading applications for different species and genotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivation and Utilization of Herbal and Aromatic Plants)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity and Functional Differences in Soil Bacterial Communities in Wind–Water Erosion Crisscross Region Driven by Microbial Agents

by Tao Kong, Tong Liu, Zhihui Gan, Xin Jin and Lin Xiao

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071734 - 18 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 473

Abstract

Soil erosion-prone areas require effective microbial treatments to improve soil bacterial communities and functional traits. Understanding the driving effects of different microbial interventions on soil ecology is essential for restoration efforts. Single and combined microbial treatments were applied to soil. Bacterial community structure [...] Read more.

Soil erosion-prone areas require effective microbial treatments to improve soil bacterial communities and functional traits. Understanding the driving effects of different microbial interventions on soil ecology is essential for restoration efforts. Single and combined microbial treatments were applied to soil. Bacterial community structure was analyzed via 16S IRNA high-throughput sequencing, and functional groups were predicted using FAPROTAX. Soil microbial carbon, nitrogen, metabolic entropy, and enzymatic activity were assessed. Microbial Carbon and Metabolic Activity: The Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Bacillus mucilaginosus (BM) (AMF.BM) treatment exhibited the highest microbial carbon content and the lowest metabolic entropy. The microbial carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ranged from 1.27 to 3.69 across all treatments. Bacterial Community Composition: The dominant bacterial phyla included Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria. Diversity and Richness: The AMF and Trichoderma harzianum (TH) (AMF.TH) treatment significantly reduced diversity, richness, and phylogenetic diversity indices, while the AMF.BM treatment showed a significantly higher richness index (p < 0.05). Relative Abundance of Firmicutes: Compared to the control, the AMF, TH.BM, and TH treatments decreased the relative abundance of Firmicutes, whereas the AMF.TH treatment increased their relative abundance. Environmental Correlations: Redundancy and correlation analyses revealed significant correlations between soil organic matter, magnesium content, and sucrase activity and several major bacterial genera. Functional Prediction: The AMF.BM treatment enhanced the relative abundance and evenness of bacterial ecological functions, primarily driving nitrification, aerobic ammonia oxidation, and ureolysis. Microbial treatments differentially influence soil bacterial communities and functions. The AMF.BM combination shows the greatest potential for ecological restoration in erosion-prone soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insecticidal Effect of Lemongrass Essential Oil Against Megalurothrips usitatus (Bagnall)

by Yun Han, Ming Zhu, Bo Qiu, Shaukat Ali and Jianhui Wu

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071733 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 323

Abstract

Megalurothrips usitatus is a global pest damaged legume crops, particularly cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). This study aimed to determine the chemical composition of lemongrass essential oil (LEO) and its insecticidal activity against the insect pest M. usitatus. The composition of lemongrass [...] Read more.

Megalurothrips usitatus is a global pest damaged legume crops, particularly cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). This study aimed to determine the chemical composition of lemongrass essential oil (LEO) and its insecticidal activity against the insect pest M. usitatus. The composition of lemongrass essential oil was analyzed using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). D-limonene, Neral, and Citral were found to constitute over 30% of the essential oil. LEO exhibited higher insecticidal toxicity than the individual pure components. Based on our results, the optimal formulation of LEO emulsifiable concentrates (ECs) was identified, and their insecticidal activity was further investigated. The mortality rate induced by the LEO did not significantly differ from that of the emamectin benzoate (EB) formulation but was lower than that of spinosad (SP). Additionally, LEO was shown to act as a synergist when combined with EB for controlling M. usitatus. This research offers an alternative strategy for controlling M. usitatus and reducing the reliance on synthetic pesticides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Evolution and Resistance Mechanisms in Agricultural Pest Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

35 pages, 3909 KiB

Open AccessReview

Pollen–Pistil Interaction During Distant Hybridization in Plants

by Ekaterina V. Zakharova, Alexej I. Ulianov, Yaroslav Yu. Golivanov, Tatiana P. Molchanova, Yuliya V. Orlova and Oksana A. Muratova

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071732 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 634

Abstract

A combination of high potential productivity and ecological stability is essential for current cultivars, which is achievable by breeding. Interspecific/intergeneric hybridization remains a key approach to producing new high-yielding and resistant cultivars. Interspecific reproductive barriers (IRBs) appear in the interaction between the pollen [...] Read more.

A combination of high potential productivity and ecological stability is essential for current cultivars, which is achievable by breeding. Interspecific/intergeneric hybridization remains a key approach to producing new high-yielding and resistant cultivars. Interspecific reproductive barriers (IRBs) appear in the interaction between the pollen and pistil of interspecific/intergeneric hybrids. The mechanisms underlying these hybridization barriers are to a considerable degree unknown. The pollen–pistil interaction is decisive because the pollen of distantly related plant species either is not recognized by stigma cells or is recognized as foreign, preventing pollen tube (PT) germination and/or penetration into the stigma/style/ovary. This review mainly focuses on (1) the pollen–pistil system; (2) IRB classification; (3) similarity and differences in the function of self-incompatibility (SI) barriers and IRBs; and (4) physiological and biochemical control of IRBs and their overcoming. The main goal is to illuminate the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms underlying the growth arrest of incompatible PTs and their death. In general, this review consolidates the current understanding of the interaction of the male gametophyte with the sporophyte tissues of the pistil and outlines future research directions in the area of plant reproductive biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Virginia Market-Type Cultivar and Fungicide Regime on Leaf Spot Disease and Peanut Yield in North Carolina

by Ethan Foote, David Jordan, LeAnn Lux, Jeffrey Dunne and Adrienne Gorny

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1731; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071731 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 272

Abstract

Determining the effectiveness of fungicide programs based on cultivar resistance to pathogens, especially late leaf spot (caused by Nothopassalora personata (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) [U. Braun, C. Nakash., Videira & Crous]) is important in establishing recommendations to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) farmers. [...] Read more.

Determining the effectiveness of fungicide programs based on cultivar resistance to pathogens, especially late leaf spot (caused by Nothopassalora personata (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) [U. Braun, C. Nakash., Videira & Crous]) is important in establishing recommendations to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) farmers. Research was conducted in North Carolina during 2021 and 2022 at three locations to compare the incidence of late leaf spot (e.g., visual estimates of percent of peanut leaflets with lesions), percentage of the peanut canopy defoliated caused by this disease, and yield of the peanut cultivars Bailey II, Emery, and Sullivan when exposed to five fungicide regimens including a non-treated control. Peanut yield was not affected by the interaction of cultivar × fungicide regimens. While differences in leaf spot incidence and canopy defoliation were noted for cultivars, these differences did not translate into differences in peanut yield. All fungicides regimens protected peanut yield from leaf spot disease regardless of the number of sprays during the cropping cycle (e.g., three, four, or five sprays). Peanut yield in the absence of fungicides was 4410 kg/ha compared with a range of 5000 to 5390 kg/ha when fungicides were applied. Peanut yield was greater when fungicides were applied four or five times compared with only three sprays or non-treated peanut. The regimen with five consecutive sprays of chlorothalonil alone for the first and final spray in the regimen and when this fungicide was applied with tebuconazole for the second, third, and fourth sprays was as effective as fungicide regimens including combinations of pydiflumetofen plus azoxystrobin plus benzovindiflupyr, mefentrifluconazole plus pyraclostrobin plus fluxapyroxad, bixafen plus flutriafol, and prothioconazole plus tebuconazole. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Ways to Control Plant Disease)

16 pages, 1111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Bacillus thuringiensis Protein Contents with Increased Nitrogen Fertilizer Application in Gossypium hirsutum

by Yuting Liu, Fuqin Zhou, Mao Hong, Shaoyang Wang, Yuan Li, Shu Dong, Yuan Chen, Dehua Chen and Xiang Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1730; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071730 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 270

Abstract

The insect resistance expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is unstable due to temporal and spatial variations in the Bt protein content in different organs and growth stages. The aim of this study was to improve the Bt protein [...] Read more.

The insect resistance expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is unstable due to temporal and spatial variations in the Bt protein content in different organs and growth stages. The aim of this study was to improve the Bt protein content in cotton flowers and investigate the underlying physiological mechanism using biochemical analytical methods. In this study, a split-plot design with three replications was used. The main plots included two Bt cotton cultivars (a conventional cultivar, Sikang1 (S1), and a hybrid cultivar, Sikang3 (S3)), while five soil nitrogen application levels (CK (control check): normal level; N1: 125% of the CK; N2: 150% of the CK; N3: 175% of the CK; N4: 200% of the CK) constituted the subplots. The Bt protein content and related nitrogen metabolism parameters were measured. We found that the Bt protein content increased and then decreased with increasing nitrogen rates. It reached its maximum at N3, with significant increases of 71.86% in 2021 and 39.36% in 2022 compared to the CK. Correlation analysis indicated that the Bt protein content was significantly positively related to the soluble protein and free amino acid contents, as well as the GPT (glutamic pyruvic transaminase), GOT (glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase), GS (glutamine synthetase) and GOGAT (glutamate synthetase) activities. On the other hand, negative correlations were found between the Bt protein content and protease and peptidase activities. In addition, stepwise regression and path analysis indicated that the increased Bt protein content was mainly due to the enhanced GS and GOGAT activities. In summary, appropriately increasing nitrogen fertilizer application is a practical way to increase flower Bt protein content and insecticidal efficacy of Bt cotton. These findings provide an actionable agronomic strategy for sustaining Bt expression during the critical flowering period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 9664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency-Domain Collaborative Lightweight Super-Resolution for Fine Texture Enhancement in Rice Imagery

by Zexiao Zhang, Jie Zhang, Jinyang Du, Xiangdong Chen, Wenjing Zhang and Changmeng Peng

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071729 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 302

Abstract

In rice detection tasks, accurate identification of leaf streaks, pest and disease distribution, and spikelet hierarchies relies on high-quality images to distinguish between texture and hierarchy. However, existing images often suffer from texture blurring and contour shifting due to equipment and environment limitations, [...] Read more.

In rice detection tasks, accurate identification of leaf streaks, pest and disease distribution, and spikelet hierarchies relies on high-quality images to distinguish between texture and hierarchy. However, existing images often suffer from texture blurring and contour shifting due to equipment and environment limitations, which affects the detection performance. In view of the fact that pests and diseases affect the whole situation and tiny details are mostly localized, we propose a rice image reconstruction method based on an adaptive two-branch heterogeneous structure. The method consists of a low-frequency branch (LFB) that recovers global features using orientation-aware extended receptive fields to capture streaky global features, such as pests and diseases, and a high-frequency branch (HFB) that enhances detail edges through an adaptive enhancement mechanism to boost the clarity of local detail regions. By introducing the dynamic weight fusion mechanism (CSDW) and lightweight gating network (LFFN), the problem of the unbalanced fusion of frequency information for rice images in traditional methods is solved. Experiments on the 4× downsampled rice test set demonstrate that the proposed method achieves a 62% reduction in parameters compared to EDSR, 41% lower computational cost (30 G) than MambaIR-light, and an average PSNR improvement of 0.68% over other methods in the study while balancing memory usage (227 M) and inference speed. In downstream task validation, rice panicle maturity detection achieves a 61.5% increase in mAP50 (0.480 → 0.775) compared to interpolation methods, and leaf pest detection shows a 2.7% improvement in average mAP50 (0.949 → 0.975). This research provides an effective solution for lightweight rice image enhancement, with its dual-branch collaborative mechanism and dynamic fusion strategy establishing a new paradigm in agricultural rice image processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Clove and Rosemary Plant Extracts Against Colletotrichum acutatum and Botrytis cinerea

by Vytautas Bunevičius, Armina Morkeliūnė, Justina Griauzdaitė, Alma Valiuškaitė and Neringa Rasiukevičiūtė

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1728; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071728 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 345

Abstract

Horticulture and agriculture are facing the challenge of growing healthy and high-quality crops. Plant extracts are currently being widely investigated as an alternative means of plant protection. Interest in these measures has increased in order to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, environmental [...] Read more.

Horticulture and agriculture are facing the challenge of growing healthy and high-quality crops. Plant extracts are currently being widely investigated as an alternative means of plant protection. Interest in these measures has increased in order to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, environmental pollution, and adverse effects on human health. Also, due to the goals of the European Green Deal and the decreasing use of chemical pesticides, it has become essential to look for safer alternatives. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of plant extracts of clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) against Colletotrichum acutatum and Botrytis cinerea plant pathogens and to evaluate fungal pathogens recovery after the exposure to the extract. The plant extracts (PEs) were obtained by subcritical CO₂ extraction. The inhibitory effect of PEs was investigated in vitro at concentrations of 1200, 1600, 2000, 2400, 2800, and 3000 μL/L. Petri dishes were incubated at 25 ± 2 °C, and the mycelial growth of fungal pathogens was evaluated at 2, 4, and 7 days after inoculation (DAI). Reinoculation was then performed. The research showed that both plant extracts had an antifungal effect. However, clove PE was more effective. This allows us to say that plant-based measures can inhibit plant pathogens, but it is essential to determine the optimal concentrations and test them with different pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable Agriculture: Biopesticides and the Biological Control for Pest Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 4888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Combined Effects of Irrigation, Tillage and N Management on Wheat Grain Yield and Quality in a Drought-Prone Region of China

by Ming Huang, Ninglu Xu, Kainan Zhao, Xiuli Huang, Kaiming Ren, Yulin Jia, Shanwei Wu, Chunxia Li, Hezheng Wang, Guozhan Fu, Youjun Li, Jinzhi Wu and Guoqiang Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1727; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071727 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 319

Abstract

With the swift progression of the High-Standard Farmland Construction Program in China and worldwide, many dryland wheat fields can be irrigated once during the wheat growth stage (one-off irrigation). However, the combined strategies of one-off irrigation, tillage, and N management for augmenting wheat [...] Read more.

With the swift progression of the High-Standard Farmland Construction Program in China and worldwide, many dryland wheat fields can be irrigated once during the wheat growth stage (one-off irrigation). However, the combined strategies of one-off irrigation, tillage, and N management for augmenting wheat grain yield and quality are still undeveloped in drought regions. Two-site split–split field experiments were conducted to study the impacts of irrigation, tillage, and N management and their combined effects on grain yield; the contents of protein and protein components; processing quality; and the characteristics of N accumulation and translocation in wheat from a typical dryland wheat production area in China from 2020 to 2022. The irrigation practices (I0, zero irrigation and I1, one-off irrigation), tillage methods (RT, rotary tillage; PT, plowing; and SS, subsoiling) and N management (N0, N120, N180, and N240) were applied to the main plots, subplots and sub-subplots, respectively. The experimental sites, experimental years, irrigation practices, tillage methods, and N management methods and their interaction significantly affected the yield, quality, and plant N characteristics of wheat in most cases. Compared to zero irrigation, one-off irrigation significantly increased the plant N accumulation, enhancing grain yield by 33.7% while decreasing the contents of total protein, albumin, globulin, gliadin, and glutenin by 4.4%, 6.4%, 8.0%, 12.2%, and 10.0%, respectively. It also decreased the wet gluten content, stability time, sedimentation value, extensibility by 4.1%, 10.7%, 9.7%, and 5.5%, respectively, averaged across sites and years. Subsoiling simultaneously enhanced the aforementioned indicators compared to rotary tillage and plowing in most sites and years. With the increase in N rates, wheat yield firstly increased and then decreased under zero irrigation combined with rotary tillage, while it gradually increased when one-off irrigation was combined with subsoiling; however, the contents of total protein and protein components and the quality tended to increase firstly and then stabilize regardless of irrigation practices and tillage methods. The correlations of yield and quality indicators with plant N characteristics were negative when using distinct irrigation practices and tillage methods, while they were positive under varying N management. The decrease in wheat quality induced by one-off irrigation could be alleviated by optimizing N management. I1STN180 exhibited higher yield, plant N accumulation and translocation, and better quality in most cases; thus, all metrics of wheat quality were significantly increased, with a yield enhancement of 50.3% compared to I0RTN180. Therefore, one-off irrigation with subsoiling and an N rate of 180 kg ha⁻¹ is an optimal strategy for high yield, high protein, and high quality in dryland wheat production systems where one-off irrigation is assured. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic High-Efficiency Utilization of Water-Fertilizer Resources and Green Production of Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of Dual-Initiation Codon-Derived V2 Proteins in Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus

by Zhiyuan Wang, Pan Gong, Siwen Zhao, Fangfang Li and Xueping Zhou

Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1726; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071726 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 283

Abstract

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a highly destructive pathogen of global tomato crops. The open reading frame (ORF) of TYLCV V2 contains two initiation codons (ATG1/V2-1 and ATG2/V2-2), producing distinct protein isoforms. Using custom antibodies, we confirmed V2-1 [...] Read more.

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a highly destructive pathogen of global tomato crops. The open reading frame (ORF) of TYLCV V2 contains two initiation codons (ATG1/V2-1 and ATG2/V2-2), producing distinct protein isoforms. Using custom antibodies, we confirmed V2-1 and V2-2 expression in infected Nicotiana benthamiana and tomato plants. Deletion mutants revealed their specialized roles: V2-1 was indispensable for viral replication and systemic spread—its loss severely reduced pathogenicity and genome accumulation. V2-2 acted as an auxiliary factor, and its deletion attenuated symptoms but kept the virus infection. Host-specific effects were observed—V2-1 deletion led to lower viral DNA/coat protein levels in N. benthamiana than in tomato, suggesting host-dependent regulation. Mutant viruses declined progressively in tomato, indicating host defense clearance. Heterologous co-expression of both isoforms via potato virus X induced systemic necrosis in N. benthamiana, demonstrating functional synergy between isoforms. Both initiation codons were essential for V2-mediated suppression of transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) and post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). This study uncovers the mechanistic divergence of V2 isoforms in TYLCV infection, highlighting their collaborative roles in virulence and host manipulation. The findings advance understanding of geminivirus coding complexity and offer potential targets for resistance strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 7 (July 2025) – 259 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI