Buildings

24 pages, 50905 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anchor-Constrained Residual Stacking for Missing Data Reconstruction in Structural Health Monitoring

by Du Guo, Chunfeng Wan, Miaomiao Peng, Yixu Wang, Caiqian Yang, Changqing Miao and Songtao Xue

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3563; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173563 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

During long-term monitoring, data missing often happens due to environmental interference, sensor malfunction or transmission problems, which will threaten the effectiveness of structural health monitoring. This study proposes an anchor-constrained residual stacking method, which can improve data reconstruction performance relative to individual models [...] Read more.

During long-term monitoring, data missing often happens due to environmental interference, sensor malfunction or transmission problems, which will threaten the effectiveness of structural health monitoring. This study proposes an anchor-constrained residual stacking method, which can improve data reconstruction performance relative to individual models across diverse missing patterns while reducing the risk of performance degradation associated with unconstrained ensemble learning. The method adopts a two-level stacking framework in which heterogeneous base learners generate candidate reconstructed data and grouped out-of-fold predictions are used to select an anchor learner for different missing patterns. A residual meta-learner then learns complementary residual information relative to the anchor learner, while validation-gated fusion regulates residual correction and final fusion based on reserved validation data, reducing unreliable fusion contributions. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified using monitoring data with different missing patterns from a steel stringer bridge under multiple structural states. It achieves a coefficient of determination (

R^{2}

) of 0.9020, together with the lowest relative root mean square error (RRMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) among the compared methods. Operational modal analysis further confirms that the method preserves the main dynamic characteristics of structural responses, supporting reliable reconstruction across diverse missing patterns and multiple structural states. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Enhanced Defect Detection and Quality Assurance in Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rolling Horizon Control of a Photovoltaic Shading Louver Considering Thermal State Inheritance and Occupancy Requirements

by Fanxuan Xia, Zhuo Chen, Chongxu Jiang, Ran Wang, Yijun Pan, Zhiwei Li and Yanling Na

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3562; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173562 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Hourly angle optimization for photovoltaic (PV) shading is conducted by selecting values from independent fixed-angle simulations, although the selected hours do not share a consistent building thermal history. This study develops a database-based constant-action rolling horizon look-ahead heuristic that minimizes net electricity for [...] Read more.

Hourly angle optimization for photovoltaic (PV) shading is conducted by selecting values from independent fixed-angle simulations, although the selected hours do not share a consistent building thermal history. This study develops a database-based constant-action rolling horizon look-ahead heuristic that minimizes net electricity for a PV louver in a Beijing office while correcting thermal-history inconsistency. Nineteen angles from 0° to 90° were simulated to construct hourly thermal and PV maps. Schedules were generated for horizons of 1–48 h under a 10° h⁻¹ movement limit and evaluated by continuous EnergyPlus replay. The independently optimized sequence predicted −310.90 kWh of annual net energy, whereas continuous replay yielded −101.61 kWh, revealing a 209.29 kWh state-inheritance error dominated by HVAC electricity. The 12 h horizon minimized net energy at −119.11 kWh. A 24 h horizon incurred a 5.89 kWh penalty while reducing angle changes and total rotation by approximately 65%, indicating a favorable energy–movement compromise. Requiring an angle of at least 15° during occupancy eliminated full closure at a net-energy cost of 35.79 kWh. Continuous replay and operating constraints are therefore necessary when translating fixed-angle databases into implementable façade controls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coupled Heat and Mass Transfer for Healthy and Energy-Flexible Buildings)

27 pages, 10422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Crack Bridging in Coating Systems: A Comparative Study Between Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and Dial Gauges in Crack Bridging Tests

by Carolina Dal Agnol Dalazen, Alexandre Cordeiro dos Santos, Osmar Hamilton Becere, Carlos Pérez Bergmann and Luciani Somensi Lorenzi

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3561; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173561 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

This study evaluated the crack-bridging capacity of textured coating systems across 60 test specimens using an adapted UEAtc test method, comparing analog dial gauges with two-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (2D-DIC) on acrylic and mortar substrates. Acrylic substrates achieved higher mean bridged crack widths [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the crack-bridging capacity of textured coating systems across 60 test specimens using an adapted UEAtc test method, comparing analog dial gauges with two-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (2D-DIC) on acrylic and mortar substrates. Acrylic substrates achieved higher mean bridged crack widths (0.97 to 1.20 mm via dial gauges and 0.39 to 0.51 mm via DIC) than mortar prisms (0.30 to 0.42 mm via dial gauges and 0.21 to 0.36 mm via DIC). The elastomeric topcoat increased nominal crack-bridging by up to 46.2% in DIC measurements, although substrate type was the mechanically dominant factor in the ANOVA (

p < 0.001

). Bland–Altman analysis indicated a systematic mean bias of

- 0.38 mm

and significant proportional bias (

y = - 1.18 x + 0.28; R^{2} = 0.61

), demonstrating close agreement for narrow cracks (<0.40 mm) and progressive divergence at larger openings due to mechanical contact seating effects (

I C C (2, 1) = 0.21

). The main limitations stem from the spatial disparity between discrete substrate fixtures and continuous surface tracking. In conclusion, DIC is a reliable, non-contact technique for mapping continuous strain fields and identifying initial microcracking, but it cannot directly replace mechanical contact gauges across large deformation ranges without bias compensation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Technologies in Construction and Built Environment)

32 pages, 12444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Static Performance of a Scaled Continuous Rigid-Frame Bridge Model Under Progressive Multi-Location Strengthening: Deflection, Strain, and Response-Line Evaluation

by Dengqin Yu, Derong Ma, Xiaochuan Cao, Yuhu Luo and Liang Fan

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3560; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173560 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Continuous rigid-frame bridges experience web, bottom-slab, and deck-slab deterioration in service, yet strengthening locations are rarely compared within a single structure. A 3.68-m acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA) model of a three-span rigid-frame bridge was tested at four static load levels with a three-axle [...] Read more.

Continuous rigid-frame bridges experience web, bottom-slab, and deck-slab deterioration in service, yet strengthening locations are rarely compared within a single structure. A 3.68-m acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA) model of a three-span rigid-frame bridge was tested at four static load levels with a three-axle vehicle. The web void was patched, and the bottom and deck slabs were then stiffened, forming cumulative Stages 0–3; a beam model matched the measurements within 3.6–9.7%. At the mid-span section, full strengthening reduced the 20-kg deflection by 39.8% and raised equivalent flexural stiffness by 51.5%. The bottom-slab stage gave the largest incremental gain, raising bottom-flange strain improvement at the mid-span and side-span one-third control sections from 2–4% to 28–31%; the deck-slab stage added a comparable stiffness gain. Web patching acted locally (21.9% strain reduction beside the defect and 0.5% at the mirror gauge) but left the control-section flexural indices unresolved; as a web void mainly affects shear, which is unmeasured here, it is reported as localized restoration. Response-line shapes were preserved while Stage-3 envelope areas contracted by 30–40%. The specimen was not replicated, and the mid-span improvement spans 37.4–48.0% across three data treatments. The results support mechanism-based screening of strengthening locations in similar box girders under service loading. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 3489 KB

Open AccessReview

Circularity and Reuse Readiness in Sustainable and Affordable Modular Housing: A Systematic Scoping Review

by Yan Arianto, Mochamad Agung Wibowo and Syafrudin Syafrudin

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3559; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173559 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable and affordable housing requires construction systems that reduce material consumption, embodied environmental impacts, construction waste, and life-cycle costs while retaining the value of building components across multiple use cycles. This study presents a systematic scoping review and evidence [...] Read more.

The growing demand for sustainable and affordable housing requires construction systems that reduce material consumption, embodied environmental impacts, construction waste, and life-cycle costs while retaining the value of building components across multiple use cycles. This study presents a systematic scoping review and evidence map of circular economy strategies and reuse readiness in modular sustainable and affordable housing. A structured literature search covering publications from 2016 to 2026 identified 283 records, of which 49 studies were included following screening and eligibility assessment. The included studies were coded according to circular economy strategies within the 0R–10R framework, building life-cycle stages, modular technology typologies, sustainability and affordability indicators, and reuse-readiness attributes. The evidence map shows that the literature remains predominantly focused on life-cycle assessment, carbon emissions, waste reduction, reuse, and recycling. In contrast, early-stage circular strategies, including refuse, rethink, reduce, and redesign, as well as repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing, social value, life-cycle affordability, and operational reuse readiness, remain insufficiently examined. The findings further demonstrate that prefabrication or modularity alone does not ensure circularity. High reuse readiness depends on demountable connections, non-destructive disassembly, component standardization, durability, repairability, material traceability, reverse logistics, and credible second-life scenarios. Based on the mapped evidence, this study develops an evidence-informed Integrated Digital Circular Modular Ecosystem pathway that connects circular design, material passports, reuse-readiness assessment, BIM and digital twins, component grading, reverse logistics, circular marketplaces, and life-cycle performance evaluation. By integrating reuse readiness, life-cycle affordability, and digital traceability within a single evidence-informed pathway, the study provides a structured basis for researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders to evaluate and advance modular housing beyond construction efficiency toward long-term circularity and component value retention. As a conceptual synthesis, the pathway requires further validation through expert assessment and application to actual modular housing projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Pathways and Zero-Waste Practices in Sustainable Construction)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 19791 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Correlation of Mechanical Performance and Construction Dimensions Between Chinese Song-Dynasty Official Norms and Locally Constructed Buildings

by Yue Wang, Saiqin Wu, Xianjie Meng, Lan Li and Chengya Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3558; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173558 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

To investigate the correlation between construction dimensions and seismic performance of Song-dynasty official and local timber structures, two scaled models were subjected to horizontal cyclic quasi-static loading tests. One model is the Goddess Mother Hall of Jinci, and the other is the 7th-grade [...] Read more.

To investigate the correlation between construction dimensions and seismic performance of Song-dynasty official and local timber structures, two scaled models were subjected to horizontal cyclic quasi-static loading tests. One model is the Goddess Mother Hall of Jinci, and the other is the 7th-grade timber frame described in Yingzao Fashi. The models have similar vertical-layer proportions but differ in bay width, E-fang cross-sectional dimensions, Dou-gong cai-height, and column-top tenon cross-sections. The relative ratio method was used to mitigate the effects of material and scale differences and to focus on the relative contributions of the column-frame and Dou-gong layers to the overall frame. For the Goddess Mother Hall model, which is characterized by a wide bay and thin E-fang, the ratio of the equivalent viscous damping coefficient of the column-frame layer to that of the overall frame remains above 1.0, indicating greater energy dissipation efficiency than the overall structure. However, its stiffness degradation is more pronounced under high vertical loads. The enlarged column-top tenon cross-section and slightly reduced cai height produce a stable increase in the stiffness contribution of the Dou-gong layer, whereas its relative contribution to energy dissipation proportion is smaller than that in the Yingzao Fashi model. The results show that dimensional differences are associated with distinct trends in the stiffness and energy dissipation of the column-frame and Dou-gong layers and that these trends vary with vertical load. This study reveals the coupling relationship between dimensional adjustments and structural performance in official norms and local construction practices, providing a basis and directions for further research on the mechanical effects of dimensional variations in ancient timber structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

37 pages, 28595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bond Transfer Mechanisms and Slip Evolution in High-Strength Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes Under Extreme Temperatures Through Push-Out Tests and Finite Element Simulations

by Mingyong Zhong, Yingjun Yang, Wenfeng Zhou, Xingtao Liu, Xijuan Yang and Li Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3557; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173557 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

The effects of wide-ranging service temperatures on interfacial bond transfer and slip evolution in high-strength concrete-filled steel tube members have not yet been systematically characterized. A test program involving 15 circular specimens was carried out at temperatures between −60 °C and 60 °C [...] Read more.

The effects of wide-ranging service temperatures on interfacial bond transfer and slip evolution in high-strength concrete-filled steel tube members have not yet been systematically characterized. A test program involving 15 circular specimens was carried out at temperatures between −60 °C and 60 °C with steel tube wall thicknesses of 2 mm, 3 mm, and 4 mm. Particular attention was given to interface failure patterns, slip development, and stress transfer during loading. Cooling markedly enhanced the interfacial resistance, whereas heating produced a moderate reduction. The increase observed at subzero temperatures was smaller than that commonly reported for conventional concrete-filled steel tubes. Bond capacity also declined as the diameter-to-thickness ratio increased because of reduced confinement from the steel tube. Regression of the experimental data produced expressions for ultimate bond strength and the associated slip. A piecewise constitutive relation was then formulated to represent the complete bond–slip process. The proposed relation was implemented in ABAQUS through distributed nonlinear connector elements and temperature-dependent material properties. Numerical predictions showed close agreement with the measured load–slip responses, characteristic loads, and stress distributions. These results provide a modeling basis for HSCFST members exposed to severe cold and large temperature fluctuations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Configuration and Cultural Logic: A Space Syntax Analysis of Wu Family Manor, a Late Qing Merchant’s Garden Residence in Northern China

by Xinguo Zhang, Yuqian Chen, Xiaozi Ying, Sirui Cheng and Xue Yang

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3556; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173556 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Traditional Chinese gardens are not only aesthetic representations but also spatial expressions of diverse aspects of social life. Compared with the extensive studies on Jiangnan gardens, the spatial organization and cultural meanings of private gardens in northern China remain relatively less explored. This [...] Read more.

Traditional Chinese gardens are not only aesthetic representations but also spatial expressions of diverse aspects of social life. Compared with the extensive studies on Jiangnan gardens, the spatial organization and cultural meanings of private gardens in northern China remain relatively less explored. This study examines the East Courtyard of Wu Family Manor, a late Qing private garden in Guanzhong. Space Syntax is applied to quantitatively analyze its spatial configuration, while historical documents and field surveys are combined to explore the logic of its spatial organization and its relationship with merchant family practices and ritual concepts. The results reveal a clear spatial hierarchy within Wu Family Manor. The residential core occupies a relatively central position in the spatial configuration, and the garden functions as a complementary extension of domestic life. The spatial organization reflects a dual logic of hierarchical public order and inward-oriented family life, corresponding to the ritual principles and residential practices of merchant families. Compared with the landscape-oriented organization commonly observed in Jiangnan gardens, Wu Family Manor presents a different pattern of garden–residence integration, consistent with the characteristics of traditional northern garden residences. Methodologically, this study demonstrates the feasibility of integrating Space Syntax with historical and socio-cultural evidence to examine the spatial logic of traditional garden residences in northern China, thereby expanding its application to the study of traditional Chinese gardens. In practice, this finding indicates that conservation and adaptive reuse should consider not only individual buildings and gardens but also the spatial relationships and hierarchical structure underlying their organization. Clarifying the spatial organization logic of historic garden–residence complexes can provide additional evidence for interpreting and retaining their historical spatial character and regional identity, while also offering a reference for the conservation and renewal of similar traditional garden–residence sites in different historical and regional contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

34 pages, 4678 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conditional Effectiveness of Night Ventilation During Heatwaves: Nonlinear Interactions Among Event Morphology, Thermal Mass and Operating Strategies

by Qi Zhang, Guangyi Zhang and Linxue Li

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3555; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173555 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Consecutive warm nights during heatwaves erode the cooling potential of night ventilation (NV), making its effectiveness strongly dependent on both the event and the building conditions. This study quantified the nonlinear effects of heatwave morphology, building thermal mass (TM), and NV strategies on [...] Read more.

Consecutive warm nights during heatwaves erode the cooling potential of night ventilation (NV), making its effectiveness strongly dependent on both the event and the building conditions. This study quantified the nonlinear effects of heatwave morphology, building thermal mass (TM), and NV strategies on multidimensional thermal responses and identified the operating conditions associated with ventilation performance. Using a 1991–2020 climatological baseline, 36 heatwaves were characterized by eight morphology indicators. A total of 18,000 EnergyPlus simulations examined combinations of three TM levels, two ventilation configurations, window-to-wall ratios (WWRs) ranging from 0.10 to 0.70, openable fraction, and opening schedules. Six indicators captured daytime peaks, persistent overheating, peak temperature lag, nighttime overheating, thermal recovery, and nighttime cooling rate (NCR). Machine learning models were used to identify the governing mechanisms and delineate ventilation strategy regimes. All models achieved R² values above 0.96 under case-level testing, while event-level performance varied across responses. Increasing TM lowered the median daytime peak temperature by 4.5 °C under cross-ventilation but did not improve every response. Predicted daytime peak risk increased sharply when the mean daily minimum temperature exceeded about 27.0 °C. Ventilation configuration also reversed the effects of opening time, duration, and WWR, precluding a single optimum that is independent of heatwave and building conditions. Effective cooling, operationally defined as positive predicted NCR, was generally associated with earlier opening and longer ventilation. Under single-sided ventilation, achieving stable positive predicted NCR generally required ventilation durations longer than approximately 4 h for buildings with low TM and longer than 6 h for those with medium TM. Under cross-ventilation, the corresponding effective domain in the strategy space contracted markedly, and no stable region with positive predicted NCR emerged for buildings with high TM. These findings support a shift from fixed window opening rules to control strategies tailored to heatwave characteristics and building thermophysical properties. The framework provides a basis for natural ventilation operation informed by forecasts, passive cooling retrofits, and thermally resilient building design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

43 pages, 24820 KB

Open AccessArticle

Does Building Shade Serve as a Dual Thermal–Hygrometric Regulator in a Saharan Residential Courtyard? Field Evidence, the Vegetation-Without-Shading Paradox, and Design Suggestions from Laghouat, Algeria

by Amira Zebda and Samira Louafi

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3554; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173554 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

The summer performance of Saharan residential courtyards in developer-built (“promotional”) housing remains poorly documented. This study characterises a representative courtyard in Laghouat, Algeria (Köppen BWk), enclosed by R+3 buildings, combining in situ measurement at five stations with ENVI-met simulation. All stations remained in [...] Read more.

The summer performance of Saharan residential courtyards in developer-built (“promotional”) housing remains poorly documented. This study characterises a representative courtyard in Laghouat, Algeria (Köppen BWk), enclosed by R+3 buildings, combining in situ measurement at five stations with ENVI-met simulation. All stations remained in the EXTREME physiological-stress category (PET = 51.1–52.3 °C), with a minimum relative humidity of 9.26–10.35%; the sky view factor correlated with thermal amplitude (r = 0.936) and building shading with humidity (r = 0.977) and PET (r = −0.887). A vegetation paradox emerges: the unshaded vegetated station recorded the highest thermal surplus and lowest humidity, consistent with stomatal closure under extreme aridity, whereas the same vegetation, façade-shaded, performed best. Building shading, not ground vegetation, is the primary regulator, with a 9.5 °C surface-temperature differential between the two. These findings, specific to this single, intensively characterised courtyard, translate into six ranked design suggestions, led by built shading targeting 60–70% coverage at peak hours and temporally modulated nocturnal ventilation; the resulting assessment framework—rather than its site-specific values—offers a structure transferable to Saharan collective housing more broadly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 6202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calcined Clays for Low-Carbon Construction: Effects of Production Technology on Carbon Footprint

by Cheng-Xuan Yu, Martin Mildner, Robert Černý and Jan Fořt

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3553; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173553 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Calcined clays are increasingly recognized as strategic supplementary cementitious materials for reducing clinker consumption and the environmental impacts of construction. However, life cycle assessments typically represent metakaolin production using a single carbon footprint value, despite substantial differences in calcination technology, energy supply, and [...] Read more.

Calcined clays are increasingly recognized as strategic supplementary cementitious materials for reducing clinker consumption and the environmental impacts of construction. However, life cycle assessments typically represent metakaolin production using a single carbon footprint value, despite substantial differences in calcination technology, energy supply, and feedstock characteristics. This study develops a parameterized cradle-to-gate carbon inventory for metakaolin production and evaluates how this variability affects the environmental assessment of low-carbon construction materials. The methodology combines process-based theoretical modeling, mass and energy balances, literature-derived industrial data, and life cycle assessment. A full-factorial scenario analysis was performed for three calcination technologies: rotary kiln, fluidized bed, and flash calcination, while systematically varying fuel source, electricity mix, kaolinite purity, feedstock moisture, and transport distance. The resulting inventories were subsequently propagated into representative LC3 cement and metakaolin-based geopolymer formulations to quantify their influence at the construction-material level. Across 648 production scenarios, the carbon footprint of metakaolin ranged from 34 to 578 kg CO₂e t⁻¹, demonstrating that production conditions define the environmental performance. Fuel selection was identified as the principal emission driver, while moisture content and feedstock purity produced secondary effects. The variability propagated to downstream products, resulting in carbon footprints of 363–527 kg CO₂e t⁻¹ for LC3 cement and 167–357 kg CO₂e m⁻³ for metakaolin-based geopolymers despite identical material compositions. For the building sector, the proposed framework enables designers, material producers, and LCA practitioners to select calcined clay production routes consistent with the carbon targets of concrete, mortar, masonry, precast elements, and other cement-based building applications. It therefore provides a practical basis for incorporating LC3 and geopolymer technologies into lower-carbon building projects while avoiding environmental benefits based on non-representative upstream assumptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 9755 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Post-Disaster Shelters: An Integrated LCA of Environmental, Techno-Economic and Resilience Across Three Modern Methods of Construction

by Lina A. Khaddour, Rania Obead, Siegfried K. Yeboah, Thushini Mendis, Nagham M. El-Berishy and Islam Shyha

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3552; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173552 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

The increasing frequency and severity of natural and human-induced disasters are intensifying the need for post-disaster shelters that can be rapidly deployed while delivering low environmental impact, affordability and acceptable occupant comfort. Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), including Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP), prefabrication and [...] Read more.

The increasing frequency and severity of natural and human-induced disasters are intensifying the need for post-disaster shelters that can be rapidly deployed while delivering low environmental impact, affordability and acceptable occupant comfort. Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), including Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP), prefabrication and modular container-based systems, offer promising solutions for accelerating emergency housing delivery. However, their environmental, economic and thermal performance is rarely assessed within an integrated life-cycle framework, limiting robust comparison and evidence-based technology selection. This study addresses this gap by developing an integrated assessment framework combining Whole-Life Carbon (WLC), Life-Cycle Costing (LCC), and dynamic thermal simulation to comparatively evaluate three MMC-based emergency shelter systems over a 15-year service life. Applied to a representative post-disaster scenario, the framework reveals clear performance trade-offs among the three systems. Container-based shelters demonstrate the strongest overall environmental and economic performance, achieving the lowest whole-life energy consumption, carbon emissions and life-cycle costs. Compared with container-based shelters, 3DP shelters exhibit 7% higher whole-life energy consumption, 39% higher whole-life carbon emissions and 26% higher life-cycle costs. Relative to prefabricated shelters, 3DP shelters show 3% higher whole-life energy consumption, 37% higher whole-life carbon emissions and 12% higher life-cycle costs. In contrast, 3DP shelters deliver substantially better thermal performance, achieving approximately 70% predicted thermal satisfaction, compared with approximately 50% for both container-based and prefabricated shelters. The findings demonstrate a pronounced trade-off between environmental impact, economic efficiency and occupant thermal comfort, confirming that no single MMC system simultaneously optimises all performance dimensions. This challenges single-criterion approaches to post-disaster shelter selection and highlights the importance of integrated life-cycle decision-making. The proposed framework provides a transferable approach for evaluating emerging MMC shelter technologies and identifying context-specific solutions under time, resource and performance constraints. The findings offer evidence-based decision support for humanitarian organisations, policymakers and construction practitioners, while highlighting targeted opportunities to improve the material, energy and process efficiency of 3DP to enhance its environmental and economic competitiveness in future post-disaster applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 20309 KB

Open AccessArticle

A ROS 2-Based Robotic Platform for Mobile Occupant Sensing and Edge Perception in Buildings

by Mingzheng Wu, Haoran Wang, Weiqiang Wang, Sheng Miao and Songtao Hu

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3551; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173551 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Occupant-centric building operation requires timely information on occupant states and local indoor conditions, but fixed sensors provide limited spatial coverage, and wearables depend on user participation. This study develops a Robot Operating System 2 (ROS 2)-based wheeled mobile sensing platform for buildings. The [...] Read more.

Occupant-centric building operation requires timely information on occupant states and local indoor conditions, but fixed sensors provide limited spatial coverage, and wearables depend on user participation. This study develops a Robot Operating System 2 (ROS 2)-based wheeled mobile sensing platform for buildings. The main contribution is the integration of autonomous mapping and navigation, target approach, multisensor occupant-data acquisition, lightweight edge-based human detection, and return-to-dock operation on a Raspberry Pi 5. During operation, the robot patrols indoor locations, detects and approaches occupants, collects human and environmental data, uploads the data to a server, and returns to the charging dock. To support concurrent perception and navigation, YOLOv5n was compressed using structured channel pruning and multi-scale feature distillation. The compressed model reduced parameters and computation by approximately 53% and 61%, increased inference throughput from 7.5 to 16.5 frames per second, and enabled the robot to complete all 60 controlled trials across five locations and three postures. This study does not quantify HVAC energy savings or carbon-emission reductions. Instead, it validates a mobile sensing and edge-perception layer for future server-side thermal comfort inference, demand-responsive HVAC control, and evaluation of building energy and carbon performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 15527 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Rebound Hammer Response in Steel–GFRP Hybrid Reinforced Concrete Beams

by Eyad Alsuhaibani, Hesham Alsalamah, Asim Alrukhaimi and Basil Aba Alkhayl

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173550 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods are widely used to assess concrete quality, but their interpretation in reinforced concrete members remains challenging because measured responses may be influenced by reinforcement layout, casting and surface conditions, and testing configuration. This study investigates the effects of longitudinal [...] Read more.

Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods are widely used to assess concrete quality, but their interpretation in reinforced concrete members remains challenging because measured responses may be influenced by reinforcement layout, casting and surface conditions, and testing configuration. This study investigates the effects of longitudinal reinforcement type, stirrup spacing, and stirrup material on Schmidt rebound hammer (SRH) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) responses of concrete beams. Nine beams were cast from the same concrete batch: one plain concrete reference beam, steel-reinforced beams, GFRP-reinforced beams, and hybrid steel–GFRP-reinforced beams. Two stirrup spacings, 100 and 200 mm, and two stirrup materials, steel and GFRP, were considered. In total, 1044 rebound readings and 162 UPV measurements were collected, with UPV testing performed using Right–Left direct, longitudinal direct, and Right–Left indirect configurations. Compared with the plain reference beam, the mean rebound number (RN) increased by up to 21.5% in steel-reinforced beams and 23.2% in hybrid beams, whereas the GFRP-reinforced beam with wider stirrup spacing showed a slight reduction of about 0.8%. UPV differences were more moderate, with a maximum increase of approximately 10% relative to the plain beam. Rebound results also showed a clear face effect, with the bottom face producing the highest values and the top face the lowest. The dense spatial mapping captured local variability within each beam; however, because one beam represented each configuration, the comparisons are interpreted as descriptive specimen-level trends rather than generalized reinforcement effects. Single-pair spacing comparisons indicated larger and more variable differences in RN than in UPV between the 100 and 200 mm specimens. These findings demonstrate the importance of documenting casting face, reinforcement proximity, measurement location, and transmission path when interpreting NDE results in hybrid-reinforced concrete members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 27212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structured Semantic Translation and Diffusion-Based Generation of Lingnan Courtyard Garden Spatial Layouts: A Multi-Level Evaluation Framework

by Yanghao Luo, Zhenhui Zhang and Yiyang Huang

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3549; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173549 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Generative AI has advanced architectural and landscape layout generation, but regional gardens still lack formal spatial representations, controllable generation of intrinsic spatial prototypes, and domain-aligned evaluation methods. This study presents a theory-informed proof of concept for structured translation, conditional generation, and evaluation of [...] Read more.

Generative AI has advanced architectural and landscape layout generation, but regional gardens still lack formal spatial representations, controllable generation of intrinsic spatial prototypes, and domain-aligned evaluation methods. This study presents a theory-informed proof of concept for structured translation, conditional generation, and evaluation of Lingnan courtyard garden layouts. Based on classical Lingnan garden theory, 63 plans are encoded through five semantic layers: period style, spatial structure, organization mode, courtyard type, and constituent elements. The resulting multimodal dataset pairs normalized color-coded plans with structured prompts. A latent diffusion model fine-tuned using low-rank adaptation supports boundary-constrained generation. A multi-level evaluation framework combines spatial-prototype label ablation, expert relevance assessment, and element-proportion analysis. Empirical results show that structured spatial labels improve generation controllability: the structural-label hit rate reaches 78.8% (vs. 19.4% for element-only controls), and the organizational-label hit rate reaches 52.1% (vs. 13.6%). Structural control is stronger, whereas precise organizational relationships remain difficult to generate. This study establishes a traceable pathway from regional garden knowledge encoding to generative control and evaluation, provides an open and reusable dataset, and offers a methodological reference for the digital preservation of regional architectural and landscape heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3242 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Penalty, Financial Burden, and Fiscal Risk of Biosafety Ventilation Policies in Educational Buildings: A Probabilistic Analysis Under Market Volatility

by Jesús D. Rhenals-Julio, Deimer Ricardo Muñoz, Demóstenes Durango Álvarez, Samuel Bonilla Gracia, Miguel Doria Oviedo and Jorge Mario Mendoza Fandiño

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3548; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173548 - 7 Sep 2026

Abstract

Enforcing aggressive outdoor ventilation in public schools across hot and humid regions creates a steep, often unmanageable financial burden. While high air change rates (such as 5.0 air changes per hour, ACH) lower pathogen transmission risks, the resulting moisture condensation loads substantially increase [...] Read more.

Enforcing aggressive outdoor ventilation in public schools across hot and humid regions creates a steep, often unmanageable financial burden. While high air change rates (such as 5.0 air changes per hour, ACH) lower pathogen transmission risks, the resulting moisture condensation loads substantially increase electricity bills. In this study, we assessed the energy demand, 10-year Life Cycle Cost (LCC), and budget risk of post-pandemic ventilation mandates in a university building in Montería, Colombia (Köppen Aw climate). We calibrated a transient building energy simulation (BES) model using empirical utility data (MBE = +1.8%, CV-RMSE = 4.2%) to compare four operational strategies: standard code baseline (Scenario A, 1.2 ACH under ASHRAE 62.1-2022), Outdoor Air Dilution (Scenario B, 5.0 ACH), in-room HEPA Cleaning (Scenario C, 1.2 ACH outdoor air plus 3.8 ACH clean recirculation), and Energy Recovery Ventilation (Scenario D, 5.0 ACH with a 65% sensible and latent enthalpy wheel). Outdoor Air Dilution triggered a 2.26-fold increase in HVAC electricity demand, generating an annual deficit of $115,725 and adding 135.3 metric tons of CO₂eq per building because latent dehumidification represented 43.5% of total operating expenses. A 10,000-iteration Monte Carlo simulation under volatile electricity tariffs (sigma = 15%) revealed a 95% Value at Risk (VaR) of $148,438/year. Over a 10-year horizon, Outdoor Air Dilution accumulates $1.635 million in present-value costs, whereas localized HEPA Filtration delivers equivalent protection for $0.765 million, saving $0.870 million (a 90.3% policy deficit reduction). These results suggest that blanket outdoor ventilation mandates clash directly with public school decarbonization and fiscal solvency goals. Building codes in tropical regions should instead promote decoupled systems that combine baseline fresh air with localized particle filtration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Ventilation and Air Quality: Integrated Approaches for Human Health, Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Environment)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

34 pages, 17707 KB

Open AccessArticle

EPBD IV: Decarbonization Strategies Through a BIM-LCA Workflow—Case Study of a Crèche Design in Montoro, Southern Italy

by Giacomo Di Ruocco and Virginia Genovese

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3547; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173547 - 6 Sep 2026

Abstract

The construction sector urgently requires integrated methodologies to support design decisions oriented toward decarbonization, particularly regarding embodied carbon, which remains underrepresented compared to operational energy performance. This study investigates the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify [...] Read more.

The construction sector urgently requires integrated methodologies to support design decisions oriented toward decarbonization, particularly regarding embodied carbon, which remains underrepresented compared to operational energy performance. This study investigates the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify and reduce embodied carbon, in light of the EPBD IV and the Life Cycle Global Warming Potential (LCGWP) indicator. A hybrid BIM-LCA workflow was developed using the One Click LCA plug-in integrated within Autodesk Revit, with cloud-based processing for non-modeled elements, and applied to a crèche design case study in Montoro, focusing on the material production stage (modules A1–A3). Six material scenarios were compared across two structural groups: a reinforced concrete frame (Baseline Project, Implementations 1–3) and load-bearing EPS formwork masonry (Implementations 4–5). Scenario 2, combining recycled-content materials with a lightweight EPS ground floor slab, performed best within the frame group, while Scenario 5, combining high-recycled-content materials with an EPS floor slab and EPS load-bearing masonry, outperformed Implementation 4 within the masonry group. Overall, Scenario 5 achieved the lowest GWP A1–A3 among all scenarios (2.10 × 10⁵ kg CO₂e), alongside a 4.84% reduction in supply cost, confirming the replicability of the approach for environmentally and economically optimized building design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Low-Carbon Architecture: Materials and Technologies for Circularity and Climate Adaptation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 15651 KB

Open AccessArticle

Local Adaptation of the Architectural Form of the Nance House at Soochow University Under the Influence of the Colonial Veranda Style

by Yanqi Song and Xi Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3546; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173546 - 6 Sep 2026

Abstract

Around the time of the Opium War, the Colonial Veranda Style was introduced into China through the colonial networks of the British Empire. It was rapidly replicated and disseminated, becoming a standard architectural type in the treaty ports and missionary campuses of modern [...] Read more.

Around the time of the Opium War, the Colonial Veranda Style was introduced into China through the colonial networks of the British Empire. It was rapidly replicated and disseminated, becoming a standard architectural type in the treaty ports and missionary campuses of modern China. Soochow University, one of the earliest missionary universities established in China, was no exception, and its detached missionary residences were strongly influenced by this architectural tradition. Taking the Nance House at Soochow University as a case study and comparing it with three other detached residences for foreign missionaries on the same campus, this study finds that, while retaining the colonial prototype, the building displays marked local adaptation in its spatial organisation, material and constructional choices, and architectural expression. After considering several possible explanations, the article argues that the residence most likely represents a spontaneous path of local adaptation jointly shaped by decisions made by its occupant and the situated building knowledge of local craftsmen. Through a restrained integration at the levels of material and construction, the building provides empirical evidence of Sino-Western synthesis in residential architecture predating the emergence of the Chinese Revival style in the 1920s and possesses both artistic and scientific value. The study of the Nance House helps clarify one trajectory through which modern missionary staff housing evolved from direct transplantation towards local integration, together with the mechanisms of architectural translation involved, and provides a basis for understanding its heritage significance and informing its conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 5898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interpretable Machine Learning for Predicting Compressive Strength of CFRP-Confined UHPC Short Columns

by Xianglong Zeng, Lianguang Wang and Bailing Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(17), 3545; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16173545 - 5 Sep 2026

Abstract

The compressive behavior of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)-confined ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) short columns involves nonlinear interactions among concrete properties, confinement characteristics, and specimen geometry. In this study, a database of 144 circular specimens was compiled using nine input variables: specimen diameter (

D

[...] Read more.

The compressive behavior of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)-confined ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) short columns involves nonlinear interactions among concrete properties, confinement characteristics, and specimen geometry. In this study, a database of 144 circular specimens was compiled using nine input variables: specimen diameter (

D

), height (

H

), CFRP thickness (

t

), number of CFRP layers (

L a y e r s

), unconfined concrete compressive strength (

f_{c o}^{'}

), concrete ultimate strain (

ε_{c o}

), CFRP tensile strength (

f_{f}

), CFRP ultimate strain (

ε_{f}

), and CFRP elastic modulus (

E_{f}

). Eight regression algorithms were evaluated using an 80:20 training–test split, with ten-fold cross-validation conducted within the training subset for hyperparameter selection. ANN achieved the best test performance, with an

R^{2}

of 0.96, an MAE of 8.37 MPa, and an RMSE of 11.32 MPa, while SVM and CatBoost also showed competitive predictive accuracy. The selected ML models exhibited substantially lower prediction errors than seven existing empirical equations. SHAP analysis further identified CFRP layer number, unconfined concrete strength, specimen height, and CFRP thickness as influential predictors and revealed interactions among confinement, matrix deformability, and specimen geometry. The proposed framework provides an accurate and interpretable supplementary approach for assessing the compressive strength of CFRP-confined UHPC within the parameter range represented by the database. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Description

Buildings

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Topical Collections

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI