Agronomy

23 pages, 3474 KB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing Meets Agronomy: A Three-Year Field Study of Tritordeum’s Response to Enhanced Efficiency Fertilisers

by George Papadopoulos, Ioannis Zafeiriou, Evgenia Georgiou, Antonia Oikonomou, Antonios Mavroeidis, Panteleimon Stavropoulos, Ioanna Kakabouki, Spyros Fountas and Dimitrios Bilalis

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2244; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092244 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 614

Abstract

This three-year field study evaluated the agronomic and physiological responses of Tritordeum to nitrogen fertilisation strategies under Mediterranean conditions using an integrated approach combining GDD-aligned phenological monitoring, UAV-based multispectral imaging, and soil analysis. Treatments included conventional urea, urea with a nitrification inhibitor (U+NI; [...] Read more.

This three-year field study evaluated the agronomic and physiological responses of Tritordeum to nitrogen fertilisation strategies under Mediterranean conditions using an integrated approach combining GDD-aligned phenological monitoring, UAV-based multispectral imaging, and soil analysis. Treatments included conventional urea, urea with a nitrification inhibitor (U+NI; DMPP-based), and urea with a urease inhibitor (U+UI; NBPT-based), compared to an unfertilised control. All nitrogen treatments significantly increased grain yield, reaching up to 2319 kg ha⁻¹ under the nitrification inhibitor treatment (26% higher than the control), and protein content, which peaked at 16.04% under urea. Temporal analysis revealed that urea with nitrification inhibitors consistently enhanced plant height, canopy greenness, and pigment retention during flowering to ripening stages, with NDVI and MCARI peaking under U+NI in 2025. In contrast, urea with urease inhibitor promoted greater early-season biomass and height. Soil nitrogen retention was slightly improved under both EEF treatments, with no adverse effects on pH or salinity. The strong alignment between UAV-derived indices and agronomic traits supports their use for monitoring nitrogen response. These findings demonstrate the benefits of a stage-specific fertilisation strategy, deploying urea with nitrification inhibitor early and urea with urease inhibitor during peak vegetative growth, to improve nitrogen synchrony with crop demand and support sustainable crop management in Tritordeum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Farming Technologies for Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 918 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Roots to Riches: Unearthing the Synergy of Intercropping, Microbial Interactions, and Symbiotic Systems for Sustainable Agriculture: A Review

by Priyal Sisodia, Agata Gryta, Shamina Imran Pathan, Giacomo Pietramellara and Magdalena Frąc

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2243; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092243 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1312

Abstract

Intercropping, especially legume-cereal systems, is a mixed farming approach that can improve agricultural resilience by addressing challenges such as soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and global change, all while promoting the sustainable production of protein-rich and nutritious food. However, its adoption in industrialized countries [...] Read more.

Intercropping, especially legume-cereal systems, is a mixed farming approach that can improve agricultural resilience by addressing challenges such as soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and global change, all while promoting the sustainable production of protein-rich and nutritious food. However, its adoption in industrialized countries remains limited due to economic and technical challenges, as well as a fragmented understanding of soil–plant-microbe interactions, which hinders its complete optimization. This article provides an overview of the current situation and future perspectives on the importance of legume–cereal intercropping, with examples such as common bean–maize, soybean–maize, alfalfa–corn–rye, and legumes–pulses–little millet systems. These combinations highlight how intercropping can improve nutrient cycling, increase root growth, forage and grain yield, suppress soil-borne diseases, and promote soil microbial population and enzymatic activity. While it offers environmental benefits, practical challenges such as system design, management complexity, and cost-effectiveness must be addressed to encourage wider adoption. In preparing this review, we synthesized studies published between 2000 and 2025, with a particular emphasis on recent research from China and Southeast Asia. We also considered broader intercropping contexts, including energy crops, agroforestry systems, rice paddy co-cultures, and phytoremediation approaches. The review also highlights legume–cereal as a solution to sustainable soil management, ecosystem health, and the potential for increased nutritional food production in developed countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis in Crops Production)

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17 pages, 2691 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pig Manure and Biochar Reduce Nitrogen Availability and Rice Yield Compared to Mineral Fertilization in a Three-Year Field Experiment

by Juying Liu, Meiqi Zhang, Mingxia Pan, Hechong Yuan, Siwen Sun, Qiang Sun, Tianyi He, Jun Meng, Zunqi Liu and Wenfu Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2242; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092242 - 22 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Substituting chemical fertilizers with organic alternatives represents an effective strategy for mitigating soil nitrogen (N) loss and reducing chemical fertilizer use. However, the efficacy of organic substitution in regulating soil N fertility and rice growth requires further investigation, and mechanistic studies elucidating how [...] Read more.

Substituting chemical fertilizers with organic alternatives represents an effective strategy for mitigating soil nitrogen (N) loss and reducing chemical fertilizer use. However, the efficacy of organic substitution in regulating soil N fertility and rice growth requires further investigation, and mechanistic studies elucidating how organic fertilizers affect soil N transformation processes and availability are still deficient. To address this, we conducted a three-year field experiment from 2021 to 2023, comparing three rice fertilization regimes: (1) chemical fertilizer as the control (CK), (2) substitution with organic fertilizer (OF), and (3) substitution with biochar-based organic fertilizer (BF). Both organic substitution treatments were applied as basal fertilizer, and the rice plants received equivalent topdressing applications. The soil N availability, gross and net N transformation rates, and soil microbial activity were analyzed, and the rice growth index and yield were determined. The results showed that organic substitution (OF and BF) significantly increased the soil total carbon content, stimulated microbial biomass growth and enhanced enzymatic activity associated with soil C and N cycling. However, the limited N input from organic substitution significantly decreased the soil gross N mineralization rate by 28.30% (OF) and 58.14% (BF), compared to chemical fertilization (CK). It also reduced the gross N nitrification rate by 38.30% (OF) and 36.17% (BF). These suppressed N transformation processes ultimately led to 11.97% (OF) and 14.72% (BF) lower soil mineral N contents. The soil N deficiency during critical early vegetative growth stages substantially constrained rice development, resulting in significant yield reductions in the OF and BF treatments compared to chemical fertilization (CK). These results indicate that complete organic substitution compromises rice yields due to insufficient N availability; therefore, we recommend integrated organic–mineral fertilization as an optimal strategy to achieve both crop productivity and environmental benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms and Effects of Biochar in Regulating the Soil Nitrogen Cycle)

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19 pages, 1741 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Site-Specific Management: UAV- and Ground-Based Assessment of Intra-Field Variability in SHD Almond Orchards

by Mauro Lo Cascio, Pierfrancesco Deiana, Alessandro Deidda, Costantino Sirca, Giovanni Nieddu, Mario Santona, Donatella Spano, Filippo Gambella and Luca Mercenaro

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2241; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092241 - 22 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Through highly detailed data acquisition, a precision agriculture approach leads to the optimization of inputs, improving, for instance, water and nutrient use efficiency. High-resolution vigor mapping in perennial orchards provides the spatial detail required to achieve such targeted management. This exploratory case study [...] Read more.

Through highly detailed data acquisition, a precision agriculture approach leads to the optimization of inputs, improving, for instance, water and nutrient use efficiency. High-resolution vigor mapping in perennial orchards provides the spatial detail required to achieve such targeted management. This exploratory case study characterizes the spatial variability of vegetative vigor in a young SHD almond orchard in southern Sardinia by integrating high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) mapping with two consecutive seasons of ground measurements; the NDVI raster was subsequently used to delineate three distinct vigor zones. The NDVI was selected as a reference index because of its well-assessed performance in field-variability studies. Field measurements, during the kernel-filling period, included physiological assessments (stem water potential (Ψ_stem), SPAD, photosynthetic rates), morphological evaluations, soil properties, yield, and quality analyses. High vigor zones exhibited better physiological conditions (Ψ_stem = −1.60 MPa in 2023, SPAD = 38.77 in 2022), and greater photosynthetic rates (15.31 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ in 2023), alongside more favorable soil conditions. Medium vigor zones showed intermediate characteristics, and balanced soil textures, producing a higher number of smaller almonds. Low vigor zones exhibited the poorest performance, including the most negative water status (Ψ_stem of −1.94 MPa in 2023), lower SPAD values (30.67 in 2023), and coarse-textured soils, leading to reduced yields. By combining UAV-based NDVI mapping with ground measurements, these results highlight the value of precision agriculture in intra-field variability identification, providing a basis for future studies that will test site-specific management strategies in SHD orchards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Strategies for Sustainable Orchard Crop Management: Enhancing Yield, Fruit Quality and Disease Resistance)

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16 pages, 7832 KB

Open AccessArticle

Overexpression of Maize Expansin Gene ZmEXPA6 Improves Salt Tolerance of Arabidopsis thaliana

by Yue Sun, Qiantong Liu, Zhenwei Yan, Shijun Ma, Xia Liu, Chunhua Mu, Guoqi Yao and Bingying Leng

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2240; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092240 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 387

Abstract

Maize is a globally vital crop for both grain and forage production. Its cultivation and growth are significantly restricted by salt stress. Expansins are non-enzymatic plant cell wall proteins that play pivotal roles in growth, development, and stress responses by mediating cell wall [...] Read more.

Maize is a globally vital crop for both grain and forage production. Its cultivation and growth are significantly restricted by salt stress. Expansins are non-enzymatic plant cell wall proteins that play pivotal roles in growth, development, and stress responses by mediating cell wall loosening. We identified ZmEXPA6, an α-expansin gene, as exhibiting high expression levels in maize roots under salt stress. In this study, the ZmEXPA6 gene was cloned and functionally characterized. Heterologous overexpression of ZmEXPA6 promoted root elongation and enhanced salt tolerance of Arabidopsis thaliana. Under salt stress, the ZmEXPA6 overexpression lines exhibited elevated levels of anthocyanin (61.70%, 59.70%), proline (16.39%, 15.11%), soluble sugars (11.97%, 8.68%), and soluble proteins (14.83%, 13.74%) compared to the WT. Concurrently, the expression of genes associated with anthocyanin and proline biosynthesis was markedly up-regulated in these overexpression lines. The ZmEXPA6 overexpression lines exhibited elevated activities of SOD (23.81%, 23.51%), CAT (13.86%, 10.93%), and POD (4.27%, 1.39%) compared to the WT, along with significantly reduced accumulation of MDA (23.47%, 24.48%), O₂⁻ (21.9%, 19.8%), and H₂O₂ (27.61%, 18.07%). These results indicate that ZmEXPA6 is involved in the growth and development of Arabidopsis thaliana and improves its salt tolerance through enhanced osmotic adjustment and elevated antioxidant capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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25 pages, 4159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Irrigation and Drainage Practices to Control Soil Salinity in Arid Agroecosystems: A Scenario-Based Modeling Approach Using SaltMod

by Yule Sun, Liping Wang, Shaodong Yang, Zhongyi Qu and Dongliang Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2239; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092239 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 412

Abstract

Soil secondary salinization is a major limiting factor of sustainable agricultural production in arid and semi-arid irrigation zones, yet predictive tools for regional water–salt dynamics remain limited. The Yichang Irrigation District, located within the Hetao Irrigation Area, has experienced persistent salinity challenges due [...] Read more.

Soil secondary salinization is a major limiting factor of sustainable agricultural production in arid and semi-arid irrigation zones, yet predictive tools for regional water–salt dynamics remain limited. The Yichang Irrigation District, located within the Hetao Irrigation Area, has experienced persistent salinity challenges due to shallow groundwater tables and intensive irrigation. In this study, we aimed to simulate long-term soil water–salt dynamics in the Yichang Irrigation District and evaluate the effectiveness of different engineering and management scenarios using the SaltMod model. Field monitoring of soil salinity and groundwater levels during summer and fall (2022–2024) was used to calibrate and validate SaltMod parameters, ensuring accurate reproduction of seasonal soil salinity fluctuations. Based on the calibrated model, ten-year scenario simulations were conducted to assess the effects of changes in soil texture, irrigation water quantity, water quality, rainfall, and groundwater table depth on root-zone salinity. Our results show that under baseline management, soil salinity is projected to decline by 5% over the next decade. Increasing fall autumn leaching irrigation further reduces salinity by 5–10% while conserving 50–300 m³·ha⁻¹ of water. Sensitivity analysis indicated groundwater depth and irrigation water salinity as key drivers. Among the engineering strategies, drainage system improvement and groundwater regulation achieved the highest salinity reduction (15–20%), while irrigation regime optimization provided moderate benefits (~10%). This study offers a quantitative basis for integrated water–salt management in the Hetao Irrigation District and similar regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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17 pages, 3097 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Organic Fertilizers Enhance Yield in Continuous Cotton Cropping Systems Through Rhizosphere Microbiota Modulation and Soil Nutrient Improvement

by Mengmeng Yu, Hao He, Liyang Cheng, Shuai Li, Tingting Wan, Jie Qin and Junhua Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2238; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092238 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 535

Abstract

The application of bio-organic fertilizers (BOFs) represents a promising strategy for mitigating soil degradation in continuous monoculture systems, yet their long-term mechanistic impacts in aged cotton fields remain poorly elucidated. This study aims to uncover how BOFs enhance soil health, reshape microbial communities, [...] Read more.

The application of bio-organic fertilizers (BOFs) represents a promising strategy for mitigating soil degradation in continuous monoculture systems, yet their long-term mechanistic impacts in aged cotton fields remain poorly elucidated. This study aims to uncover how BOFs enhance soil health, reshape microbial communities, and sustain cotton productivity under decades-long continuous cropping in Xinjiang, China. A two-year field experiment compared conventional chemical fertilization (CK, N−P−K: 300–180–150 kg·ha⁻¹) with combined chemical and BOF treatment (BOF, N−P−K: 300−180−150 kg·ha⁻¹, BOFs: 4159 kg·ha⁻¹ in 2023 and 4545 kg·ha⁻¹ in 2024). The BOFs used in this study contained ≥40.0% organic matter and ≥0.20 × 10⁸ CFU·g⁻¹ of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. The results demonstrated that BOF application significantly increased seed cotton yield by 19.82–28.17% and total plant biomass by 56.66–61.97%, with the latter reflecting improved root development and nutrient acquisition—key factors contributing to yield gains. Soil analysis indicated substantial elevations in organic matter (12.05–17.72%) and available nutrients without altering pH. Metagenomic sequencing revealed that the BOF treatment enriched beneficial taxa (e.g., Lysobacter increased by 50.53%), suppressed Fusarium (decreased by 36.08%), enhanced microbial network complexity, and reinforced disease-suppressive functions. These findings provide mechanistic insights into the role of BOFs in restoring rhizosphere ecology and promoting soil resilience. This study supports the practical integration of BOFs as a sustainable measure for rejuvenating degraded cotton monoculture systems and optimizing fertilizer management in arid agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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21 pages, 2917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Recirculating Aquaculture Biosolids Are Comparable to Synthetic Fertilizers for Grain Protein and Yield in Durum Wheat

by Ryan Wheaton, Claudette Wheaton, Tanner Conrad and Matthew Recsetar

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2237; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092237 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 640

Abstract

Nitrogen is essential for durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) production, yet conventional sources such as urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP) are energy-intensive to manufacture and, when mismanaged, contribute to soil degradation, nutrient runoff, and greenhouse gas emissions. Organic [...] Read more.

Nitrogen is essential for durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) production, yet conventional sources such as urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP) are energy-intensive to manufacture and, when mismanaged, contribute to soil degradation, nutrient runoff, and greenhouse gas emissions. Organic alternatives such as dairy manure solids (DMS) may reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers but risk phosphorus accumulation and nutrient imbalances. Recirculating aquaculture systems generate nutrient-rich biosolids (RAB) that remain underutilized as fertilizers despite the rapid expansion of global aquaculture. We conducted a field experiment in Tucson, Arizona, USA, during the 2023–2024 winter growing season to evaluate RAB as a nitrogen source for Desert Durum^® wheat under irrigated arid conditions. Treatments supplied equivalent nitrogen rates using UAN, MAP, DMS, or RAB. Grain yields (3.6–4.8 t ha⁻¹) were not significantly affected by fertilizer source, but grain protein concentration was: RAB (101 ± 4 g kg⁻¹) was statistically comparable to UAN and MAP (96 ± 5 g kg⁻¹) and significantly higher than DMS (83 ± 4 g kg⁻¹) by ~20%. While this study was limited to small plots and a single season, these results demonstrate that aquaculture biosolids can maintain yields while enhancing protein compared with DMS, supporting their use as a supplement to or replacement for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in arid wheat systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Sustainable Fertilization: Efficiency and Environmental Challenges)

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17 pages, 2447 KB

Open AccessArticle

Faba Bean–Oat Mixtures Modify Rhizosphere Microbiota and Nutrient–Biomass Regulation on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

by Huilin Yan, Xin Jin, Panda Ye, Changcai Teng and Yujiao Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2236; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092236 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 468

Abstract

Grass–legume mixtures are increasingly recognized for their potential to enhance soil health and forage productivity through belowground biotic interactions. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Vicia faba L. (faba bean 4060)–Avena sativa L. (oat ‘Baylor II’) mixtures on biomass, soil [...] Read more.

Grass–legume mixtures are increasingly recognized for their potential to enhance soil health and forage productivity through belowground biotic interactions. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Vicia faba L. (faba bean 4060)–Avena sativa L. (oat ‘Baylor II’) mixtures on biomass, soil properties, and bacterial community dynamics. Results showed that mixtures significantly reduced the fresh weight of faba bean (6.2 kg/m²) compared to monoculture (8.8 kg/m², p < 0.001), while oat biomass increased under mixtures (3.2 kg m⁻² vs. 2.8 kg m⁻², p < 0.01). Available phosphorus (AP) and available potassium (AK) significantly decreased in the rhizosphere of both mixtures, whereas alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AN) significantly increased, particularly in oat. Mixtures significantly enhanced bacterial richness, evenness, and Shannon diversity in faba bean (p < 0.01) but had no significant effect on oat diversity metrics. NMDS indicated distinct shifts in bacterial community structures under mixtures. Acidobacteriota and Vicinamibacteraceae were enriched in faba bean mixtures, whereas Actinobacteriota decreased in both forages under mixtures. Source Tracker analysis suggested substantial microbial exchange between species, with over 40% of the bacterial community in mixed roots originating from the partner monoculture. Although microbial community stability tended to decline under mixtures, differences were not significant. Niche breadth was significantly expanded in faba bean mixtures. Community assembly processes remained predominantly stochastic; however, mixtures slightly shifted the balance toward deterministic processes. Structural equation model revealed that soil physicochemical properties had a significant negative effect on diversity (β = −0.371, p = 0.007), and diversity had a significant negative effect on freshweight (β = −0.770, p < 0.001), suggesting that bacterial diversity may play a mediating role in the relationship between soil properties and plant fresh weight (β = 0.285, p = 0.011). These findings demonstrate that mixture-induced changes in soil nutrient status and microbial community characteristics collaboratively mediate plant performance through altered community assembly and diversity–function relationships. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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17 pages, 1346 KB

Open AccessReview

Factors Controlling Runner Formation in Strawberries

by Yali Li, Byoung Ryong Jeong, Ping Huang, Xia Qiu, Feiyu Zhu, Jiaxian He, Liang Zhao, Si Wang, Xin Meng and Mingzhong Ding

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2235; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092235 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 684

Abstract

Strawberry propagation relies predominantly on asexual reproduction via runner plants, making runners a critical organ for cultivation. Runners develop from axillary buds under specific environmental conditions. While long-day photoperiods and higher temperatures are key factors for inducing runner formation in most strawberry varieties, [...] Read more.

Strawberry propagation relies predominantly on asexual reproduction via runner plants, making runners a critical organ for cultivation. Runners develop from axillary buds under specific environmental conditions. While long-day photoperiods and higher temperatures are key factors for inducing runner formation in most strawberry varieties, certain everbearing cultivars exhibit enhanced runner formation even under short-day conditions. Gibberellin (GA) is indispensable for runner bud outgrowth, with cytokinin and auxin synergistically regulating runner outgrowth. Genetically, GA biosynthesis genes strongly influence runner formation. Transcription factors such as LAM, SOC1, and HAN have recently been identified as key regulators. However, the genetic control of runner formation in strawberries, especially for cultivated octoploid strawberry cultivars, is not yet fully elucidated. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the environmental and genetic regulation of strawberry runner induction, providing a theoretical foundation for artificial control of runner formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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23 pages, 2490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous Regulators Enhance Physiological Recovery and Yield Compensation in Maize Following Mechanical Leaf Damage

by Aonan Jiang, Dahong Bian, Xushuang Chen, Qifan Yang, Zhongbo Wei, Xiong Du, Zhen Gao, Guangzhou Liu and Yanhong Cui

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2234; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092234 - 22 Sep 2025

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Abstract

To elucidate how exogenous regulators mitigate the impact of mechanical leaf damage on maize, field experiments were conducted on two sowing dates (S1, S2) using two cultivars (XY335, ZD958). Severe leaf damage at the six-leaf stage significantly reduced kernel number, ear number, and [...] Read more.

To elucidate how exogenous regulators mitigate the impact of mechanical leaf damage on maize, field experiments were conducted on two sowing dates (S1, S2) using two cultivars (XY335, ZD958). Severe leaf damage at the six-leaf stage significantly reduced kernel number, ear number, and 100-kernel weight, causing yield losses of 21.9–48.9%. Foliar application of melatonin (MT), brassinolide (BR), and urea (UR) substantially alleviated these losses, increasing yield by 14.1–52.2% compared to damaged controls, with UR and BR being most effective, especially in ZD958. These regulators restored leaf area index (LAI) by promoting leaf width and delaying senescence, improved photosynthetic performance (Pn, Gs, Ci, and Tr), enhanced post-silking dry matter accumulation by up to 31%, and accelerated grain filling through increased maximum and mean filling rates. Structural equation modeling confirmed that kernel number and 100-kernel weight were the primary yield determinants. These findings reveal the physiological mechanisms underlying damage recovery and demonstrate the potential of targeted regulator applications—urea as a cost-effective option, brassinolide for improving kernel number under sustained stress, and melatonin for broad resilience. This study provides not only theoretical evidence but also a feasible strategy for mitigating yield loss in maize production under field conditions where leaf damage commonly occurs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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21 pages, 5964 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the PLATZ Gene Family and Its Roles in Stress Responses in Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) Based on the Telomere-to-Telomere Genome

by Jianyu Lu, Hanlu Wu, Hang Wang, Jinxi Li, Zhenyuan Zang, Guangwen Wu and Jian Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2233; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092233 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 424

Abstract

The PLATZ gene family influences plant growth, development, and responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), an important oilseed and fiber crop, has not been extensively studied for its PLATZ genes. In this study, 27 LuPLATZ genes were [...] Read more.

The PLATZ gene family influences plant growth, development, and responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), an important oilseed and fiber crop, has not been extensively studied for its PLATZ genes. In this study, 27 LuPLATZ genes were identified in the recently assembled T2T (Telomere-to-Telomere) flax genome through bioinformatics analyses. Phylogenetic analysis grouped these genes into five subfamilies. Examination of gene structure and motifs showed conserved exon–intron arrangements and similar motif compositions within the same clade. Promoter analysis revealed that most cis-elements are associated with plant hormone responses (such as MeJA and ABA) and abiotic stresses, including anaerobic induction, drought, and low temperature. Duplication analysis identified 33 segmental duplication events, and miRNA target prediction indicated that lus-miR167 is the primary regulator of LuPLATZ genes. Expression profiling based on RNA-seq data showed high expression levels of most LuPLATZ genes in leaves and roots, and qRT-PCR confirmed their stress-responsive expression under cold, drought, and salt conditions, with LuPLATZ14 and LuPLATZ21 significantly upregulated in all treatments. Furthermore, overexpression of these two genes enhanced drought tolerance in yeast transformants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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18 pages, 1595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Miscanthus × giganteus Rhizobacterial Community Responses to Zn and Oil Sludge Co-Contamination

by Asil Nurzhanova, Eugenia Boulygina, Irina Sungurtseva, Aigerim Mamirova, Ramza Berzhanova and Anna Muratova

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2232; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092232 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 443

Abstract

Soil contamination in industrial areas often involves complex mixtures of contaminants, making remediation a significant challenge. Microbe-assisted phytoremediation offers a promising solution, yet its success depends on understanding interaction between plants, microorganisms, and contaminants in rhizosphere. This study examined the effects of organic [...] Read more.

Soil contamination in industrial areas often involves complex mixtures of contaminants, making remediation a significant challenge. Microbe-assisted phytoremediation offers a promising solution, yet its success depends on understanding interaction between plants, microorganisms, and contaminants in rhizosphere. This study examined the effects of organic (oil sludge) and inorganic (Zn) contaminants, applied individually and in combination, on the rhizosphere bacterial community of Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deu (M×g), with emphasis on strains exhibiting plant growth-promoting, hydrocarbon-degrading, and metal-tolerant traits. A one-season greenhouse experiment included soils spiked with Zn (1650 mg kg⁻¹) and/or oil sludge (15 mL kg⁻¹). Oil sludge exerted a stronger influence on the taxonomic structure of rhizobacterial communities than Zn, largely shaping the patterns observed under co-contamination. Zn exposure increased the relative abundance of Actinobacteriota, whereas oil sludge favoured Proteobacteriota. Both contaminants, individually and together, enhanced the proportion of Sphingomonadaceae. Across all treatments, taxa with potential plant-growth-promoting traits were present, while co-contaminated soil harboured microorganisms capable of hydrocarbon degradation, heavy metal tolerance, and plant growth promotion. These findings highlight the adaptive capacity of the M×g rhizobiome and support its application in phytoremediation. The isolation and characterisation of rhizosphere-associated strains provide basis for developing microbial bioagents to enhance biomass production and remediation efficiency in multi-contaminated environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Obstacles: Microbial Communities in the Journey of Soil Remediation)

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14 pages, 1271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Universal Framework for Estimating Soybean Leaf Area Index Growth

by Qi Wang and Jianping Guo

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2231; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092231 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 449

Abstract

Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a key variable in modeling plant growth because it is the site of photosynthesis. However, there are significant differences in LAI between different models and between models and satellite-derived estimates. Empirical studies show that LAI is closely related [...] Read more.

Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a key variable in modeling plant growth because it is the site of photosynthesis. However, there are significant differences in LAI between different models and between models and satellite-derived estimates. Empirical studies show that LAI is closely related to temperature. The theory provides an alternative method for predicting steady-state LAI. We have implemented this theory in a simple universal model for estimating the growth of the soybean leaf area index (LAI). This study presents a novel, pivotal parameter for assessing plant growth and productivity. We hypothesized that the maximum leaf area index for a specific variety is a constant value. In 2021, a field experiment was conducted at the Liaoning Jinzhou Agricultural Meteorological Experimental Station, where soybean cultivation was manipulated across seven distinct sowing dates, using the local traditional sowing date as a baseline. The model developed in this study demonstrated remarkable accuracy in LAI estimation across various growth stages and environmental conditions. Our findings reveal a robust correlation between the model’s predictions and actual LAI measurements. This model serves as a reliable tool for researchers and agronomists to monitor and predict soybean growth, thereby facilitating more informed decision-making in agricultural management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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20 pages, 2104 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar-Based Granular Fertilizers with Agro-Industrial Binders Enhance Enzymatic Activity and Nutrient Cycling in Tropical Oxisols

by José Mendes dos Santos Júnior, Luiz Arnaldo Fernandes, Fernando Colen, Leidivan Almeida Frazão and Rodinei Facco Pegoraro

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2230; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092230 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 914

Abstract

The low fertility of tropical Oxisols challenges sustainable agriculture. While biochar-based granular fertilizers (BBGFs) offer a solution, the influence of different organic binders is unclear. This study investigated how BBGFs formulated with bio-oil (BO), pyroligneous extract (PE), and cassava wastewater (CW) impact soil [...] Read more.

The low fertility of tropical Oxisols challenges sustainable agriculture. While biochar-based granular fertilizers (BBGFs) offer a solution, the influence of different organic binders is unclear. This study investigated how BBGFs formulated with bio-oil (BO), pyroligneous extract (PE), and cassava wastewater (CW) impact soil enzyme activities and nutrient dynamics over time. Eucalyptus biochar (B) and natural phosphate (NP) were granulated with three binders at four doses. These treatments, plus controls (unfertilized soil, NP, B with NP, and B alone), were incubated in an Oxisol, assessing soil samples after 10 and 40 days of incubation. All BBGFs significantly enhanced β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase, and arylsulfatase activities over controls, with increases exceeding 8%. While the BBGFs-BO formulation sustained the highest enzymatic activity, BBGFs-PE at 125% maximized acid phosphatase at 10 days, with a subsequent decline, and inhibited arylsulfatase at the 150% dose. BBGFs-CW was most effective for increasing P availability (up to 24.0 mg kg⁻¹). BBGFs-BO and BBGFs-PE also enhanced soil organic carbon and cation exchange capacity by up to 430% and 163%, respectively. The BBGFs-BO at 150% dose is the most effective and stable formulation to enhance nutrient cycling and soil health, offering a viable pathway to convert agricultural residues into high-value fertilizers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochar-Based Fertilizers for Resilient Agriculture)

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42 pages, 1679 KB

Open AccessReview

Analysis of the Current Situation and Trends of Optical Sensing Technology Application for Facility Vegetable Life Information Detection

by Xiaodong Zhang, Zonghua Leng, Xinchen Wang, Shijie Tian, Yixue Zhang, Xiangyu Han and Zhaowei Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2229; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092229 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 804

Abstract

The production of facility vegetables is of great significance but there are still limitations to this production in terms of yield and quality. Optical sensing technology offers a rapid and non-destructive solution for phenotypic analysis, which is superior to traditional destructive methods. This [...] Read more.

The production of facility vegetables is of great significance but there are still limitations to this production in terms of yield and quality. Optical sensing technology offers a rapid and non-destructive solution for phenotypic analysis, which is superior to traditional destructive methods. This article reviews and analyzes nine optical sensing technologies, including RGB imaging, and introduces the application of various algorithms in combination with detection principles throughout the entire growth cycle as well as key phenotypic characteristics of facility vegetables. Each technology has its advantages. For example, RGB and multi/high-spectrum technologies are the most frequently used while thermal imaging is particularly suitable for early detection of non-biological and biological stress responses, and these technologies can effectively obtain physiological, biochemical, yield, and quality information about crops. However, current research mainly focuses on laboratory verification and there is still a significant gap when it comes to practical production. Future progress will depend on the integration of multiple sensing technologies, data analysis based on artificial intelligence, and improvements in model interpretability. These developments will be crucial for ultimately achieving precise breeding and intelligent greenhouse management systems, and will gradually transition from basic phenotypic analysis to comprehensive decision support systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Nutrition Diagnosis and Efficient Production)

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25 pages, 5602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning-Based Estimation of Tractor Performance in Tillage Operations Using Soil Physical Properties

by So-Yun Gong, Seung-Min Baek, Seung-Yun Baek, Yong-Joo Kim and Wan-Soo Kim

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2228; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092228 - 21 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 520

Abstract

Accurate estimation of tractor performance under various soil conditions is essential for enhancing operational efficiency in precision agriculture. This study developed machine learning models to estimate tractor performance based on key soil physical properties. Three algorithms—decision tree (DT), CatBoost, and LightGBM—were employed to [...] Read more.

Accurate estimation of tractor performance under various soil conditions is essential for enhancing operational efficiency in precision agriculture. This study developed machine learning models to estimate tractor performance based on key soil physical properties. Three algorithms—decision tree (DT), CatBoost, and LightGBM—were employed to capture nonlinear relationships between soil parameters and tractor performance indicators. The input variables included soil moisture content, cone index, and particle composition, while the output variables were engine torque, power, slip ratio, and axle power. The models in this study were trained and validated using field data collected from eight paddy fields in Chungcheongnam-do (two in Seosan, two in Cheongyang, and four in Dangjin) and two paddy fields in Gyeonggi-do (Anseong), Republic of Korea. Results showed that models using multiple soil variables significantly outperformed those using single variables. In Model D, CatBoost demonstrated superior performance in predicting engine torque, engine power, slip ratio, and axle power, achieving R² values that were 7.0–14.2% higher than those of DT and 1.6–3.8% higher than those of LightGBM. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using machine learning with minimal input data to estimate tractor performance, potentially reducing the reliance on extensive physical testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Sensing, Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics for Digital Agriculture)

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24 pages, 2271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Co-Ridge Planting Enhances Yield Advantages of Maize Intercropping with Peanut by Improving Soil Aggregate Stability and the Ecological Stoichiometric Characteristics of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus

by Zhiman Zan, Rentian Ma, Jiangtao Wang, Ling Liu, Tangyuan Ning and Nianyuan Jiao

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2227; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092227 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 374

Abstract

Long-term maize (Zea mays L.) intercropping with peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) (M||P) improves soil aggregate stability and phosphorus (P) availability, sustaining farmland productivity. In contrast, co-ridge planting (R-M||P) further enhances yield. However, the relationship between yield increase and improvements in soil [...] Read more.

Long-term maize (Zea mays L.) intercropping with peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) (M||P) improves soil aggregate stability and phosphorus (P) availability, sustaining farmland productivity. In contrast, co-ridge planting (R-M||P) further enhances yield. However, the relationship between yield increase and improvements in soil aggregate stability and ecological stoichiometric characteristics under R-M||P remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined the effects of R-M||P on aggregate fractions and stability, bulk density (BD), porosity (Pt), soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), total phosphorus (TP), and inorganic phosphorus, along with the ecological stoichiometric characteristics of C, N, and P. R-M||P substantially increased the proportion of topsoil macroaggregates, both mechanically stable (>0.5 mm) and water-stable (>1 mm), compared with flat planting. Additionally, it enhanced WR_0.25 and mean weight diameter, substantially reduced BD, and increased Pt. Furthermore, R-M||P significantly increased the concentrations of SOC, TN, TP, AP, Ca₂-P, Ca₈-P, Al-P, and Fe-P. It also enhanced the contribution rates of SOC, TN, TP, and AP in macroaggregates, leading to increased storage of carbon (SCS), nitrogen (SNS), and phosphorus (SPS). R-M||P significantly elevated C:N and C:P ratios. Phosphorus application increased SOC and nutrient concentrations, positively regulated C:N, and enhanced C, N, and P storage. However, it negatively influenced C:P and N:P ratios. SOC and AP were the main driving factors affecting the intercropping advantage, with explanatory rates of 33.2% and 22.7%, respectively, under R-M||P. These findings suggest that R-M||P combined with P application enhances yield by promoting aggregate stability, increasing the concentrations and storage of C, N, and P, and establishing a new ecological stoichiometric balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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23 pages, 10263 KB

Open AccessArticle

DS-YOLO: A Lightweight Strawberry Fruit Detection Algorithm

by Hao Teng, Fuchun Sun, Haorong Wu, Dong Lv, Qiurong Lv, Fan Feng, Sichen Yang and Xiaoxiao Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2226; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092226 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 691

Abstract

Strawberry detection in complex orchard environments remains a challenging task due to frequent leaf occlusion, fruit overlap, and illumination variability. To address these challenges, this study presents an improved lightweight detection framework, DS-YOLO, based on YOLOv8n. First, the backbone network of YOLOv8n is [...] Read more.

Strawberry detection in complex orchard environments remains a challenging task due to frequent leaf occlusion, fruit overlap, and illumination variability. To address these challenges, this study presents an improved lightweight detection framework, DS-YOLO, based on YOLOv8n. First, the backbone network of YOLOv8n is replaced with the lightweight StarNet to reduce the number of parameters while preserving the model’s feature representation capability. Second, the Conv and C2f modules in the Neck section are replaced with SlimNeck’s GSConv (hybrid convolution module) and VoVGSCSP (cross-stage partial network) modules, which effectively enhance detection performance and reduce computational burden. Finally, the original CIoU loss function is substituted with WIoUv3 to improve bounding box regression accuracy and overall detection performance. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed improvements, comparative experiments were conducted with six mainstream object detection models, four backbone networks, and five different loss functions. Experimental results demonstrate that the DS-YOLO achieves a 1.7 percentage point increase in mAP50, a 1.5 percentage point improvement in recall, and precision improvement of 1.3 percentage points. In terms of computational efficiency, the number of parameters is reduced from 3.2M to 1.8M, and computational cost decreases from 8.1G to 4.9G, corresponding to reductions of 43% and 40%, respectively. The improved DS-YOLO model enables real-time and accurate detection of strawberry fruits in complex environments with a more compact network architecture, providing valuable technical support for automated strawberry detection and lightweight deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Facility Agriculture Robots and Autonomous Unmanned Management for Crops)

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27 pages, 9667 KB

Open AccessArticle

REU-YOLO: A Context-Aware UAV-Based Rice Ear Detection Model for Complex Field Scenes

by Dongquan Chen, Kang Xu, Wenbin Sun, Danyang Lv, Songmei Yang, Ranbing Yang and Jian Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092225 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 476

Abstract

Accurate detection and counting of rice ears serve as a critical indicator for yield estimation, but the complex conditions of paddy fields limit the efficiency and precision of traditional sampling methods. We propose REU-YOLO, a model specifically designed for UAV low-altitude remote sensing [...] Read more.

Accurate detection and counting of rice ears serve as a critical indicator for yield estimation, but the complex conditions of paddy fields limit the efficiency and precision of traditional sampling methods. We propose REU-YOLO, a model specifically designed for UAV low-altitude remote sensing to collect images of rice ears, to address issues such as high-density and complex spatial distribution with occlusion in field scenes. Initially, we combine the Additive Block containing Convolutional Additive Self-attention (CAS) and Convolutional Gated Linear Unit (CGLU) to propose a novel module called Additive-CGLU-C2F (AC-C2f) as a replacement for the original C2f in YOLOv8. It can capture the contextual information between different regions of images and improve the feature extraction ability of the model, introduce the Dropblock strategy to reduce model overfitting, and replace the original SPPF module with the SPPFCSPC-G module to enhance feature representation and improve the capacity of the model to extract features across varying scales. We further propose a feature fusion network called Multi-branch Bidirectional Feature Pyramid Network (MBiFPN), which introduces a small object detection head and adjusts the head to focus more on small and medium-sized rice ear targets. By using adaptive average pooling and bidirectional weighted feature fusion, shallow and deep features are dynamically fused to enhance the robustness of the model. Finally, the Inner-PloU loss function is introduced to improve the adaptability of the model to rice ear morphology. In the self-developed dataset UAVR, REU-YOLO achieves a precision (P) of 90.76%, a recall (R) of 86.94%, an mAP_0.5 of 93.51%, and an mAP_0.5:0.95 of 78.45%, which are 4.22%, 3.76%, 4.85%, and 8.27% higher than the corresponding values obtained with YOLOv8 s, respectively. Furthermore, three public datasets, DRPD, MrMT, and GWHD, were used to perform a comprehensive evaluation of REU-YOLO. The results show that REU-YOLO indicates great generalization capabilities and more stable detection performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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20 pages, 3063 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative UV-B Stress Responses in Maize and Sorghum Based on Biophoton Emission Measurements and Morphophysiological Traits

by András Pitz, Ildikó Jócsák, Csaba Varga and Katalin Somfalvi-Tóth

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092224 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 415

Abstract

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B, 280–315 nm) radiation is an increasingly relevant abiotic stressor under climate-change scenarios, yet crop-specific tolerance mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. We compared maize (Zea mays L.) and grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) seedlings exposed to eight UV-B durations (1–12 h), [...] Read more.

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B, 280–315 nm) radiation is an increasingly relevant abiotic stressor under climate-change scenarios, yet crop-specific tolerance mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. We compared maize (Zea mays L.) and grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) seedlings exposed to eight UV-B durations (1–12 h), applied every second day over 14 days of juvenile growth. Highly sensitive, non-invasive biophoton emission imaging (NightShade^® LB 985), chlorophyll content measurements (SPAD-502), and morphophysiological traits (shoot/root lengths, biomass, root collar diameter) were assessed. Biophoton emission kinetics measured immediately and 24 h after exposure suggested differing temporal defense dynamics: maize showed an early modest increase, a mid-exposure reduction, and a later pronounced peak around 6 h. Sorghum tended to reach a dominant peak earlier (≈3 h) and maintain relatively steady emissions thereafter, potentially reflecting more uniform antioxidant activation. SPAD patterns aligned with these trends: maize retained higher chlorophyll at lower exposures (0–6 h; p < 0.05), whereas sorghum surpassed maize at extreme exposures (10–12 h; p = 0.036). Morphophysiological traits showed no significant treatment effects, though minor low-dose peaks suggested possible ROS-mediated stimulation. These results indicate species-specific UV-B acclimation patterns and demonstrate the utility of biophoton imaging as a rapid screening tool for assessing crop resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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15 pages, 1366 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biostimulants as an Alternative to Synthetic Growth Regulators in the Micropropagation of Hippeastrum

by Przemysław Marciniak and Dariusz Sochacki

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092223 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 537

Abstract

The genus Hippeastrum (Amaryllidaceae) is very popular worldwide for its attractive, colourful flowers. The aim of the research was to evaluate the possibility of replacing synthetic growth regulators added to the media with biostimulants of natural origin on the micropropagation and [...] Read more.

The genus Hippeastrum (Amaryllidaceae) is very popular worldwide for its attractive, colourful flowers. The aim of the research was to evaluate the possibility of replacing synthetic growth regulators added to the media with biostimulants of natural origin on the micropropagation and acclimatisation efficiency of several Hippeastrum genotypes. The effect of the biostimulants on the starch and fructan content of the bulbils after a 10-week in vitro culture was also investigated. The addition of biostimulant Goteo to the MS medium in vitro resulted in increased plantlet weight, leaf length and root number for most of the genotypes tested. The Folium biostimulant, not previously used in in vitro plant culture media showed positive effects, especially on leaf length. The use of Goteo during plant acclimatisation significantly improved root growth parameters, indicating its potential in minimising stress associated with the change from in vitro to ex vitro conditions. Higher starch content was detected in the bulbils of clone 0017-01 and the highest fructan content in the bulbils of clone 18 H. × chmielii. The use of the Folium biostimulant, consisting mainly of amino acids, reduced sugar accumulation, which may have been due to a shift in carbon allocation from storage processes to photosynthesis. The results confirm that biostimulants based on natural ingredients can be an alternative to synthetic growth regulators in the micropropagation of Hippeastrum and possibly other ornamental plants, what will be an input to further development of sustainable horticulture production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of In Vitro Culture for Horticultural Crops)

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19 pages, 4271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Morphological, Histological, and Metabolic Differences of In Vitro- and Ex Vitro-Grown Panax ginseng

by So-Jeong Kim, Yuna Jeon, Jang-Uk Kim, Jeongeui Hong, Sung Cheol Koo, Jun Young Ha, Kyung Ho Ma, Jeehye Sung and Jung-Woo Lee

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092222 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 491

Abstract

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is highly sensitive to heat stress caused by climate change; thus, the introduction of heat-tolerant cultivars is essential. However, the stable dissemination of heat-tolerant cultivars remains limited due to low propagation efficiency. Plant tissue culture has been introduced [...] Read more.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is highly sensitive to heat stress caused by climate change; thus, the introduction of heat-tolerant cultivars is essential. However, the stable dissemination of heat-tolerant cultivars remains limited due to low propagation efficiency. Plant tissue culture has been introduced as an alternative approach, yet in vitro-grown ginseng often exhibit low survival rates during acclimatization, thereby restricting their practical application. This study was conducted as a fundamental investigation to address this limitation by comparing the morphological, histological, physiological, and metabolic differences between ginseng plants grown in vitro and ex vitro. The results demonstrated that in vitro-grown ginseng had stems and roots that were approximately 30% shorter, less prominent taproot development, and more than 30% lower root fresh weight. These plants also contained about 50% lower chlorophyll content and 52% higher stomatal density compared with ex vitro-grown ginseng. Histologically, in vitro plants exhibited narrow intercellular spaces, underdeveloped root cambium, and lignin deposition in cell walls. Metabolically, in vitro-grown ginseng was clearly distinguishable based on ginsenoside content and volatile compound profiles. The comprehensive findings of this study provide baseline information for future research and can be utilized to enhance the practicality of tissue culture-based micropropagation of ginseng. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of In Vitro Culture for Horticultural Crops)

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15 pages, 1141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Genetic Diversity in Polymers of Saccharum spontaneum L. and Their Hybrid Progenies

by Shenlin Ren, Liping Zhao, Lian’an Tao, Yuebin Zhang, Fenggang Zan, Xin Lu, Yong Zhao, Jing Zhang and Jiayong Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2221; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092221 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 368

Abstract

Saccharum spontaneum L. (wild sugarcane) possesses advantages such as strong perenniality, high stress resistance, and broad adaptability, making it the most successfully utilized wild species in sugarcane hybrid breeding. However, previous exploitation of S. spontaneum has been limited. To further explore its breeding [...] Read more.

Saccharum spontaneum L. (wild sugarcane) possesses advantages such as strong perenniality, high stress resistance, and broad adaptability, making it the most successfully utilized wild species in sugarcane hybrid breeding. However, previous exploitation of S. spontaneum has been limited. To further explore its breeding potential, this study employed recurrent selection to improve the population of S. spontaneum (S0) before its application in germplasm innovation. Subsequently, S1 (containing two S. spontaneum bloodlines) were developed and optimized. Using S1 as dual parents, S2 (containing three or more S. spontaneum bloodlines) were further created and selected. Genetic diversity among 199 materials from seven populations (S0, S1 and S2) was evaluated using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The results showed that an unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic means (UPGMA) cluster analysis based on genetic distance classified the 199 S. spontaneum materials into seven groups, largely consistent with their original population divisions. Compared to their parents, the S1 population generated an average of 18.79 novel loci (mutation rate: 25.00%), while the S2 population produced an average of 15.40 novel loci (mutation rate: 19.00%). The polymer of S. spontaneum exhibited rich genetic diversity, with Nei’s gene diversity index of 0.3390 and Shannon information index of 0.5082. Due to the increased number of original parents and trait pyramiding, the polymer of S. spontaneum demonstrated expanded genetic backgrounds and enhanced heterogeneity. Furthermore, hybridization and recombination generated novel elite loci compared to their parents, further enriching the overall genetic background and diversity of the polymer of S. spontaneum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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18 pages, 6155 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Spray Performance of Swing-Arm Sprayer on Droplet Deposition on Greenhouse Tomatoes

by Zhongyi Yu, Guangfu Wang, Hongtu Zhang, Keyao Zhao, Xiangsen Meng, Jiashu Guo, Mingtian Geng, Tianze Luo, Kekun Zhou and Xiongkui He

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2220; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092220 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 529

Abstract

In view of the problems existing in the application of greenhouse pesticides in China, this paper developed a swing-arm sprayer for greenhouse high-stem crops through field research and a literature review. Static and dynamic simulations of the swing-arm mechanism were carried out to [...] Read more.

In view of the problems existing in the application of greenhouse pesticides in China, this paper developed a swing-arm sprayer for greenhouse high-stem crops through field research and a literature review. Static and dynamic simulations of the swing-arm mechanism were carried out to verify the rationality of the structure. The average contact angle between the water and tomato leaves was 49.39°, while the contact angle of the auxiliary solution on the tomato leaves decreased to 40.98°. An indoor atomization test platform was designed to accurately test the particle size and spray performance. The relative span (RS) of droplet distribution showed that the RS values of nozzles 015, 02, and 03 were relatively small, while the RS value of nozzle 04 was about 1.734. With the addition of additives, the RS value of nozzle 02 decreased from 1.305 to 1.021. The field tests showed that the deposition of fog droplets on the front of tomato leaves was in the order of middle > lower > ground > upper (3.622 μL/cm², 3.005 μL/cm², 2.977 μL/cm², and 2.931 μL/cm², respectively). The results indicate that adding additives or increasing the swing-arm angle is beneficial for improving the uniformity of canopy droplet deposition. The front fog droplet coverage of the lower canopy of tomatoes was the lowest, with an average of 26.00%, while the middle and upper canopies had the highest, with an average of 50.58% and 50.72%, respectively. The research found that the spray coverage rate on the front and back sides of tomato leaves was relatively uniform, indicating that the swing-arm greenhouse sprayer designed in this paper could meet the spray quality requirements for tomato pest control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Precision Pesticide Spraying Technology and Equipment)

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13 pages, 1233 KB

Open AccessReview

Key Technologies and Equipment for Straw Utilization in Agriculture

by Qingxia Wang, Yebo Qin, Yangyan Wei, Shuzhen Ye, Yanli Wang, Tao Tong, Zhijuan Ji and Younan Ouyang

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2219; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092219 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 462

Abstract

As a major agricultural country, China is also one of the world’s most abundant sources of crop straw, with production expected to reach 900 million tons by 2025. As an agricultural by-product, straw has been widely regarded as a potential renewable resource. It [...] Read more.

As a major agricultural country, China is also one of the world’s most abundant sources of crop straw, with production expected to reach 900 million tons by 2025. As an agricultural by-product, straw has been widely regarded as a potential renewable resource. It is rich in organic matter and essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), playing a critical role in global carbon and nitrogen cycles, agricultural productivity, and green environmental development. The efficient and rational utilization of straw can not only meet the resource demands supporting economic growth but also contribute to environmental protection and sustainable social development in China. By closely integrating comprehensive straw utilization with the annual key tasks of agriculture, rural areas, and farmers, the focus remains on prioritizing agricultural applications while adopting diversified measures. The efforts aim to improve straw utilization methods, strengthen technological support, explore replicable and sustainable industrial development models, and establish efficient utilization mechanisms to enhance the quality of agricultural straw use. To fully leverage the agricultural potential of straw, numerous technologies and equipment for straw utilization in agriculture have been developed in recent years, including straw harvesting and collecting equipment, straw crushing and returning-to-field equipment, full-straw seeding anti-clogging technology, combined straw and green manure returning-to-field equipment, and specialized straw seedling-raising equipment. Nevertheless, many challenges remain to be addressed, including bridging the equipment gap in mechanized processing, overcoming technical bottlenecks in resource conversion, and filling the lack of agronomy-adapted technologies. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of present straw utilization technology and equipment in agriculture, discussing their potential benefits, limitations, and challenges, as well as future prospects and directions. This study provides insights from the perspective of key technologies and equipment to strengthen technological research, enhance straw’s agricultural potential, and explore green circular economy models in agriculture. By leveraging innovation in science and technology, it aims to ensure food security and improve grain production capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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31 pages, 8218 KB

Open AccessArticle

Growth Stage-Specific Modeling of Chlorophyll Content in Korla Pear Leaves by Integrating Spectra and Vegetation Indices

by Mingyang Yu, Weifan Fan, Junkai Zeng, Yang Li, Lanfei Wang, Hao Wang and Jianping Bao

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092218 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 363

Abstract

This study, leveraging near-infrared spectroscopy technology and integrating vegetation index analysis, aims to develop a hyperspectral imaging-based non-destructive inspection technique for swift monitoring of crop chlorophyll content by rapidly predicting leaf SPAD. To this end, a high-precision spectral prediction model was first established [...] Read more.

This study, leveraging near-infrared spectroscopy technology and integrating vegetation index analysis, aims to develop a hyperspectral imaging-based non-destructive inspection technique for swift monitoring of crop chlorophyll content by rapidly predicting leaf SPAD. To this end, a high-precision spectral prediction model was first established under laboratory conditions using ex situ lyophilized Leaf samples. This model provides a core algorithmic foundation for future non-destructive field applications. A systematic study was conducted to develop prediction models for leaf SPAD values of Korla fragrant pear at different growth stages (fruit-setting period, fruit swelling period and Maturity period). This involved comparing various spectral preprocessing algorithms (AirPLS, Savitzky–Golay, Multiplicative Scatter Correction, FD, etc.) and CARS Feature Selection methods for the screening of optimal spectral feature band. Subsequently, models were constructed using BP Neural Network and Support Vector Regression algorithms. The results showed that leaf samples at different growth stages exhibited significant differences in their spectral features within the 5000–7000 cm⁻¹ (effective features for predicting chlorophyll (SPAD)) and 7000–8000 cm⁻¹ (moisture absorption valley) bands. The Savitzky–Golay+FD (Savitzky–Golay smoothing combined with first-order derivative (FD)) preprocessing algorithm performed optimally in feature extraction. Growth period specificity models significantly outperformed whole growth period models, with the optimal models for the fruit-setting period and fruit swelling period being FD-CARS-BP (Coefficient of determination (R²) > 0.86), and the optimal model for the Maturity period being Savitzky–Golay-FD+Savitzky–Golay-CARS-BP (Coefficient_of_determination (R²) = 0.862). Furthermore, joint modeling of characteristic spectra and vegetation indices further improved prediction performance (Coefficient of determination (R²) > 0.85, Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) 2.5). This study presents a reliable method for non-destructive monitoring of chlorophyll content in Korla fragrant pears, offering significant value for nutrient management and stress early warning in precision agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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31 pages, 5583 KB

Open AccessArticle

Leguminous Cover Crops Promote Microbial Community Diversity in the Rhizosphere Soil of Tea Plants: Insights from 16S rRNA Microbiome Analysis

by Sabin Saurav Pokharel, Zahid Ali, Changyu Wang, Xingfu Jiang and Fajun Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2217; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092217 - 19 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 664

Abstract

The integration of leguminous cover cropping systems (LCR), particularly soybean (LC-S) and cowpea (LC-C), into tea agroecosystem provides a sustainable strategy to enhance soil ecosystem services by promoting beneficial soil microbial communities through the modulation of the rhizosphere microbiome in the tea rhizosphere [...] Read more.

The integration of leguminous cover cropping systems (LCR), particularly soybean (LC-S) and cowpea (LC-C), into tea agroecosystem provides a sustainable strategy to enhance soil ecosystem services by promoting beneficial soil microbial communities through the modulation of the rhizosphere microbiome in the tea rhizosphere soil. This study employs 16S rRNA gene sequencing to assess how these leguminous cover crops, when incorporated as green manure within the tea row spaces, influence the microbial community diversity in the rhizosphere soil of tea plants. Compared to conventional monoculture tea plantations (CK), the introduction of LC-S and LC-C significantly reshape the microbial communities in the tea rhizosphere soil. They promote the abundance of copiotrophic and specialized taxa such as Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Mycobacterium, which are crucial for nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. Additionally, LC-S and LC-C enrich beneficial microbes including Chloroflexi, Bradyrhizobium, Acidothermus, and Cyanobacteria, supporting processes like nitrogen fixation and pathogen suppression. The metagenomic analysis confirms that leguminous cover crops consistently increase bacterial diversity and enrich beneficial phyla vital for soil nutrient dynamics, organic matter breakdown, and environmental stress resilience. Furthermore, microbial genera linked to nitrogen mobilization and complex organic matter degradation are promoted, underpinning the synthesis of nitrogenous compounds (such as theanine, amino acids), polyphenolic secondary metabolites (like flavonoids), and volatile organic compounds essential for tea quality. Functional pathway analyses revealed that LC-S enhances degradation pathways involved in carbohydrate and aromatic compound metabolism, augmenting precursors for key bioactive constituents such as theanine and catechins. Conversely, LC-C favors glycan biosynthesis and degradation pathways, likely improving root–microbe interactions and micronutrient uptake, both critical for polyphenol biosynthesis. Collectively, these microbiome-driven changes improve tea’s sensory qualities, including flavor, aroma, and antioxidant capacity, by enriching bioactive compounds. This microbiome-mediated agro-ecological approach offers a sustainable alternative to conventional monoculture, enhancing soil functionality, ecological resilience, and the economic viability of tea production systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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21 pages, 5652 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Root Nitrogen Uptake via Organic Fertilizer Substitution Enhances Yield and Efficiency in Dryland Maize

by Haofeng Meng, Xin Tian, Bingxin Liu, Lingling Li, Junhong Xie and Zhen Zhu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092216 - 19 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Using a maize planting system with full film mulching on double ridges and furrow sowing in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Loess Plateau, this study aims to explore the optimal proportion of organic fertilizer to replace basal chemical fertilizers; clarify its [...] Read more.

Using a maize planting system with full film mulching on double ridges and furrow sowing in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Loess Plateau, this study aims to explore the optimal proportion of organic fertilizer to replace basal chemical fertilizers; clarify its regulatory mechanism on nitrogen metabolism in maize roots and yield, so as to simultaneously achieve the reduction in chemical fertilizers and stable yield increase; and provide technical support for the global green production of dryland agriculture. Using fully mulched ridge–furrow cropping maize as the research object, four treatments were established with an equal nitrogen application rate (200 kg/hm²): 100% chemical fertilizer (T1), 50% chemical fertilizer + 50% organic fertilizer (T2), 62.5% chemical fertilizer + 37.5% organic fertilizer (T3), and no fertilization (T4). The nitrogen content in roots, metabolic enzyme activities in different soil layers during the filling stage, as well as indicators such as yield and nitrogen use efficiency were measured. The T3 treatment showed the highest root nitrogen content, accumulation, and metabolic enzyme activity in the 0–20 cm soil layer. The nitrogen assimilation amount after flowering was 10.7% higher than that of T1. The grain yield and grain weight per ear were the highest in two years, reaching 6388.9 kg/hm² in 2022, which was 11.8% higher than that of T1. The agronomic utilization efficiency increased by 22.8%, while the partial productivity of nitrogen fertilizer increased by 11.5%. The T2 treatment led to yield loss due to the excessive application of organic fertilizer. Overall, substituting 37.5% of the basal chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer enhanced root activity and nitrogen metabolism enzyme activities, thereby improving nitrogen uptake and translocation efficiency, which ultimately increased kernel number per ear and kernel weight per ear, leading to higher grain yield. Therefore, this approach can be recommended for the green production of maize in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Loess Plateau. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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Using Flint Maize for Developing New Hybrids: A Case Study in Romania

by Roxana Elena Călugăr, Andrei Varga, Carmen Daniela Vana, Loredana Ancuța Ceclan, Felicia Chețan, Andras Fodor and Nicolae Tritean

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2215; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092215 - 19 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Maize, one of the most cultivated crops worldwide, has multiple uses, one of which is human food. Maize flour intended for human consumption is preferably produced from var. indurata. This maize variety, although it has some desirable traits, generally has a lower [...] Read more.

Maize, one of the most cultivated crops worldwide, has multiple uses, one of which is human food. Maize flour intended for human consumption is preferably produced from var. indurata. This maize variety, although it has some desirable traits, generally has a lower yield capacity. In order to obtain high-yielding hybrids that would have some traits necessary to obtain flour for human consumption, fourteen lines with dent or semi-dent grains were crossed with four inbred lines with flint grain in a cyclic system. The 56 resulting hybrids were tested in two experimental years for yield, the percentage of unlodged plants, grain dry matter at harvest, as well as other traits, such as ASI (anthesis-to-silking interval), the interval from sowing to the appearance of stigmas and to physiological maturity, and plant senescence. The maternal lines A478 and A480 were noted for transmitting higher yields. Three hybrids were identified with higher yields, good silking–flowering coincidence, stay-green, and a high unlodged plants percentage: A478 × D328, A480 × B330, and A480 × D328. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Breeding of High-Quality, Disease-Resistance and High-Producing Varieties)

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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 228 articles

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