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3D-Printed Technology in Buildings

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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 3879

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Tan Trung Bui

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

MATEIS, CNRS, INSA-Lyon, University of Lyon, UMR 5510, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France
Interests: masonry; rammed earth; concrete; discrete element method; thin-walled structures

Dr. Wendpanga Serge Auguste NANA

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Holcim Innovation Center, 38090 Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
Interests: digital fabrication—3D printing; carbon efficient construction; fiber reinforced concrete solutions; numerical modelling and design

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

3D printing is gaining increasing importance and has become an emerging digital construction technology. Traditionally conservative, the building sector is demonstrating innovation with this technology which is experiencing rapid expansion, encompassing a wide range of non-structural elements to structural load-bearing elements, and many growing projects around the world demonstrate the great potential of the technology in terms of lowering construction costs, reduction in construction waste, possibility of customized design, lightweight elements, and reduction of carbon emissions. There are still challenges to overcome to facilitate the wider expansion of the technology, such as: non-familiarity with this technology (adapted printable material, printing process, environmental conditions, how to incorporate reinforcement, building integration), the potential risks (shrinkage cracking, quality consistency) and the fact that there is a lack of regulatory framework for convenient approval and therefore design recommendations are welcome. As people recognize the reliability of real case studies, the potential of this technology to shape a more sustainable future is considerable. The Topic Editors encourage the scientific community to share their learnings that will help the building sector promote 3D printing technology. Topics include, but are not limited to, printable material development; mechanical properties; building applications; reinforcement strategy; design recommendations; sustainability; Finite Element Modeling.

Dr. Tan Trung Bui
Dr. Wendpanga Serge Auguste NANA
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D printing
buildings
reinforcement
printable material
structural design
carbon footprint
sustainable construction
Finite Element Modeling

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 7126 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D Printing of Earth-Based Mixtures: Linking Material Design, Printability, and Structural Performance

by Daiquiri Zozaya, Hamideh Shojaeian, Francisco Uviña-Contreras and Maryam Hojati

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061261 - 23 Mar 2026

Viewed by 204

Abstract

The advancement of sustainable construction requires the development of earthen materials compatible with 3D printing (additive manufacturing), along with specified engineering standards. Many existing studies improve workability and early strength using chemical stabilizers such as cement; however, these additives increase embodied carbon and undermine sustainability objectives. Challenges remain in the formulation of an earthen mixture that satisfies both printability and structural requirements for large-scale construction. Previous earth-based mixes have reported excessive shrinkage and inadequate compressive strength. This study presents the systematic optimization of a low-carbon, 3D-printable earthen mixture using locally sourced clay-loam soil from Belén, New Mexico (NM). The soil was modified with graded concrete sand and rice hull fiber to improve printing parameters such as buildability, extrudability, and printability while meeting the NM Earthen Building Code requirements for compressive and flexural strength. Soil characterization tests (particle size distribution, consistency, optimal water content) guided iterative refinement to enhance dimensional stability and mechanical performance. A baseline 2:1 soil-to-sand ratio (max aggregate size No. 4) was established. Incorporating

2 %

rice hull fiber and reducing max aggregate size to No. 16 (S67F2) early-age shrinkage was reduced from

12.33 %

3.48 %

(

72 %

reduction) while maintaining a 28-day compressive strength exceeding 660 psi, more than twice the code minimum. The optimized mixture supported 24 printed layers without deformation, achieved 189 psi flexural strength (three times the code minimum), and produced a stable 2-ft-diameter dome with minimal cracking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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33 pages, 17008 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Fresh and Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon 3D Printed Concrete Incorporating Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and Microfibers

by A. H. M. Javed Hossain Talukdar, Muge Belek Fialho Teixeira, Sabrina Fawzia, Tatheer Zahra, Mohammad Eyni Kangavar and Nor Hafizah Ramli Sulong

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010230 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 762

Abstract

The use of recycled materials and locally sourced alternative binders in 3D concrete printing (3DCP) has significant potential to reduce carbon emissions in concrete construction. This study examines the effect of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), a byproducts from the sugarcane industry, as a sustainable binder in 3DCP. SCBA was oven-dried at 105 °C, sieved to 250 µm, and used to replace up to 25% of the total binder by weight in a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) blended system. The impact of polypropylene (PP) and steel (ST) microfibres on SCBA-based mixes was also investigated. The fresh properties of the mortar were evaluated using the flow table, Vicat needle, shape retention, buildability, and rheometer tests. The mortar was 3D printed using a small-scale robotic setup with a RAM extruder. Mechanical properties were then tested, including compressive and flexural strengths, and interlayer bonding, along with microstructure analysis. The results showed that increasing the SCBA content led to greater slump and improved flowability, as well as a slower rate of static yield stress development, with up to a 90 percent reduction compared to the control mix. The addition of PP fibres doubled the static yield stress in the mixes containing 20 percent SCBA. The 10 percent SCBA mix achieved the highest mechanical strength, both in compression and flexure, due to its denser microstructure and enhanced pozzolanic reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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30 pages, 1535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Colorimetry in 3D-Printed Samples Exposed to External Weather Conditions, Used in Smart Façades

by Dan-Radu Baraboi, Gabriel Năstase, Răzvan Sima and Alexandru Șerban

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010197 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 586

Abstract

The successful deployment of 3D printing in outdoor applications is contingent upon the selection of materials capable of withstanding the degrading effects of weather. This study evaluates the colorimetric performance of various 3D-printed polymers exposed to natural weathering conditions in Brasov, Romania, from November 2024 to March 2025. Color changes were monitored through spectrophotometry using a PCE-XXM 20 color meter, and data were recorded in the LAB color space. The results indicate substantial differences in color stability among the tested materials, with some exhibiting unacceptable levels of fading and discoloration. These findings have significant implications for the design and implementation of outdoor 3D-printed products in climates analogous to that of Brasov, underscoring the importance of selecting materials with demonstrated resistance to weathering and color change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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26 pages, 6201 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Effect of Recycled Tire Steel Fiber and Blast Furnace Slag on the Mechanical Performance of 3D Printable Concrete

by Fatih Eren Akgümüş, Hatice Gizem Şahin, Tuğçe İsafça Kaya and Ali Mardani

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4564; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244564 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 468

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of waste steel fiber and high-volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on the mechanical and physical properties of three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) to improve its environmental performance. BFS was substituted for cement at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% by volume. Waste steel fibers were added to the mixtures at three lengths (5, 10, and 15 mm) and two volumetric ratios (0.5% and 1.0%). Twenty-eight mixtures were optimized based on extrudability, buildability, and shape stability criteria. Parameters such as compressive and flexural strength, surface moisture content, and drying shrinkage were evaluated. The results showed that using up to 0.5% waste steel fibers increased compressive strength by up to 23%, but decreased it to a level of 1%. Fiber reinforcement improved the flexural strength of all blends by up to 53% at both ages, regardless of fiber ratio or length. Increasing the BFS substitution rate generally increased surface moisture however, this value decreased in mixtures containing 75% BFS and silica fume. Furthermore, using steel fibers and in-creasing fiber length significantly improved the drying shrinkage performance of the mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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18 pages, 1866 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using Vacuum Mixing for 3D Printing of Mortars Made with Recycled Sand

by Eliane Khoury, Khadija El Cheikh, Geert De Schutter, Bogdan Cazacliu and Sébastien Rémond

Buildings 2025, 15(23), 4217; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234217 - 21 Nov 2025

Viewed by 681

Abstract

This study investigates the use of recycled concrete aggregates as a replacement for natural sand in printable mortars, comparing the properties of both fresh and hardened states. Two types of mortars were considered, natural mortar and recycled mortar, with further variations based on mixing methods under ordinary atmospheric pressure and vacuum pressure. The experimental approach included air content, mini-slump, printability, and various hardened state tests such as compressive strength and porosity measurements using both water absorption and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The results showed that mortars made with recycled sand exhibited higher fluidity, as evidenced by an increase in slump of approximately 50 to 70 mm across 30 min, compared to those made with natural sand. This difference was attributed to the pre-saturation of recycled sand, which, as a hypothesis, may increase with the amount of free water available while mixing under vacuum. Additionally, mortars containing recycled sand exhibited higher water-accessible porosity (approximately +7% compared to natural mortars) and lower compressive strength, with a reduction of about 5 to 10% for printed and cast samples, with the decrease being more pronounced in printed specimens. However, vacuum mixing was found to significantly reduce entrapped air content, by about 53% in natural mortars and 62% in recycled ones, and to enhance the workability of both types. The pore size distribution indicated that recycled mortars had a more complex pore network, with pores in the ranges of [0.01–0.1] mm and [0.1–1] mm, contributing to increased porosity and reduced mechanical strength. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of using recycled sand in mortar formulations, with proper control of pre-saturation and mixing conditions to optimize performance in both fresh and hardened states. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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22 pages, 2411 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Waste Steel Fiber Usage Rate and Length Change on Some Fresh State Properties of 3D Printable Concrete Mixtures

by Fatih Eren Akgümüş, Hatice Gizem Şahin and Ali Mardani

Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3731; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203731 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 611

Abstract

In this study, the effects of waste steel fiber and high volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on rheological properties, thixotropic behavior and carbon emission were investigated in order to increase the sustainability of three-dimensional (3D) printable concrete (3DPC). Cement was replaced with BFS at 0%, 25%, 50% and 75% by volume, while waste steel fibers were added to the mixtures at three different lengths (5, 10, 15 mm) and volumetric ratios (0.5% and 1.0%). A total of 39 mixtures were optimized with respect to extrudability, buildability and shape stability criteria, and their rheological and thixotropic properties were characterized by a modified rheometer procedure. Results showed that 50% BFS substitution reduced dynamic yield stress and viscosity by 69% and 52%, respectively, and eliminated the need for a water-reducing admixture. 75% BFS substitution improved structural build-up (A_thix) but required 6% silica fume. The fiber effect interacted with length and BFS content, with short fibers increasing rheological resistance, while the effect of long fibers decreased in mixtures with high BFS. The carbon emission assessment revealed that 75% BFS substitution provided an outstanding CO₂ reduction of up to 71% compared to the control mix. These findings prove that high-volume BFS and waste fibers are an effective strategy to optimize rheological performance and environmental impact for sustainable 3D concrete printing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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