Architecture

This article describes the place relationships adolescents have with natural elements in recently developed ‘vertical schools’ in Australia: a relatively new school typology in the country, generally considered to be over four storeys high. Vertical schools are being built in Australia’s largest cities in response to the need for new schools where land is scarce. Drawing on qualitative research into the place relationships that adolescents have with their learning environments in two Australian vertical schools, this article explores the ways young people seek closer associations with nature in multi-storey educational settings. The research adopted a phenomenological approach to ‘place research’, asking what makes a place a place? Further, it recognised that places have the capacity to shape the ‘becoming’ of a person, that ‘becoming’ happens when there is a certain resonance between a place’s cycles, and that identity is created out of difference. As such, ‘place as complex adaptive assemblage theory’ was employed to study the interplay between location and experience in selected vertical schools, also drawing on the earlier theoretical work of Relph (1976), who suggested that the essence of a place lies in the unselfconscious intentionality that defines places as profound centres of human existence. Photovoice was employed as a method to elicit insights into the relationships adolescents have with their school as place. Students created photo essays to document their place relationships, revealing deeply insightful personal reflections on their school as place and the meanings they associate with it. Specifically, the article reports on what thirteen adolescent students communicated about the biophilic experiences afforded by their vertical school, including how it influenced their ‘becoming’. The findings demonstrated that the participating students not only valued relationships with natural elements, but actively sought biophilic experiences on a regular basis. The desire for more frequent and more significant interactions with natural materials and cycles was common across most students, indicating that the relatively limited biophilic experiences available to students in vertical schools is a challenge that should be addressed in future multi-level educational environments. Full article

A fractal, a self-similar organic or geometric pattern that repeats at varying scales, is one of the most compelling characteristics found in nature. Previous studies on fractal patterns have demonstrated consistent trends in potential psychological benefits, such as stress reduction. However, we fall short of understanding one of the essential properties of fractals found in nature, i.e., the three-dimensionality of their appearance. In this study, we aimed at understanding the role of the three-dimensionalization of fractal patterns in spatial structures on human subjective perceptual experience. Two hundred seventy three-dimensional spatial prototype models were created for this study, spanning two dimensions: (1) the application of spatial depth (shallow; medium; deep) and (2) fractal complexity (low; medium; high). The participants rated each space on six psychological dimensions (bad–good; stressful–relaxing; ugly–beautiful; boring–interesting; leave–enter; ignore–explore). Significant effects of the application depth of fractals were observed primarily for “boring-interesting”, “ignore-explore”, and “leave-enter” dimensions and were primarily manifested within spaces with medium and high D-values. The results suggest that spatial depth plays a significant role in individuals’ experiences of fractal spaces, arguably by making the space more engaging and interesting. Full article

Starting from the critical premises that underpin the debate between archeology and architecture, some evidence emerges: sometimes, the musealization of buildings, “urban carcasses” and historical ruins—which are our legacy from the past—is even more harmful than that of any other artefact, for the purposes of their real understanding. In a country like Italy, which has archeological presences more than any other, architecture must contribute to overcoming the consolidated aporia that the Contemporary, conceived not only as a period but also and above all as its “forms and functions”, is structurally in opposition to the conservation of archeological heritage. Spatium ad Omnes, the project presented in this article, is an attempted exercise at “inhabiting archaeology”, that is, trying to re-grant inclusive usability to a historical fragment, which has lost the elements necessary for its liveability, paying attention to the reversibility of the project itself. The set of questions, doubts and steps preliminary for the design have been highlighted more than the final “figure” of the project: an essential form directly connected with the primordial principles of its constitution. Spatium ad Omnes protects and encourages visiting the complex, trying to offer new perspectives, new narratives and new connections that translate into the possibility of being—for those who visit this place—the protagonists of a unique experience made of history, memory and continuous discoveries. Full article

The correlation between health and well-being, outdoor activity, and the natural environment in learning environments has been recognised by pioneers like Samuel Wilderspin and modern theorists like Maria Montessori, who have underscored the importance of integrating nature into school designs to foster connections between students, teachers, and the community, thereby promoting physical, social, and mental well-being. However, for schools in hot–humid climatic regions in densely populated cities of Southeast Asia, reduced time spent in nature due to adverse climatic conditions has led to an increasingly inactive lifestyle, impacting children’s health and well-being. Overpopulation in major cities, such as those in Southeast Asia, further exacerbates this challenge, leading to a scarcity of land and the rise of high-rise buildings, including vertical schools. This article explores the evolving learning environment for children, emphasising the critical correlation between well-being, nature, and school settings. It evaluates case studies of best practices in learning environment design, focusing on how architecture can support pedagogical goals. The analysis identifies spaces that affect well-being, termed mediated spaces, and recommends guidelines for such spaces tailored to vertical schools in hot–humid climates. The methodology includes a literature review of learning theories, the integration of learning environments with nature, and biophilic design. This review forms the basis for developing adaptable design guidelines tailored to hot–humid climates. Additionally, case study analyses of exemplary schools are conducted to identify mediated spaces that enhance well-being and adapt these findings to vertical school designs. Full article

This article presents a novel approach that integrates biophilic design, wellbeing science, and systems science into a holistic strategy designated as the Biophilic Wellbeing Systems Approach (BWSA). This transdisciplinary approach aims to enhance student wellbeing in educational settings by fostering a deep connection with nature, supported by positive psychology and systems thinking. The research explores how these combined disciplines can shape educational environments that improve learning outcomes and promote human thriving. The study advocates for a transformative redesign of school environments, emphasising the interdependence of individual and planetary health, drawing on Indigenous wisdom and contemporary scientific knowledge. This foundational strategy holds significant potential to fundamentally change how schools are designed and operated. By fostering environments that deeply integrate wellbeing principles, this approach not only influences the physical buildings but also extends to the entire school ecosystem. It works synergistically to promote educational excellence and holistic wellbeing, ensuring that all elements of the school environment contribute to the overall development and health of students and staff. Full article

Baghdad’s historical centre is Old Rusafa, which has a long history dating back over a thousand years. The area enclosed within the old wall is approximately 5.4 square kilometres and contains nearly 15,700 buildings. The city’s old core contains significant heritage buildings that belong to the Abbasid Empire (762–1258) and the Ottoman Period (1638–1917). This paper assesses Baghdad’s historical centre and urban heritage. It addresses how the urban fabric has faced irreparable damage, a weak definition of demands, and an ambiguous formulation of what to preserve. The research examines Old Rusafa’s dense irregular fabric, significant old souqs, heritage mosques, historical buildings, and traditional Baghdadi courtyard houses. The research implements various research strategies at different levels to evaluate the current condition of the built heritage in the city centre. It adopts a mixed methodological research approach that brings information from both qualitative and quantitative methods to address the research problems. The paper argues that achieving sustainable urban heritage requires considering efficient and sustainable strategies that drive urban evolution and encourage historic centre revitalisation towards sustainable heritage conservation. The outcomes of this paper raise awareness of the significance of safeguarding Baghdad’s Islamic architecture and the sustainable reuse of its uniquely built heritage stock. Full article

Since individuals with severe and profound Intellectual Disabilities (IDs) have no concept of time, it is difficult for them to autonomously maintain daily structures. Those affected are dependent throughout their lives on external care structures. Even though research suggests that individuals with IDs should live in smaller facilities, individuals with higher support needs are more likely to be placed in large institutions and clustered group homes. The aim of this study was to define design criteria and test their applicability to a residential building design whose architecture enables individuals with IDs to develop autonomy through spatially experienced temporality. Qualitative data was collected in a mixed method evidence-based design approach: systematic behavioural observations, structured interviews, focus groups, and the UV-index method. Four design criteria could be described that contribute to an autonomy-promoting temporality: (a) spatial sequencing and repetition, (b) privacy-related variation of spatial dimensions, (c) spatial orchestration of daylight, and (d) constant emotional proximity to the caregiver. The hypothesis of using architecture to promote temporality in clients with IDs and Challenging Behaviour (CB) has proven to be potentially effective in designing a therapeutic environment. Our findings provide valuable data on how long-stay facilities should be designed in the future. Full article

The construction industry faces a growing challenge in reducing its environmental impact through sustainable design and practices. Buildings are responsible for a significant share of CO₂ emissions and pollution, with lighting alone accounting for roughly 15% of global electricity consumption according to the International Energy Agency (IEA). A key element in achieving sustainability is optimizing daylight penetration within buildings, reducing reliance on artificial lighting and associated energy demands. This research introduces a novel approach by optimizing the geometry of a building’s exterior skin fabricated with adobe by 3D-printed molds. This method aims to achieve a balance between structural integrity, improved daylight availability within the building, and the inherent sustainability benefits of using adobe, an earth-based material. The proposed design procedure starts with a 2D geometry and applies it to the building’s exterior. The framework then optimizes the geometry to maintain structural stability while maximizing daylight penetration into the interior. Importantly, this optimization considers the specific material properties of adobe walls created using 3D-printed metal molds. By integrating 3D-printed adobe molds and daylight optimization, a framework is offered with a potential path towards sustainable building design with improved energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact. Full article

The aim of this article is to explore the relationship between urban design and social capital in the existing literature. Through a systematic quantitative literature review (SQLR) approach, this study seeks to offer insights into this relationship, investigating trends and gaps. The review revealed that the relationship is complex and not well defined. It emphasised a consistency across the literature of references to the key historical figures and movements. Two major themes emerged as key topics of interest in the reviewed literature: the built environment outcomes and community participation. The research also revealed that the relationship between urban design and social capital is underexplored, with a lack of contemporary relevant references contributing to this topic. This deficiency results in a body of academic literature that does not fully address or reflect current industry practices and innovations. The review concludes that there is a need to shift focus globally. We need to incorporate multicultural references and case studies to learn from diverse contexts as well as multi-level collaborations between the designer and community to prepare for the different challenges that communities are currently grappling with. Full article

Biophilia is the theory that humans are innately connected to nature. As a basis for forming built space, biophilic design has been proven to reduce stress, improve cognition and enhance mood—it makes us happier. In the last 20 years, research in learning spaces has shown an association between biophilic design and student mood, calmness and improved standardized test scores. In 2019, a group of architects, scientists and educators led an experiment involving 6th-grade Math students at the Green Street Academy, which found that student stress was significantly reduced and learning significantly improved in a classroom enriched with biophilic strategies. The architects applied these strategies to the design of Bethel Hanberry Elementary School, and after a year of occupancy, an independent assessment found positive perceptions of the biophilic design, fewer behavior referrals, better teacher retention, lower absenteeism and improved test scores. In both a controlled research experiment and real-world application, the design of learning space, using biophilic strategies, has a significant impact. Full article

Biophilic design emphasises human connections to nature to enhance health and well-being. In health and medical environments, the biophilic design hypothesis suggests improved healing and health outcomes when patients have a connection to nature. Emerging evidence indicates that if teachers and students experience a greater sense of health and well-being in the campus environment, they are likely to have better teaching and learning outcomes. To understand this at a deep level, a critical synthesis and analysis of some fifty systematic reviews outlines the significant emerging body of evidence in support of this approach. Systematic reviews are a fundamental basis for new research to be framed in the context of existing research findings within the evidence-based research methodology. Key outcomes of this critical synthesis review are that there is compelling evidence of some 70 health and well-being factors being improved though biophilic design. Also, organising an agreed taxonomy of biophilic design and health and well-being elements at a granular level would assist in simplifying and compiling the evidence of the benefits of such an approach to inform school funding, planning, design and operations authorities. Full article

School learning environments play a crucial role in both student and faculty outcomes; however, the limited funding allocated to public school facilities can result in poor environmental conditions which can hinder occupant health and performance. Existing school facilities must then explore affordable retrofit strategies that can effectively improve health and performance outcomes. The emerging field of biophilic design offers significant potential for improving existing school environments with benefits for both the students and faculty. Through case study research, this study proposes a toolkit of 42 biophilic retrofits for existing K-12 schools in a set of stakeholder cards that illustrate precedents, known impacts, and their relevance to high-performance schools. Additionally, a stakeholder card sorting study was conducted to establish the perceived viability and impact of each strategy. The findings reveal that biophilic retrofit design strategies are perceived by school community stakeholders to be impactful with varying levels of affordability. These findings further demonstrate that a toolkit of biophilic interventions for K-12 schools will offer invaluable insights to improve student and faculty conditions. Full article

This article discusses issues related to sustainable heritage management in China and problematises two dichotomies in heritage practices and research: the ‘Eastern/Western’ approaches and the tangible–intangible divide. It addresses these issues by examining the dramatic ‘make-over’ project of Guangrenwang Temple in Shanxi Province, China. The ‘make-over’ project transformed a small rural temple with a ninth-century timber structure into an architectural history museum, with a combination of private, public, and crowd-sourced funding. A real-estate corporation played a significant role in the project’s initiative and organised a large-scale national and international publicity campaign around the project. Previously unknown to most laypeople in China, the temple attracted much debate since the project’s completion, revolving around its ‘cultural legitimacy’, the design’s appropriateness, the sustainability of the revitalisation, and the implications of the project to its ‘heritage value’ and authenticity. This article traces the opinions, actions, and effects of the temple’s heritage assemblage and reveals the causal powers contributing to the emergence and transformation of associations within. It further questions the project team’s claims regarding the project’s effects on the historic setting’s authenticity and its long-term social impact on the relationship between the temple and its community. It reveals five controversies regarding the choice of its curation theme, architectural language, decision-making, and management models. The complexities manifested in the actors’ actions and effects demonstrate the ambiguous boundaries between the tangible and the intangible, and the perceived ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ approaches. Full article

In open and shared workplaces, like co-working spaces or educational studios, thermal preferences vary widely among occupants. With the rise of flexible organizational workplace strategies, the challenge lies in balancing optimum, efficient temperature setpoints with maintaining occupants’ comfort. A potential solution involves a deeper understanding of variations in indoor climate and building occupants’ decision-making and preferences. This paper explores how an Occupant-Centric Digital Twin (OCDT) might address this by mapping indoor microclimates through a grid of IoT temperature sensors in real time. A large-screen display is utilized to present and visualize these data in an open workplace. The goal is to enhance awareness and provide agency for occupants to identify zones that align with their individual thermal preferences. A mixed-method occupant study (N = 27) was conducted to validate the approach. Exposure to the OCDT display resulted in higher thermal satisfaction among participants (p-value = 1.269 × 10⁻⁵, 0.05 significance level). The novelty of OCDT lies in extending the use of digital twin technology from facility managers to occupants, by granting them the agency to address comfort issues even in buildings where they lack direct control over the thermostat. This approach paves the way for a future where occupants in open workspaces can make informed decisions about where to work and how to achieve thermal comfort in those choices. Full article

The term “biophilia” refers to the intrinsic affinity that humans have towards nature, natural elements and natural processes. Biophilic design theories suggest that the introduction or representation of natural characteristics or elements into the built environment can help enhance people’s health and wellbeing. Primary school buildings are important environments where children spend considerable time. However, there is limited evidence on the impact of their biophilic features on the children themselves and on perceptions of important facilitators of children’s wellbeing, such as teachers and parents. This research aims to investigate whether teachers and parents perceive children to have a preference or desire for specific biophilic characteristics in their school’s physical environment; and whether teachers perceive some biophilic characteristics as having an effect on children’s performance and behaviour. A framework for evaluating biophilic characteristics in primary schools was developed. Two case study primary schools in London and Bath (England, UK) were audited against this framework, and teachers and parents were surveyed. The results suggest that children do have a preference towards the specific biophilic features studied, which is stronger and more demanding when the exposure is higher. For some aspects, teachers’ perception of benefits is also susceptible to the quality of the environment itself. Full article

The Sanatorio Carlos Duran Cartín in Costa Rica is a noteworthy example of tuberculosis sanatorium architecture. Positioned within the broader context of Latin American architectural heritage conservation, the research pays specific attention to tuberculosis sanatoriums as a prevalent architectural typology from the early 1900s to the 1940s. Its historical and cultural significance is explored through contextualizing its architectural value and identifying current challenges and conservation needs. Using archival documents and photographic evidence, the study aimed to delineate tangible and intangible values associated with the complex, thus justifying the need for its preservation and safeguarding. Furthermore, the study aimed to establish guidelines and a conceptual framework for a conservation strategy designed for the Sanatorio Duran. Full article

The grid plays a prominent role in architecture, aiding in space organization and influencing all aspects of planning, ranging from urban design to intricate building details. This paper posits that the grid receives heightened emphasis in Brutalism, particularly in constructivist Brutalism, where materials and construction are intentionally exposed. A question arises regarding the grid’s characteristics—despite its subtle appearance, the grid can sometimes be deceptive, ambiguous, and manipulative. The paper analyzes the merits and drawbacks of employing the grid in architecture, shedding light on its contributions to both structural and perceptual comprehensibility, as well as its role in increasing usefulness. To illustrate the application and perception of the grid, the paper examines two primary planning levels: urban planning and building design. The case studies focus on examples from New York City housing developments, specifically those constructed between the 1950s and the 1970s, and projects by architect I. M. Pei, which offer valuable insights into practical implementation. The paper concludes that while the grid can establish order, it may also engender an “uncanny” feeling. Full article

The Retirement House (1959) was a project developed by Peter Smithson that did not have the opportunity to be materialized beyond the drawing; therefore, we will use this proposal as a case study to investigate deeper into his design themes. Two texts will be considered, “The nature of home: it’s equipment and furniture” and “Container and Contained”, presented, respectively, in the publications “Ordinariness and Light” and “Alison and Peter Smithson—from the House of Future to a house of today”, as a “guide” for an interpretation of the project. The Retirement House, recognised as being set within their Appliance Houses research, is charged through the different influences and cultural references that inhabit the Smithsons’ oeuvre in the 50s. As a main objective, we intend to show in more detail the inception and design themes of the case study through the analysis of installations, texts and other projects that serve as an experimental legacy. We intend to demonstrate the functional character and interconnection of spaces present in the work of Alison and Peter Smithson that form an operative design tool, set within the capacity of a topological variation that can imprint a flexibility value, with pronounced interest in contemporary architecture and the current housing crises. The present article is part of ongoing PhD research on Alison and Peter Smithson’s work. Full article

Indonesia is experiencing population growth, as well as urbanization, thus increasing the needs of housing. As a result, land prices are soaring, and the housing supply cannot meet the demand. The most recent measure to overcome housing problems is the One Million House Program, which aims to provide more than a million homes annually, with the majority of them being simple housing. The main characteristics of simple housing are limited space, limited facilities, and the use of basic materials. Regulation stated that any housing must satisfy the requirement of livable housing, which means the fulfilment of safety, health, and living-area requirements. This paper looks at affordability, livability, and sustainability criteria based on government regulation. It is found that the performance of housing cannot satisfy some of the requirements. The problems come from either inherently limited housing design, occupant requirements, or local climates. The existing research only focuses on one of three factors. Intertwined relationships between the three factors make an integrated approach necessary. A solution based on integrated performance modeling of the criteria is proposed. Full article