Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101942

Authors: Ye Ji Chongfu Wu Wenfu He

When conventional FRP composites are applied to confine rectangular concrete columns, strength enhancement is often limited due to the highly non-uniform lateral expansion of sections with a large aspect ratio (e.g., 2.0). High ductile FRP (HDFRP), a composite of glass fibers and polypropylene (PP) fibers, improves column strength while alleviating corner stress concentration in square sections, demonstrating its promising application potential for strengthening members with rectangular cross-sections. Yet existing studies on HDFRP have primarily focused on circular and square sections. To explore its applicability to rectangular cross-sections, this study conducted axial compression tests on HDFRP-confined rectangular short concrete columns (HDFRP-CRCC), investigating the effects of aspect ratio, corner radius, and FRP thickness on their mechanical behavior. The test results demonstrate that the HDFRP composite material can significantly enhance the overall strength and axial deformability of rectangular concrete columns, thereby effectively overcoming the limited strength enhancement associated with conventional FRP systems. Based on the experimental results, a design-oriented model is developed to offer theoretical support for the application of HDFRP in strengthening rectangular frame structures.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101938

Authors: Se Ho Park Han Jong Jun

This paper investigates the relationship between spatial openness and cognitive engagement, integrating geometric and neurophysiological indicators to address the lack of frameworks directly coupling spatial structure with neural responses. Spatial openness is quantified using three-dimensional isovist volume. Engagement is measured via an EEG-based index (β/(θ + α)). Twenty-six participants completed an experiment in a virtual reality environment in which 16 spatial conditions of varying openness were presented. A node-based framework couples spatial metrics with EEG responses at the level of individual observation points and temporal segments. Linear and quadratic mixed-effects models reveal a small but statistically detectable inverted-U relationship between openness and engagement (marginal R2 = 0.020) that persists after correction for spatial–temporal autocorrelation, with the pattern replicated in 18 of 26 participants. We interpret these findings as preliminary neurophysiological evidence that spatial openness modulates engagement through an optimal range of stimulation, supporting designs that balance visual exposure against spatial boundaries. Generalisation is constrained by the VR-based setting, the limited sample size, and the small absolute effect.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101940

Authors: Ji-Yoon Kim Sung-Jun Park

This study examines the impact of biophilic design in school common areas—specifically corridors, stairwells, and central halls—on users’ perceptual and physiological responses. Biophilic design attributes were categorized into direct experiences (Plants & water) and indirect experiences (Materials & Images), and simulation stimuli for each common area type were generated using generative AI. Thirty university students participated in the experiment, where their hemodynamic responses (fNIRS) and galvanic skin responses (GSRs) were measured during exposure to various biophilic environmental stimuli to quantitatively analyze emotional arousal and cognitive recovery levels. The results indicated that biophilic environments elicited significant physiological stabilization responses in specific spatial and application conditions compared to non-biophilic settings. Distinct physiological responses were observed based on spatial characteristics and application methods; vertical elements facilitated cognitive rest, whereas horizontal elements promoted attention restoration through moderate arousal. Furthermore, significant associations between nature connectedness and selected physiological responses highlighted the importance of considering individual predispositions in spatial design. As an exploratory pilot study, this research contributes preliminary evidence by integrating generative AI-based simulations with fNIRS and GSR measurements to examine vertical and horizontal biophilic applications in school common areas.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101941

Authors: Jiahua Zhang Yulong Wang Yunjun Wei Cheng Yao

To investigate the impacts of tidal level fluctuations on the groundwater dynamics and stability of coastal slopes, a numerical simulation framework was developed using the SEEP/W and SLOPE/W modules in GeoStudio. By combining saturated–unsaturated seepage mechanics with the finite element limit equilibrium method, the semi-diurnal tidal cycle was simulated to derive analytical solutions for the internal water-level distribution within the slope, and to assess the factor of safety as well as the geometry of the potential slip surface. By examining the evolutionary patterns of the phreatic surface and pore-water pressure inside the slope, this work elucidates the failure mechanisms of coastal slopes under tidal forcing. The findings demonstrate that tidal fluctuations induce periodic, hysteretic variations in the slope’s phreatic surface, which peaks at the conclusion of the rising tide (t = 0 h) and reaches its trough at the end of the falling tide (t = 6 h). Pore-water pressure alterations are predominantly localized in the near-surface region of the slope. The slope’s factor of safety exhibits pronounced oscillations in tandem with tidal levels, attaining a maximum at the end of the rising tide (t = 0 h) and a minimum at the end of the falling tide (t = 6 h), thus identifying the falling tide phase as the critical window for instability. Tidal changes exert a comparatively limited influence on the spatial positioning of the slip surface, underscoring the concealed and abrupt nature of tidal impacts on slope stability. Numerical simulation outcomes align closely with theoretical calculations, with small relative errors, which verifies the consistency and effectiveness of the simulation and theoretical calculations.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101939

Authors: Hao Huang Jianfei Dong Sheng Huang Yunlong Jin

Efforts to improve the energy performance of historic buildings have attracted growing attention from both policymakers and researchers over the past few decades. Based on 318 publications from the Web of Science database, this study conducts a review analysis in the field of historic building energy retrofit. Bibliometric analysis shows a remarkably increasing trend in research on this topic since 2015 and reveals a research imbalance between developed regions (e.g., Europe) and developing regions. This review examines the retrofit approaches of historic buildings using both passive and active strategies and synthesizes the understanding of life cycle assessment carbon emissions across different systaem boundaries, emission stages, and carbon accounting approaches. The results show that previous studies tend to focus primarily on energy performance, yet predominantly rely on simulation studies of individual cases, limiting cross-regional comparisons and the broader transferability of findings. Therefore, a multi-objective evaluation framework is proposed, considering thermal comfort, energy use, and carbon emissions, enabling identification of suitable retrofit measures across different contexts. By examining the problems and strategies in this field, this study highlights the substantial potential of historic building energy retrofit and provides a basis for future evaluation and decision-making.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101934

Authors: Poopatai Chumpol Piti Sukontasukkul Worathep Sae-Long Thanongsak Imjai Chattarika Phiangphimai Phattharachai Pongsopha Suchart Limkatanyu Prinya Chindaprasirt

Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) offers an accurate, formwork-free, and resource-efficient construction process; however, the absence of vibration and compaction often results in increased porosity and reduced durability. This study investigates the influence of nano-calcium carbonate (NC), acting as a nano pore-filler, on the durability and other physical properties of 3DCP. NC was incorporated at dosages of 0–3% by weight of cement, and specimens were fabricated using a laboratory-scale 3D printing machine. Durability performance was evaluated after 120 days under plastic-wrapped curing, sulfuric acid exposure, and magnesium sulfate immersion. In addition, thermal conductivity and sound absorption were measured to identify the effect of pore structure modification by NC. The results show that NC enhances matrix densification and mechanical performance up to an optimal dosage of approximately 2%, beyond which its effectiveness decreases. Under magnesium sulfate immersion, the strength decreased slightly but improved with increasing NC content up to about 2%. In the case of sulfuric acid exposure, the strength decreased significantly after 120 days; however, it still increased with increasing NC content. Incorporating NC into 3DCP appears to provide improved resistance to both magnesium sulfate and sulfuric acid exposure. Thermal conductivity increased with NC addition, indicating improved solid-phase continuity, whereas sound absorption decreased due to the reduction in porosity. These findings demonstrate that nano-calcium carbonate can effectively refine pore structure and improve durability-related performance, contributing to extended service life and more sustainable 3D-printed cementitious materials in the built environment.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101937

Authors: Hasan Mhd Nazha Hanan Mukhaiber Mhd Ayham Darwich Marah Salamie

Operating room ventilation is a key engineering factor in maintaining clean air environments. This study presents an integrated three-part methodology combining Computational Fluid Dynamics parametric analysis, performance assessment with effect size analysis and multi-criteria decision analysis using quantitative engineering metrics, and surrogate modeling for thermal effect propagation in an orthopedic operating room. Simulations were conducted in ANSYS Fluent 2020 R2, benchmarking an existing local operating room against an ASHRAE 170-2021 compliant model, followed by parametric evaluation of four ceiling inlet configurations. The existing system exhibited critically low velocities (0.05–0.10 m/s) with a coefficient of variation of 0.73, indicating severe flow non-uniformity. The proposed Multi-Velocity Ceiling Diffuser—featuring a high-velocity core (0.40 m/s) over the surgical area and a low-velocity peripheral frame (0.20 m/s)—achieved 85% coverage of the ASHRAE-recommended velocity range (0.20–0.30 m/s), a coefficient of variation of 0.14 (81% improvement), and 62 air changes per hour, representing an 86% reduction in supply airflow compared to a full-ceiling system. Effect size analysis confirmed that MVCD performance shows large practical differences from smaller inlet designs (Cohen’s d ≥ 0.41) and negligible difference from full-ceiling systems (Cohen’s d = 0.05). Multi-criteria decision analysis—with feasibility and cost quantified using engineering estimates (ductwork area, downtime days, standardized cost data)—ranked MVCD as optimal under the modeled assumptions (composite score = 0.84), outperforming the existing system (0.59) and full-ceiling design (0.51). To address the isothermal assumption limitation, a Random Forest surrogate model was implemented as a differentiable approximation strategy for parametric uncertainty propagation. Under non-isothermal conditions, the MVCD is predicted to maintain a spatial median velocity of 0.19 m/s (5th–95th percentile range: 0.17–0.21 m/s) and 71% ASHRAE compliance (parameter sampling range across literature-derived distributions: 63–78%). Achieving ASHRAE velocity criteria is an engineering surrogate for ventilation effectiveness; the relationship between these metrics and clinical infection outcomes depends on multiple factors beyond airflow, including surgical technique, patient factors, and antimicrobial prophylaxis. No clinical inference is permitted from the present results. Experimental measurement in a physical MVCD-equipped operating room is required to validate these predictions prior to clinical implementation.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101936

Authors: Anđela Čavčić Marina Nikolić Nikola Grgić Alen Harapin

Semi-prefabricated and prefabricated concrete construction is today widely accepted as the standard method for industrial facilities, warehouse halls, and similar structures. In addition to such buildings, increasing attention has recently been given to prefabricated construction of residential buildings using load-bearing prefabricated walls. System simplicity, rapid construction, efficient site organization, and robust load transfer have stimulated the development of multiple systems and technologies, mainly differing in panel infill and connection type. In all these systems, panel connections represent the key structural detail. The connections must transfer all foreseeable forces, but their number and complexity must not be excessive, so as not to compromise the fundamental advantages of this construction method. This paper presents a review of the current state of knowledge on the behavior of prefabricated concrete wall panels and their connections by analyzing the results of numerical and experimental investigations. Current codes and guidelines relevant to prefabricated wall systems are reviewed in the context of design and construction practice in Europe and worldwide, showing that they are largely based on general recommendations rather than explicit design provisions. Key disadvantages of existing models and areas requiring additional experimental validation and numerical model calibration are identified. Finally, the study contributes to a better understanding of the factors that affect the reliability and cost-effectiveness of prefabricated wall panels in the building industry.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101935

Authors: Dylan O. Pereira Mariana V. Gonçalves Nuno Neves Jorge M. Branco

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) has gained increasing attention as sustainable and efficient material for slab systems in construction. However, the lack of standardized design guidelines and comprehensive performance comparisons between different CLT-based slab solutions limits its widespread application, particularly in emerging markets with limited local expertise. This study aims to fill this gap by evaluating the structural performance and applicability of four CLT slab systems: (i) CLT slabs, (ii) CLT–concrete composite slabs, (iii) CLT–glued-laminated timber (GLT) beam ribbed slabs, and (iv) CLT–steel beam composite slabs. A comprehensive design methodology based on the Gamma method and Eurocode 5 is developed, critically applied, and its limitations discussed for each system, considering both ultimate and serviceability limit states, with special attention to vibration criteria and shear connection efficiency. The systems are compared in terms of maximum span, self-weight, thickness, and dynamic response under residential and office load categories. Results show that ribbed slab systems with timber or steel beams achieve the longest spans (up to 14 m for residential use), with lower self-weight, while CLT and CLT–concrete slabs exhibit maximum spans of 9 m with reduced thickness. Serviceability limit states, particularly vibration, were identified as the governing design constraints in most cases. This study provides a systematic comparison of CLT slab solutions, contributes to the development of reliable design tools, and identifies priorities for experimental validation, supporting the broader adoption of CLT in regions with growing timber construction sectors, such as Portugal.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101933

Authors: Yu Wang Xiaojun Li Mianshui Rong

Transmission tower-line systems spanning active faults are simultaneously subjected to the “dual characteristic seismic actions” of permanent ground displacement (PGD) and spatially varying near-fault ground motions, rendering their failure mechanisms far more complex than those under conventional site-specific seismic actions. This paper investigates a 500 kV double-circuit “two-tower, three-line” coupled system by establishing a high-fidelity finite element model. An analytical framework is proposed, centered on indexing seismic action and structural response by key parameters: “Permanent Ground Displacement–Peak Differential Displacement–Velocity Pulse Period” (“PGD–Δmax–Tp”). By employing synthesized ground motions, the displacement time history is decomposed into three components—a velocity pulse, high-frequency background noise, and permanent displacement—thereby achieving a strict decoupling of these three control variables. Based on this methodology, three sets of controlled-variable scenarios were constructed to systematically reveal the independent influence of ground motion spectral characteristics, permanent displacement, and peak differential displacement on the system’s response. The research indicates that: spectral characteristics modulate the failure mode (the whiplash effect is triggered when the period ratio μ is approximately 1–2, whereas tower leg buckling occurs when μ ≫ 1); a threshold PGD value exists that triggers a shift in the structural force-resisting mechanism; and the peak differential displacement (Δmax) causes the system’s response to transition from being dominated by conductor slackening and unloading to being governed by inertia and P-Δ effects. The insights gained into the asymmetric response characteristics of towers on opposite sides of the fault provide a quantitative reference for the revision of seismic design codes for cross-fault power transmission projects.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101932

Authors: Xianliang Shen Junjie Zheng Lina Xu Jianping Dong Xuefeng Mei Zhanfang Huang Tian Su

To address the challenge of balancing high density with low elastic modulus in physical model tests of liquefiable foundations, this study proposes a novel concrete similitude material and numerically investigates the dynamic response of saturated silt-pile systems. Based on Buckingham π theorem, the mixture of barium sulfate and blast furnace slag was optimized by changing the ratio of sand to stone powder under the condition of 1 g, with Portland cement, natural sand, barium sulfate powder and blast furnace slag powder as raw materials. Subsequently, 3D numerical simulations using MIDAS GTS NX 2023 v1.1 evaluated pile-soil interactions under varying seismic intensities. The results show that the optimal mixture achieves a density of 2.083 g/cm3 and an elastic modulus of 0.65 GPa, accurately simulating C30 concrete at a 1:30 scale. Simulations indicate that shallow soils liquefy first under 0.2 g seismic loading. Pile groups significantly delay liquefaction and reduce excess pore water pressure by 15–20% compared to free-field conditions. Furthermore, they regulate acceleration bilaterally: before liquefaction, piles restrict soil shear deformation, reducing surface acceleration amplification from 6.0 to 3.2; after liquefaction, their rigidity alters wave propagation, diminishing the soil’s vibration isolation effect. These material innovations and elucidated anti-liquefaction mechanisms provide a robust scientific foundation for large-scale shaking table tests and the seismic resilience evaluation of pile-supported structures.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101931

Authors: Zhenhua Wang Shan Jin Mingliang Zhu Zhihong Zhang Zunsheng Xing Junwei Ren Huanyu Li

Determining the compatible prestress and geometry under self-weight constitutes a key challenge in the form-finding of cable–truss structures. To overcome the limitations of experience-dependent trial methods and enhance computational efficiency, this paper proposes an automated and integrated methodology by synergistically combining a simplified mechanical model with an improved Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm. The core of the method lies in formulating the form-finding process as an optimization problem, where the horizontal inclination angles of the lower-chord cables serve as the design variables for all radial cable–truss frames. To efficiently solve this high-dimensional optimization problem, an improved PSO algorithm is proposed, which introduces logistic chaotic mapping for particle initialization and a mutation operator within the iterative loop. Ablation studies confirm the individual contribution of each algorithmic enhancement. The algorithm intelligently searches for the optimal angle set, thereby simultaneously resolving the prestress and geometry. The proposed approach is rigorously validated through two representative numerical examples: a circular Type I and an elliptical Type II cable–truss, considering both cases with and without self-weight. The results demonstrate that the improved PSO-based solution achieves prestress distributions and nodal coordinates in excellent agreement with established benchmark data. More importantly, it attains this high precision with significantly reduced computational cost in terms of particle swarm size and iteration number. In conclusion, this improved PSO-based approach provides an efficient, accurate, and automated tool for the integrated prestress-geometry design of cable–truss structures, demonstrating strong potential for practical engineering application.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101930

Authors: Pramen P. Shrestha Bandana Shrestha Pooja Basnet

Public building projects in the United States continue to face challenges related to cost escalation and schedule delays, prompting increased interest in alternative project delivery methods. Although Design–Bid–Build (DBB) remains the most commonly used approach, Design–Build (DB) and Public–Private Partnership (P3) delivery methods are increasingly adopted with the expectation of improved project performance. This study uses three statistical tests to determine whether three performance metrics related to the cost and schedule of U.S. building projects delivered using P3, DB, and DBB are significantly different. Before conducting this test, project costs were adjusted to constant 2025 dollars using the RS Means City Cost Index to account for differences in completion years. On average, all three test results indicate that P3 projects’ cost growth (−2.61%) is significantly lower than that of DB (7.95%) and DBB (24.40%). Similarly, the schedule growth of P3 projects (−2.51%) was significantly lower than that of DB (2.65%) and DBB (27.09%). However, no statistically significant difference in the schedule was observed between DB and DBB. Differences in construction intensity were not statistically significant. These findings provide quantitative insight for owners when selecting delivery methods for building projects.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101929

Authors: Jia Li Wenrui Zhao Minghui Xue

The accelerating pace of technological innovation has exacerbated the spatial misalignment between the static, supply-driven provision of educational facilities and the dynamic, demand-driven patterns of contemporary pedagogical activities. Assessing and quantifying spatial demand and the operational consumption of teaching environments pose critical challenges for facility asset management in higher education. Accordingly, rigorous investigation into the determinants of classroom spatial utilization efficiency and the formulation of evidence-based spatial optimization strategies are essential to advancing the sustainable evolution of campus infrastructure. This study takes the Zhengxin Building at Harbin Institute of Technology as a descriptive case, integrating timetable data with spatial syntax at the building scale. The scheduling data for 2943 courses in the Spring semester of 2023 was selected as the research basis. Using architectural spatial analysis tools—including space syntax theory, statistical correlation methods, and in situ observational surveys—this study extracts spatial attribute variables such as classroom area (A), seating capacity (S), floor level (F), integration (I), and space utilization efficiency metrics as primary quantitative measures. The interrelationships among these variables are examined to elucidate the principal drivers of teaching space performance. The empirical results indicate that the Overall Space Utilization Rate (OSUR) of the Zhengxin Building ranged from 20% to 50% during the study. The key findings include the following: (1) spatial utilization efficiency is positively associated with classroom scale but shows no significant relationship with integration (I); (2) after controlling for classroom type (T), per capita area index (PCAI), and integration (I), floor level (F) no longer exerts a statistically significant influence on utilization outcomes; (3) teaching spaces with higher integration and spatial entropy are more adaptable to heterogeneous instructional and extracurricular uses. The classroom type (T) directly mediates occupancy patterns and activity programming.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101928

Authors: Cheng-Hao Jiang Qi-Liang Zhou Yue-Xin Jiang Li-Yan Xu Mu-Xuan Tao

This study comprised an experimental investigation of the in-plane performance of composite floor slabs under out-of-plane effects. Two composite floor slabs were subjected to pure in-plane loading, and in-plane and out-of-plane coupled loading, respectively. The study analyzed crack patterns, failure modes, and load–displacement curves, and evaluated how out-of-plane effects influenced in-plane performance. The test results indicated that both specimens exhibited a typical shear-tension failure mode, forming diagonal shear cracks. The specimen with out-of-plane loading exhibited a trend for lateral development of the shear cracks. The load–displacement curves of the two specimens showed obvious strength degradation, stiffness degradation, and a pinching effect. By comparing the two specimens, it could be observed that at a small out-of-plane displacement angle, the in-plane ultimate bearing capacity of a specimen was not significantly weakened; however, as the out-of-plane displacement continued to increase, the in-plane bearing capacity of the specimen decayed more rapidly.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101927

Authors: Maojun Liu Junwen Chen Shengkai Zhou

Hybrid steel–PVA fiber-reinforced concrete offers promise for enhancing both load-bearing capacity and deformation capacity. However, the coupled effects of fiber parameters and volume-fraction combinations on compressive strength (σc) and peak strain (εc) are still not fully understood. A unified, interpretable, and engineering-oriented quantitative framework is still lacking. This study compiled experimental data from 26 published literature, building a multi-source database consisting of 397 datasets for σc and 203 datasets for εc. Based on this database, a comprehensive analytical framework was proposed, including model prediction, SHAP-based interpretation, Monte Carlo marginalization, synergy-gain window determination, and dual-objective mix-proportion optimization. For σc prediction, LightGBM achieved the highest test-set R2 (0.9783), whereas CatBoost showed more robust error control (MAE = 2.7409 MPa). CatBoost was therefore selected as the base model for the subsequent interpretation analysis. For εc prediction, Bayesian-optimized CatBoost achieved the best test performance (R2 = 0.9659, MAE = 0.0218, RMSE = 0.0358), while the transfer-learning model reached a comparable accuracy level (R2 = 0.9650). SHAP analysis revealed that σc is mainly governed by matrix mix-proportion factors and steel fiber volume fraction, whereas εc is more sensitive to S/B and PVA-related variables. The mean synergy-gain maps generated via Monte Carlo marginalization and two-dimensional grid evaluation further showed clear differences between the two targets. Positive synergy in σc was highly localized. Its maximum mean synergy gain was 4.7949 MPa at (Steel, PVA) = (1.875%, 2.000%). By contrast, εc exhibited a wider positive-synergy region, with a peak value of 0.0141629 at (0.38%, 1.62%). Therefore, the engineering output of this study is not a single optimal mix point. Instead, it is a set of candidate windows for different performance targets, together with boundary-risk identification and priorities for experimental validation.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101926

Authors: Zhen Liu Ziyu Tao Junjie Yang Cuiying Zhou Wei Hu Chunhui Lan

Pile foundation is one of the most widely used deep foundation solutions, and the intelligent informatization of its design process holds significant theoretical and practical value. The innovation of this study lies in the construction of a systematic integrated framework for intelligent pile foundation design and 3D visualization. Unlike previous machine learning studies that primarily focus on the predictive accuracy of individual parameters, this framework establishes a “coordinate-driven” parameter generation mechanism, enabling a fully automated workflow from geological feature extraction and implicit design parameter computation to real-time 3D model mapping. We clarified the basic principles of intelligent informatization and constructed a database to conduct a correlation analysis to identify key algorithms. An intelligent calculation model based on random forest was established for predicting core design indicators such as pile length and diameter. By transforming complex nonlinear design logics into data-driven predictive models, the framework significantly reduces the reliance on empirical assumptions and the costs associated with frequent human–computer interaction in traditional design processes. Furthermore, a 3D mapping method is developed using Three.js to achieve real-time coupling of design data and spatial geometric models. The proposed method was applied to a practical engineering case in southern China for verification. The results demonstrate that the framework allows for the rapid formation of data models with reduced manual input while optimizing workflow efficiency and maintaining objective accuracy. This approach provides a closed-loop solution for geotechnical engineering transitioning from digital decision-making to visual presentation, offering high potential for adaptation to other engineering scenarios.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101925

Authors: Abubakar S. Mahmoud Ali Istanbullu Victor Olabode Otitolaiye Faris Omer

This study presents an integrated bibliometric analysis (BA) and systematic literature review (SLR) of construction safety research (CSR) to examine its evolution and emerging technological directions. It aims to move beyond descriptive mapping by linking long-term research trends with recent technological advancements to provide a structured understanding of how construction safety is transitioning toward data-driven and resilient systems. Utilising the PRISMA-guided approach, 1979 publications were analysed, revealing an average annual growth rate of 18%, driven by increasing safety concerns and the rapid implementation of digital technologies. The findings demonstrate that conventional safety research, centred on hazard identification, safety culture, and management commitment, is gradually being complemented by advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), extended reality (XR), and digital twins. These technologies enable predictive risk assessment, real-time monitoring, and immersive training, supporting a shift from reactive to proactive safety management. Despite these advancements, critical gaps remain, including limited real-world validation of AI-based systems, insufficient integration of technologies into cohesive frameworks, and underexplored socio-cultural factors influencing adoption. These challenges were addressed by proposing a research-to-practice framework for integrating emerging technologies into construction safety management. The framework incorporates technological, organisational, and human factors to enhance adaptability, risk management, and overall construction project resilience. Additionally, the research contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a comprehensive and analytically grounded framework that bridges the gap between research and practical implementation, while also identifying future research directions to support the development of intelligent, resilient, and adaptive construction safety systems.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101923

Authors: Nurbanu Düzgün Atalay Şensin Aydın Yağmur

Window glazing systems play a critical role in building energy performance, particularly in office buildings with large window-to-wall ratios, which introduce complex trade-offs between energy consumption, thermal comfort, and visual comfort. This study develops a two-stage optimization-assessment framework to assess glazing performance across six climate regions defined by the TS 825 standard in Türkiye. In the first stage, a genetic algorithm-based multi-objective optimization approach was employed to minimize annual energy consumption (heating, cooling, and daylight-linked lighting) and thermal discomfort hours. In the second stage, the resulting Pareto-optimal solutions were further evaluated and ranked according to spatial disturbing glare (sDG) performance using annual glare simulations. The results show that energy-optimal solutions are not necessarily visually acceptable, highlighting the limitations of single-criterion approaches. While static low-e glazing provides competitive energy performance under several climate conditions, it may lead to increased glare risk, particularly at high window-to-wall ratios and in sun-exposed orientations. Dynamic glazing systems, although not consistently superior in energy terms, offer a more balanced performance when glare is considered, especially in colder climates. These findings emphasize the need for a climate-based, multi-criteria, and integrated approach to glazing selection.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101918

Authors: Ligang Cao Xiaoyan Zhao Di Zhu Bo Yang

This study proposes a work-based interpretation procedure, hereafter referred to as the IDEA method, for identifying the failure-related transition load in monotonic static load tests of pre-stressed high-strength concrete pipe piles. The method was examined using nine full-scale axial compression tests from a site in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, China. Cumulative work was reconstructed from the measured load settlement curves, and an incremental work response indicator was fitted with a one-break continuous segmented-regression model. The breakpoint was taken as the IDEA estimate, while bootstrap confidence intervals and delta BIC were used to evaluate numerical stability and model support. For the present nine piles, IDEA showed close agreement with the code-interpreted reference loads and yielded the lowest MAPE among the five Q-s interpretation methods considered, whereas the Davisson method showed slightly lower COV and RMSE. Additional perturbation analyses indicated low sensitivity to moderate settlement noise but clear sensitivity to sparse loading records and missing pre-failure points. A preliminary external application to 10 published pile cases showed generally favorable agreement with reference loads reinterpreted from digitized external Q-s curves using a uniform abrupt-settlement criterion. Because the original settlement–time records of the external cases were unavailable, the external assessment is treated as a curve-based transferability check rather than a strictly code-certified validation.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101924

Authors: Xiang He Jingjing He Li Qian Lei Gan Xinchao Ding Kuangmin Wei Xi Lu

In response to the issues of concentrated early-stage hydration heat and significant self-shrinkage in high-strength cementitious grouting materials at low water-to-binder ratios, improvements were achieved by co-blending granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with calcium sulphatoaluminate (UEA) and magnesium oxide (MEA) expansive agents. The workability, mechanical properties, volumetric stability and hydration heat characteristics of the composite system were systematically investigated, and the underlying mechanisms were elucidated through microscopic analysis methods such as XRD, TG and SEM. The results indicate that GGBS improved the fluidity of the pastes and promoted the development of later-stage strength. At the same time, GGBS delayed the peak of hydration heat release and reduced total heat release. In terms of volume deformation, UEA expanded rapidly and exhibited significant compensatory shrinkage in the early stages. MEA expanded slowly in the early stages and displayed more sustained expansion under wet-curing conditions, but experienced significant shrinkage rebound in the later stages under dry environments. Further research revealed that GGBS inhibited the expansion performance of both types of expansive agents. This is primarily attributed to the consumption of Ca(OH)2 within the system, which reduced the alkalinity of the liquid phase. GGBS physically restricted the formation and development of expansion products by promoting the densification of the C–S–H gel.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101922

Authors: Rui Liang Zhenyu Lei Zhenhao Wen Wensha Wang Xichuan Zheng Liu Chen

High-density urban plazas hosting multi-session public events often experience pulsed inflows, prolonged crowd retention, and localized bottleneck congestion, creating crowd-safety risks that cannot be fully captured by static capacity or total evacuation time alone. This study develops an agent-based simulation framework to evaluate ultra-high-density exposure and evacuation dynamics in Guangzhou Huacheng Plaza during the International Light Festival. The model was constructed in AnyLogic using site-layout data, event organization records, official attendance information, historical event timelines, and publicly available video observations. Two scenarios were examined: normal dynamic entry–exit operation under different inter-performance intervals, and overload-triggered evacuation under alternative spatial management strategies. Model calibration and event-process validation were conducted by comparing simulated congestion hotspots, key event timing, delayed dispersal patterns, and evacuation-duration ranges with historical observations and documented event records. The results show that extending the inter-performance interval from 90 min to 120 min reduced the overload duration from 75 min to 5 min and decreased cumulative ultra-high-density exposure from 25.62 to 13.93. Under overload evacuation, zonal guidance mainly improved early-stage crowd redistribution, whereas increased exit capacity produced a stronger reduction in total evacuation time and sustained congestion. Total evacuation time decreased from 185 min in the baseline condition to 160 min under the combined strategy, while effective discharge capacity increased from 231.12 to 338.28 pedestrians/min. These findings indicate that crowd safety in open urban plazas depends not only on total attendance, but also on event pacing, bottleneck recovery time, and effective discharge capacity. The proposed exposure-oriented framework provides a quantitative basis for evaluating crowd accumulation and evacuation strategies in high-density open public spaces.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101921

Authors: Ahmed Elgammal Yasmin Ali Amir Shirkhani Pedro Martinez-Vazquez

Conventional structural design frameworks assess natural hazards as statistically independent phenomena, a practice that can lead to significant underestimation of risk for structures subjected to sequential or concurrent hazards. The generation of probabilistic fragility functions under such cascading loads, particularly for post-fire seismic events, presents a computational barrier for standard non-linear dynamic analysis. To address this barrier, this study introduces a comprehensive computational framework centered on a physics-constrained neural network (PCNN) to serve as a high-fidelity surrogate model. The framework first uses a non-linear 12-degree-of-freedom structural model to generate a baseline dataset of collapse times under post-fire, concurrent wind-earthquake loading via the computationally efficient endurance time (ET) method, confirming that wind effects are negligible under ambient conditions and that the framework correctly identifies this hazard hierarchy without prior labeling, while fire and seismic parameters dominate. This dataset is subsequently used to train the PCNN, which is validated to achieve exceptional predictive accuracy (R2= 0.991), performing on par with a state-of-the-art Random Forest model while enforcing physical constraints. A feature importance analysis confirmed that structural collapse is dominated by fire intensity (≈55%) and initial structural period (≈45%). The validated PCNN is then applied to demonstrate the framework’s capability, rapidly generating fragility curves that quantify the catastrophic effect of fire on seismic resilience. This analysis reveals that a severe 800 °C localized fire reduces the structure’s median collapse capacity by 94.7%, thereby establishing the proposed framework as a successful template for tackling complex, non-linear problems in multi-hazard engineering.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101920

Authors: Liu Li Ouyang

Constructing age-friendly residential environments is essential for supporting aging in place among the growing population of urban empty-nest older adults in China. Grounded in person–environment fit theory, this study developed and validated a multidimensional Aging-Suitability Index (ASI) to examine how residential environmental factors shape housing suitability and perceived independence. In this study, “aging suitability” refers to the degree of fit between residential environments and older adults’ needs for safety, functionality, accessibility, social support, and technological support, with the central aim of enabling aging in place and independent living. Questionnaire data were collected from 753 urban empty-nest older adults across 19 provinces in China and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The structural model showed strong explanatory power (R2 = 0.754). The results revealed a clear hierarchy of environmental influences. Safety facilities and physical design were the strongest direct predictors of residential aging suitability, indicating that risk reduction and ergonomically appropriate spatial design constitute the foundation of age-friendly housing. Although accessibility showed a smaller direct effect, it exerted a significant indirect effect through perceived independence, with 67.35% of its total effect mediated through this pathway, highlighting the importance of barrier-free design in maintaining autonomy. Social support and smart technology also contributed positively as complementary resources that strengthened person–environment fit. These findings suggest that age-friendly housing interventions should move beyond fragmented modifications toward integrated residential renewal strategies that prioritize safety and physical design, improve accessibility to support independent living, and combine community support with age-friendly technologies. This study provides empirical evidence to inform built-environment decision-making in the design and renewal of housing for older adults in rapidly aging urban contexts.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101919

Authors: Santiago Olaya Camilo Tibaná Omar Sánchez Karen Castañeda Kevin Torres

Construction projects depend heavily on manual labor; however, workforce productivity is frequently constrained by poor planning and communication. This paper proposes a methodological framework that combines Building Information Modeling (BIM) with the Lines of Balance (LOB) technique to estimate, allocate, and visually coordinate crews in repetitive building work. Using a Design Science Research approach, the study draws on a systematic review of 29 eligible studies that identified 23 processes for human resource planning and allocation. These processes are structured into five planning categories: scope and duration, structuring and quantification, resource estimation and allocation, schedule baseline, and cost baseline. BIM support is operationalized through seven high-utility BIM applications identified by expert assessment (RUI > 0.75), including phase planning, scheduling, site utilization planning, and cost estimation. The framework connects model-based quantity takeoff and productivity assumptions with LOB-based sequencing and crew assignment. This integration enables early detection of spatiotemporal overlaps and workload imbalances through consistent BIM–LOB visualization. The method was implemented and calibrated in two residential case studies (one covering 295 m2 over 3 months and the other 3660 m2 over 22 months), resulting in workforce plans comprising 10 workers across five crews and 72 workers across nine crews. An evaluation involving 31 professionals indicates a high perceived utility, particularly in reducing errors in quantity and productivity estimation (RUI = 0.90) and crew quantification (RUI = 0.88).

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101917

Authors: Guozong Zhang Dexin Yang Yuan Sun

Frequent accidents in the construction sector arise from the dynamic coupling of multiple risk factors, while conventional single-factor approaches fail to capture the underlying complexity. Drawing on 702 accident investigation reports, this study develops an intelligent, data-driven framework that integrates large language model–based risk identification with association rule mining to systematically uncover risk factors and their coupling patterns. A DeepSeek-based model is employed to extract risk factors from unstructured text, followed by cosine similarity–based optimization to refine factor representations. The FP-Growth algorithm is then applied to identify strong association rules among risk factors. The results reveal that deficiencies in the management dimension account for 68.30% of all identified risks, with inadequate safety education and training emerging as the central hub in the risk coupling network, which is further corroborated by complex network analysis. Moreover, a cascading transmission pathway is identified, whereby environmental deficiencies induce weakened safety awareness, which in turn leads to unsafe behaviors. These findings further demonstrate the nonlinear amplification effects arising from concurrent management failures. By establishing a transformation pathway from unstructured textual data to structured risk knowledge, this study provides a robust, data-driven foundation for precise risk identification and systematic prevention in construction safety management.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101915

Authors: Yanjian Xu Qiyun Wang Yanan Liao

Given the challenges posed by high groundwater levels, thick sand layers, and strong permeability in water-rich sandy strata, cut-off walls often fail to fully isolate the hydraulic connection between the inside and outside of a foundation pit. As a result, dewatering inside the pit—especially from confined aquifers—can cause significant external groundwater drawdown and subsequent ground settlement. Using a deep excavation conducted in Xiamen as a case study, this study developed a two-dimensional hydro-mechanical coupled finite element model to systematically investigate the effects of various dewatering scenarios and soil permeability coefficients on surface settlement around the pit, and to reveal settlement patterns induced by dewatering and excavation in such strata. Field monitoring data were incorporated to validate the numerical model, ensuring accuracy and reliability. Key findings include the following: (1) Dewatering contributes to over 76% of the total settlement at each stage, with confined drawdown being the dominant factor, implying that dewatering optimization should take priority over controlling excavation rate. (2) Under confined dewatering, the settlement influence zone extends beyond 80 m, far exceeding the extension caused by excavation alone; thus, monitoring and protection ranges must be adjusted dynamically. (3) The horizontal permeability of sand shows a nonlinear positive correlation with settlement, and this sensitivity grows with depth, highlighting the need for accurate permeability determination and stricter controls in deep excavations within water-rich sand layers. From an engineering perspective, these findings underscore the importance of prioritizing confined aquifer dewatering management, dynamically expanding settlement monitoring zones, and rigorously characterizing permeability profiles to mitigate excessive ground settlement and protect adjacent infrastructure.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101916

Authors: Peng Yang Qiang Zhao Bentie Zhang Dong Zhou Lu Lv

Tunnel construction requires accurate and timely classification of surrounding rock masses to ensure safety and guide excavation. This research addresses the limitations of conventional methods and unimodal intelligent approaches by proposing a novel hybrid deep model, Random-Mamba, that integrates drilling parameters and digital images for enhanced classification performance. A dataset of 3361 synchronized samples was constructed, containing six drilling parameters, digital face images, and expert-classified rock mass grades. The model employs a dual-branch architecture: a Random Forest processes the drilling parameters, and a MambaVision network extracts visual features, with a multilayer perceptron performing the fusion. The proposed model achieved an overall accuracy of 92.12% and a macro-F1 score of 91.66%, outperforming the most comparable hybrid model by 2.61% in accuracy. It demonstrated particularly high precision in identifying Class III rock with an F1-score of 93.2%. Ablation and comparative experiments confirmed its superiority over both single-modality models, such as SVM and ResNet, and other hybrid architectures, like Random-Swin. SHAP-based sensitivity analysis further revealed that feed speed was the most influential drilling parameter for classification. The effective fusion of complementary mechanical and visual data provides a robust and practical solution for real-time rock mass assessment in tunneling engineering.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101914

Authors: Lixin Wang Jianfu Lin Sijian Lin Zihan Zhou Yangjin Yuan Jiaxin Zhang Yuxuan Lin

Large-span stadium roofs in coastal regions are highly vulnerable to typhoon-induced wind damage, and their post-event performance depends on both structural safety and functionality recovery. This study proposes a probabilistic framework to assess typhoon-induced damage, functionality degradation, recovery, and resilience of a large-span stadium roof system in Shenzhen, China. Progressive damage to the roof cover and the roof-supporting structure is evaluated by combining wind tunnel pressure data and structural analysis. The results show that the roof cover shows greater vulnerability than the supporting structure, with slight damage emerging at around 30 m/s, whereas structural damage requires higher wind speeds. A functionality-based recovery model is further developed by considering repair preparation, repair duration, and repair sequence constraints. The building generally exhibits a high resilience level, with a mean resilience index of 0.9550 and a median of 0.9589. The initial overall building functionality loss increases from about 7% under TY conditions to 20% under STY and 60% under Super TY, while the recovery duration increases by about 2–3 times and 5–6 times relative to the TY case, respectively. The proposed framework provides a practical basis for resilience-oriented performance assessment of large-span roof structures under typhoon hazards.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101913

Authors: Jiajia Zhao Yulin Yan Ru Zhang

With the rapid development of digital technologies, augmented reality (AR) has created new possibilities for the presentation and dissemination of cultural heritage. However, conventional digital guide systems in historic districts are typically dominated by static information delivery, lacking interactivity and user engagement, which limits their effectiveness in enhancing public understanding of historic architectural environments and related cultural knowledge. To address this limitation, this study focuses on historic architectural districts and proposes a narrative-based AR cultural exploration approach embedded in real architectural space. The Hubu Mountain historic architectural district in Xuzhou, China, was selected as the case study. First, grounded theory was employed to systematically analyze the cultural resources of the district and extract key cultural narrative elements. Based on these elements, a design framework for a narrative AR cultural exploration system was constructed. Subsequently, a mobile AR interactive system was developed using the Unity 2022.3 LTS and Vuforia Engine 10. A total of 80 participants were recruited and randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Cultural knowledge tests, an immersive experience scale, and a dissemination intention scale were used to evaluate the outcomes, and the collected data were analyzed statistically. The results indicate that, compared with a conventional text–image guide condition, the narrative AR exploration condition significantly improved participants’ cultural cognition and dissemination intention. Specifically, the experimental group achieved significantly higher post-test scores in cultural knowledge than the control group, and a significant between-group difference was also observed in dissemination intention. In terms of immersive experience, although the experimental group reported higher mean scores than the control group, the difference did not reach statistical significance, showing only a possible improving trend. These findings suggest that an integrated narrative AR cultural exploration condition can enhance public understanding of historic architectural districts and strengthen the communication potential of heritage experiences in real built environments. This study provides a digital interpretation approach for historic architectural districts and offers empirical support for the use of AR-based interactive systems in architectural heritage communication and public engagement.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101912

Authors: Peng Cao Caiyuan Zhao Shaobo Jiang

Against the backdrop of global warming and rapid urbanization, high-density central urban areas in valley cities face exacerbated ventilation deterioration and reduced pedestrian-level wind comfort due to topographic constraints and intensive development. This study investigates the coupling mechanism between spatial morphology and wind environment in Lanzhou’s Xiguan Cross area using a complex network model, CFD numerical simulation, and statistical analysis. A ventilation resistance surface was constructed using circuit theory and ArcGIS 10.8 to identify ventilation corridors. PHOENICS was used to simulate summer pedestrian-level (1.5 m) wind fields, while SPSS 2025 was employed for regression analysis of building density, enclosure degree, and dispersion degree against the mean wind velocity ratio. Results indicate: (1) wind velocities are higher at the periphery and lower in the interior; (2) building density and enclosure degree have a highly significant negative impact on the wind velocity ratio, whereas dispersion degree has a significant positive impact, with influence intensity ranked as enclosure degree > building density > dispersion degree. Based on these findings, three differentiated morphological optimization strategies are proposed and validated through simulation, effectively increasing the proportion of comfortable wind zones. This study provides a scientific basis for improving urban microclimate and pedestrian comfort through urban design.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101911

Authors: Gang Sun Xiao-Yong Sun Jian-Hang Fu

To enhance the clarity and readability of the article, several tables, figures, and corresponding texts have been revised or added [...]

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101910

Authors: Xiaoyong Sun Jianhang Fu Gang Sun

The journal retracts the article “Effect of Web Perforations on the Web Buckling Resistance of 7075-T6 and AA-6086 High-Strength Aluminium Alloy C-Shaped Members under End-Two-Flange Loading Case” [...]

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101909

Authors: Jianhang Fu Gang Sun Xiaoyong Sun

The journal retracts the article “Numerical Modelling and Proposed Design Rules of 7075-T6 and AA-6086 High-Strength Aluminium Alloy Channels under Concentrated Loading” [...]

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101908

Authors: Zhong Peng Bin Cheng Shanjun Zhang Zhiyong Li Wei Li

Structural health assessment of historic buildings frequently relies on finite element (FE) model updating, yet high-dimensional parameter identification under sparse, noise-contaminated modal data can reduce robustness and lead to prohibitive computational cost. This paper proposes an application-oriented integrated workflow that improves identification stability while accelerating the updating process. A multi-indicator objective function is formulated by combining residuals of natural frequencies and mode shapes with sensitivity-based consistency relations. The inverse problem is solved using the Mayfly Algorithm (MA), and a deep neural network (DNN) surrogate is introduced to replace repeated FE modal analyses during the optimization, thereby reducing the overall computational burden. The proposed workflow is demonstrated on the Christian Lutheran Church in Wuhan, China, constructed from 1923 to 1924, using operational modal testing data collected at 25 measurement points. A refined FE model is updated by identifying 24 grouped stiffness reduction coefficients that represent columns, beams, walls, and slabs across different floors. The updated model shows substantially improved agreement with the measured first four natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes, enabling a quantitative diagnosis of stiffness degradation and supporting stiffness-oriented reinforcement planning. A stiffness enhancement target of 20% is adopted to guide intervention measures, and an analytical modal enhancement check is provided to relate the stiffness target to the expected frequency gain. The workflow offers a reproducible route for data-informed decision support in heritage building assessment and rehabilitation, while uncertainty quantification and post-intervention validation are identified as key priorities for future work. Under the available sparse modal information, the inverse problem is underdetermined; therefore, the reported stiffness-reduction coefficients should be interpreted as non-unique grouped solutions affected by modelling and measurement uncertainty, and the reinforcement measures are presented only as planning-level design proposals requiring post-intervention verification.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101907

Authors: Hesham S. Rabayah Raed M. Abendeh Donia G. Salman Rabab A. Allouzi Mousa Bani Baker Hatem H. Almasaeid

Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) beams have attracted widespread interest in recent years as an alternative to fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) techniques. However, despite their effectiveness, they are often associated with high material cost, sensitivity to elevated temperatures, and limitations in bonding performance under certain environmental and surface conditions. This research examines incorporating textile reinforcement internally (INT) by supplementing steel bars with glass fiber grids, as well as externally (EXT) by retrofitting existing members. The experimental work evaluates five RC beams: a control (CTR), two INT beams strengthened with alkali-resistant glass fabric textile (AR-GFT), one using one layer (INT1L) and the other three layers (INT3L), and two EXT beams where AR-GFT is bonded with mortar, again with one layer (EXT1L) and three layers (EXT3L). Altogether, 10 beams were tested, with duplicate specimens for every configuration. Observing load-deflection responses, cracking behavior, and the strengthening system’s performance revealed that AR-GFT contributes to enhanced load-bearing resistance in the RC beams. The INT1L beams exhibited negligible improvement compared with the CTR specimen, suggesting that internal strengthening alone does not meaningfully increase strength. Conversely, the INT3L beams demonstrated a 45% rise in strength for one sample, although the second performed similarly to the CTR specimen owing to slippage between the textile and adjacent matrix. EXT3L beams achieved up to a 90% increase in load-bearing capacity in one specimen. Nevertheless, the second specimen exhibited textile layer debonding and performed similarly to the CTR beam, underlining the necessity for correct textile positioning and sufficient mortar impregnation during application. Moreover, a three-dimensional (3D) nonlinear finite-element analysis (FEA) was performed to replicate beam responses, showing strong correlation with experimental observations. Overall, the results indicate that textile-based strengthening systems can successfully retrofit and upgrade RC structures, provided meticulous attention is paid to the quality and execution of the installation process. The study provides new insights into the flexural behavior of textile-strengthened RC beams, particularly in terms of the interaction between internal and external textile reinforcement with conventional steel.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101906

Authors: Xinhong Zhang Shihan Wang Jianhong Dong Wuli Long Na Zhang

Understanding how urban road network structures influence household carbon emissions is fundamental to developing low-carbon urban environments. This study examines China’s Western Valley cities (WVCs), which have distinct structural characteristics, to analyze the heterogeneous effects of road network structures on household carbon emissions. Using 2020 household carbon emissions and road network data, we employed stepwise regression and curve estimation regression models to clarify these relationships based on the distribution patterns of both variables. The following are the key findings of this study: (1) Substantial differences exist between cities in terms of total household carbon emissions, per capita emissions, and per capita land use. (2) Regarding road network structure, cities can be categorized into three types—clusters, fingers, and belts—based on the distribution of high and low values of closeness centrality (CC), with four, five, and six cities falling into each category, respectively. While compactness differences between cities are relatively small, variability exhibits large disparities, leading to different city rankings and highlighting the complexity of road network organization. (3) The three structural characteristics show significant correlations with household carbon emissions not only in terms of direction but also magnitude and influence mechanisms. (4) CC follows an inverse function pattern, initially declining sharply before gradually stabilizing. Compactness follows a positive linear growth pattern, consistently promoting household carbon emissions. Variability exhibits a positive power-law growth pattern, showing a sharp initial increase that weakens over time.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101904

Authors: Hongyu Tao Shaojun Ma Yucheng Zou Jianfeng Zhu Yongxing He Jiayu Jin Di Qi Yiyi Zheng Lvjun Tang

To investigate the deformation law of adjacent metro tunnels under the coupling effect of servo supports and deep foundation pit excavation, this study takes an ultra-deep foundation pit adjacent to Hangzhou Metro Line 2 as the research object. A servo support system was adopted for synchronous active loading during excavation, and field monitoring was conducted to analyze the deformation response of existing operating tunnels before and after servo loading. The results indicate that servo loading significantly reduces the rate of increase in tunnel vertical displacement, horizontal displacement, and horizontal relative convergence. It is found that the servo support closest to the tunnel (i.e., the third servo support in the case) exhibits the most prominent control effect—after loading, the vertical displacement rate of the down-line tunnel decreases from −0.04 mm/d to 0 mm/d, and the horizontal displacement rate is reduced by approximately 70%. Moreover, seven days after loading, the horizontal relative convergence rate of the up-line tunnel tends to be 0 mm/d. Servo supports effectively weaken the tunnel’s deformation development during critical stages of ultra-deep foundation pit construction, enabling active and precise control of adjacent operating metro tunnels.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101905

Authors: Lin Zhang Rui Zhao Yanna Zhang

Urban–rural information infrastructure (URII) serves as the backbone of the “Digital Village” strategy; however, it faces significant threats from natural disasters and socioeconomic disparities. This study proposes a comprehensive resilience evaluation framework based on the pressure–state–response (PSR) theory. To address the limitations of traditional subjective weighting, we construct an integrated assessment framework that combines the entropy weight method with an improved concept lattice-weighted cluster DEMATEL method, effectively handling cognitive differences among experts. Using Lijin County in Shandong Province as a case study, we assess resilience levels from 2018 to 2022 via the VIKOR method. The results indicate a robust upward trajectory in overall resilience, progressing from a low-level state in 2018 to a high-resilience state in 2022. However, a dimensional comparative analysis identifies pressure resilience as the most critical weak point; consequently, the study establishes that the priority for future resilience enhancement follows the order: pressure > state > response. Based on these findings, specific countermeasures focusing on disaster risk monitoring and infrastructure redundancy are proposed to foster sustainable rural digital development.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101903

Authors: Keltoum Tayeb Mohamed Lotfi Khene Noureddine Zemmouri

This paper introduces a comprehensive framework for optimizing daylight performance in architectural drawing rooms located in hot-arid climates through the integration of building performance simulation and political optimizer algorithms. The study investigates the key challenge of balancing daylight availability with visual comfort in educational spaces characterized by high solar radiation intensities. A sophisticated 3D simulation model was created using MATLAB, embedding 15 CIE standard sky types to accurately represent the dynamic luminous environment of hot-dry regions. Empirical validation conducted in Biskra, Algeria, demonstrated high model accuracy with a mean error of 3.5%. The political optimizer algorithm was employed to solve a multi-objective optimization problem addressing three key performance indicators: illuminance uniformity, Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI 300–3000 lux), and task-specific illumination levels (300–500 lux). Optimization results indicated marked improvements, with UDI occupancy rates increasing from 20.66% to 37.66%, representing an 82% relative enhancement. The optimal configuration identified includes a 30% window-to-wall ratio, 70% glazing transmittance, and strategic surface reflectances (ceiling: 80%, walls: 65%, floor: 35%). This research provides a validated computational framework that allows architects to make evidence-based design decisions for educational spaces in climatically challenging settings, effectively bridging the gap between building performance simulation and practical architectural applications.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101902

Authors: Alpana Kamble Pallavi Sharma Madhuri Kumari

This study presents a coupled building simulation framework that evaluates thermal and daylight performance concurrently within a unified multi-objective decision space. Unlike conventional sequential workflows, where daylight metrics are assessed after energy optimization or used primarily for compliance verification, the proposed approach embeds EnergyPlus and Radiance simulations directly within the same optimization loop. This structure enables a systematic exploration of non-linear interactions between Energy Use Intensity (EUI), cooling loads, Spatial Daylight Autonomy (SDA), and Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE) during early-stage façade design. The framework is demonstrated through a medium-rise office building in India’s National Capital Region, a composite climate characterized by strong seasonal and directional variability. Parametric variation in façade orientation, window-to-wall ratio, and external shading configurations was explored using a multi-objective genetic algorithm to identify Pareto-optimal performance regimes. The results reveal distinct orientation-dependent trade-off structures between solar exposure, cooling demand, and daylight availability that are not evident in rule-based or sequential simulation approaches. In particular, a transitional East-facing façade regime emerges in which balanced shading and glazing proportions achieve near–North-facing cooling performance while maintaining high daylight autonomy under controlled sunlight exposure. Rather than proposing a single optimal solution, the study demonstrates how tightly coupled thermal–daylight simulation can function as a knowledge-discovery tool, enabling the extraction of transferable façade response patterns from simulation outputs. The findings highlight the limitations of prescriptive orientation hierarchies in composite climates and illustrate the value of integrated simulation workflows for performance-driven early-stage design across diverse climatic contexts. Although the study references thermal performance, the optimization objectives are limited to peak cooling load and annual Energy Use Intensity (EUI). Occupant comfort indices such as Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) were not explicitly simulated. Therefore, results are interpreted as energy–daylight performance optimization rather than direct thermal comfort optimization.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101898

Authors: Mayling Cornejo-Meza Gloria Rubio-Cunishpuma Kenny Escobar-Segovia Natividad Garcia-Troncoso

The rapid expansion of sustainable construction practices has significantly increased research on recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) over the past four decades. However, despite the growing volume of studies, a comprehensive longitudinal assessment of the thematic and structural evolution of RAC research remains limited. This study presents a bibliometric and thematic evolution analysis of global research on recycled aggregate concrete from 1983 to 2025, based on 1624 documents indexed in Scopus and analyzed using PRISMA guidelines and VOSviewer mapping techniques. Results reveal four indicative stages of development: (i) an exploratory feasibility phase focused on compressive strength and replacement ratios (1983–2000); (ii) a mechanical validation phase emphasizing durability and interfacial transition zone performance (2000–2010); (iii) a performance enhancement phase integrating supplementary cementitious materials and service-life assessment (2010–2018); and (iv) a recent sustainability-driven phase characterized by life-cycle assessment, circular economy frameworks, and emerging AI-assisted optimization approaches (post-2018). China, India, and the United States dominate scientific production, while co-citation networks highlight the consolidation of specialized yet interconnected research communities. Keyword evolution analysis indicates a progressive shift from mechanical feasibility toward environmental impact mitigation and predictive modeling. Despite substantial advances, research gaps persist in tropical climate performance assessment, full-scale structural applications, and standardized mix-design methodologies for high-replacement RAC. The findings provide a structured understanding of the intellectual structure and evolution of the field, offering guidance for future research directions and performance-based sustainable concrete design strategies.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101901

Authors: Liang Luo Yuchao Zheng

To improve construction efficiency for large-section tunnels in sandstone–mudstone strata, this study investigates the applicability of the two-bench method and the three-bench method for grade IV and grade V surrounding rock, respectively. Based on FLAC3D, numerical simulations of excavation and support for the two benching methods were conducted to analyze deformation responses, including ground settlement, crown settlement, haunch convergence, floor uplift, and face extrusion. The simulation results were then compared and validated against field monitoring data to evaluate the applicability and feasibility of the construction methods. The results show that, for grade IV surrounding rock excavated using the two-bench method, crown settlement, floor uplift, and horizontal convergence converge and stabilize on days 17, 15, and 25, with stable values of 14.0 mm, 10.3 mm, and 13.2 mm, respectively. For grade V surrounding rock excavated using the three-bench method, these indices stabilize on days 24, 22, and 32, with stable values of 26.3 mm, 20.3 mm, and 20.8 mm, respectively. The surrounding rock pressures at the crown and spandrel gradually attenuate after excavation and stabilize at 1–4 MPa after approximately 20–26 days, whereas stress release at the haunch lasts longer and the stabilized stress level remains higher. Meanwhile, the anchor bolt axial force at the haunch is significantly greater than that at the spandrel, indicating that the haunch is a critical zone for support load-bearing and deformation control. The benching method can effectively control surrounding rock deformation under grade IV and V surrounding rock conditions in sandstone–mudstone strata; however, in engineering practice, the haunch should be treated as a key monitoring target, and targeted support and reinforcement measures should be implemented.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101900

Authors: Xiaoyan Han Hongwei Wang Hongbo Gao Rena C. Yu Zhimin Wu

Concrete structures frequently experience sustained loading during service, which may lead to crack propagation and eventual failure. In this study, three-point bending beams with heights of 200 mm and 300 mm were subjected to sustained load levels of 0.82, 0.84, and 0.86 of the peak load. The crack propagation process was monitored using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique to capture full-field displacement and strain distributions. Analysis of the crack opening displacement (COD) and the fracture process zone (FPZ) revealed that concrete exhibits brittle fracture behavior under sustained loading, with the FPZ not fully developed at creep failure. The crack propagation process was further characterized into three stages. In the initial stage, crack development is mainly governed by viscoelastic deformation. In the intermediate stage, both viscoelasticity and the gradual decay of cohesive stresses within the FPZ contribute to crack growth. In the final unstable acceleration stage, crack propagation is dominated by cohesive stress degradation. Importantly, the crack length at creep failure closely matches the corresponding crack length on the descending branch of quasi-static loading, indicating a direct link between time-dependent creep fracture and quasi-static post-peak behavior. These results provide new insights into the time-dependent fracture mechanics of concrete, revealing the evolution of damage under long-term loading. The study emphasizes material behavior, including FPZ development and stage-wise crack propagation, offering a mechanistic understanding of creep fracture beyond the evaluation of measurement techniques.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101897

Authors: Michael Lange Joschua Gosslar Sophie Viktoria Albrecht Hannes Eichler Charlotte Thiel Harald Kloft

Current rammed earth in situ practices face economic challenges that outweigh its ecological advantages, rendering it a niche product in the construction sector. This is mainly due to the inefficient and labor-intensive character of the manual construction processes involved, especially those related to formwork. The introduction of automated and robotic fabrication presents an opportunity to reduce the existing imbalance through digitalization, by shortening the building time and reducing labor input. In this paper, the associated potential environmental impacts of manual and robotic in situ manufacture of unstabilized rammed earth walls are compared and quantified in a life cycle assessment. The results show that robotic in situ manufacture is the more environmentally favorable option within the construction phase, with the highest optimization potential in the building phase. The standard robotic scenario demonstrates significant reductions across a range of environmental impact indicators of approx. 9–97% compared to the standard manual scenario due to a reduction of waste and formwork. Specifically, the GWP100-total is reduced by 28% and EE by 68%. Further key factor optimizations—including minimizing transport distances, using locally sourced loam, reducing packaging materials, and utilizing renewable energy—show even greater benefits. In the robotic procedure, this result in reductions in GWP100-total of 76% and EE of 70% compared to its robotic standard scenario, and to reductions of 83% and 90%, respectively, compared to the standard manual procedure.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101899

Authors: Hacer Akbudak Figen Akpinar

Since the 1950s, Türkiye has experienced rapid urbanization and urban expansion followed by continuous planning initiatives, yet these efforts have resulted in significant land degradation and unsustainable urban sprawl. As a remedy, legislators and administrations are increasingly turning to the use of transferable development rights (TDRs), which have arisen as an innovative land readjustment tool and have recently been incorporated into the spatial planning system. This paper examines the effectiveness of TDRs by analyzing the legislative framework and operational rationale of the Turkish model through a hypothetical scenario, while also considering the institutional restrictions that could limit its usefulness as a sustainable planning instrument. By contrasting the scenario model with the framework recently developed through legal reform, this study employs the success factors of TDRs from the literature to assess the effectiveness of the tool integrated into the spatial planning system. Since the new legislation that forms the basis of the TDR model was passed in late 2024, empirical data on completed transactions is currently unavailable, and hence, the analysis used a hypothetical what-if-case scenario model in the local context, the Muratbey-Torbalı district of Izmir. To clarify the rationale behind incorporating the TDR into the planning system, we will first examine its conceptual development within the national legislation, followed by a critical evaluation of the TDR model as established by the recent amendment. Secondly, the study will present a hypothetical TDR model that incorporates the essential components ex-ante and offer guidance for conducting a market-based evaluation of TDRs, considering factors influencing agricultural market values and related standards. The findings demonstrate that there is a lack of legal clarity that stresses the program’s holistic design with sending and receiving locations or TDR-allocation rates. The implementation regulation is challenging to ascertain how transfers impact land use justice, social benefit, and the public interest.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101894

Authors: Haosen Wei Ying Ji Huihui Lian Xinyue Wang Huilong Wang Weilin Li Jiefan Gu Jingchao Xie

Forecasting and intelligent operation of HVAC systems in public buildings are crucial for energy conservation, carbon reduction, and enhancing occupant comfort. This area has seen significant progress. However, for intermittent HVAC systems, noise reduction techniques applied to periodic load sequences may distort the load during start–stop transitions. To tackle this challenge, an innovative hybrid prediction method, GCMWSG-HOA-LightGBM, is proposed in this study. The GCMWSG filter utilizes period division and boundary protection mechanisms to avoid cross-period coupling errors in traditional filters, preserving the authenticity of cooling load start–stop transitions. Additionally, the HOA is employed to automatically optimize the hyperparameters of the LightGBM model, enhancing both parameter tuning efficiency and prediction accuracy. The proposed model is validated using operational data from an office building in Foshan, Guangdong Province, and its performance is compared with several hybrid models: HOA-LightGBM, BWO-LightGBM, AO-LightGBM, TPE-LightGBM, HOA-RF, BWO-RF, AO-RF and TPE-RF. The results show that the GCMWSG-HOA-LightGBM model outperforms all comparison models across all metrics, achieving R2, MAPE, and CVRMSE values of 92.22%, 7.05%, and 9.46%, respectively, highlighting its accuracy and stability. The findings provide an efficient solution for intelligent load prediction of HVAC systems with intermittent and periodic characteristics, offering valuable engineering insights and theoretical guidance.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101892

Authors: Jun Liu Fanghui Pan Qingyan Tan Xiaozhou Zhou Peinan Li Mei Yin Xiugui Lin Zhigang Li

Rectangular shield tunnels demonstrate significant advantages in underground space utilization due to their optimal cross-section efficiency and enhanced spatial functionality. Furthermore, their shallow overburden construction capability minimizes environmental impact and preserves subsurface resources. However, compared with circular shield tunnels, rectangular configurations exhibit greater susceptibility to longitudinal differential torsional deformation under asymmetric external loading. This deformation mechanism may induce excessive stresses in segments and connecting bolts, potentially causing joint offsets at tunnel rings that compromise structural integrity. This paper proposes a computational method for determining the longitudinal equivalent torsional stiffness of rectangular shield tunnels under combined compression–bending–torsion loading based on an equivalent continuum model. The proposed novel theoretical solutions were systematically validated against numerical simulations through comparative analysis. Parametric studies revealed that the effective ratio of longitudinal torsional stiffness increases proportionally with segment width-to-height ratio and bolt quantity while exhibiting inverse correlations with segment thickness and bolt equivalent shear length. The effective ratio of longitudinal torsional stiffness is directly correlated with compression–torsion ratios and bending–torsion ratios, with different load combinations significantly influencing torsional performance. Consequently, design optimizations incorporating increased bolt pre-tension forces or pre-stressed segment structures are proposed to improve torsional performance in rectangular shield tunneling systems.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101896

Authors: Jiarui Zhang Wei Huang Rong Wei Wen Ren

An integrated rebar box connection is proposed for the horizontal joints of fully prefabricated composite walls to simplify joint detailing and reduce on-site wet construction. Experimental tests and numerical analyses were conducted to evaluate the behavior of this connection. The results show that both specimens exhibited shear-dominated failure. The box connection and horizontal joint did not experience obvious fracture or pull-out failure, although local cover spalling, mortar crushing, and connector deformation were observed, suggesting effective force transfer between the upper and lower wall panels under the tested conditions. Compared with the cyclically loaded specimen, the monotonically loaded specimen exhibited higher peak load and larger deformation capacity under monotonic loading, whereas the initial stiffness was similar. The numerical results agree reasonably well with the experimental responses. The parametric finite element analyses indicate that increasing the integrated rebar diameter, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio in the rib columns, the concrete grid strength, and the axial compression ratio improves the load-carrying capacity of the wall, although a higher axial compression ratio reduces ductility. The proposed connection shows promising potential for use in the horizontal joints of fully prefabricated composite walls, and further studies with additional specimens and comparative connection details are warranted.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101895

Authors: Yangyang Wei Yujia Chen Yihan Wang Lei Cao

The conservation and restoration of architectural heritage face dual challenges from natural erosion and human interference, necessitating the adoption of efficient and non-contact digital technologies to achieve sustainable preservation. Virtual reality (VR) technology, with its advantages of immersion, interactivity, and visualization, provides a novel technological pathway for digital documentation, conservation decision-making, and public presentation of architectural heritage. Taking the Fuliang Red Pagoda in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, as the research object, this study constructs a high-precision digital reconstruction and VR interactive application workflow based on the integration of terrestrial laser scanning and close-range photogrammetry. Through point cloud denoising, Iterative Closest Point (ICP) registration, and Poisson surface reconstruction algorithms, a refined three-dimensional model of the pagoda is achieved, and an immersive VR system is developed with functions including component information query, virtual restoration scheme switching, and interactive exploration. The results demonstrate that this technical workflow not only enables non-contact digital archiving of the Fuliang Red Pagoda but also provides a visual decision-support tool for conservation interventions. Under full-scene operation, the system achieves an average rendering frame rate of 92 FPS and maintains motion-to-photon latency below 20 ms, ensuring good real-time performance and interaction stability. The findings indicate that VR-based digital technologies can enhance the scientific rigor of conservation planning and promote public engagement while adhering to the principles of authenticity and minimum intervention. This study provides a replicable technical pathway and practical reference for high-precision digital reconstruction and sustainable conservation of historic buildings.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101893

Authors: Ahmed Abd El-Hafez Uthman Abdullah Alamri Amr Sayed Hassan Abdallah Mohammed A. Nayel Hossam S. Abbas Mohamed A. Hendy

This paper proposes a time-based no-cost category of energy conservation measures (ECMs) enabled by audit-driven building energy modeling. The study presents an audit-to-simulation framework applied to an academic building (Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University, Egypt) following the audit levels and requirements of ASHRAE Standard 100-2024. The building operation is characterized via audit findings, high-resolution electrical monitoring, and occupancy profiling, then translated into a calibrated building energy model (BEM) developed using SketchUp, OpenStudio, and EnergyPlus. The validated BEM serves as a decision-support testbed to evaluate the proposed ECMs prior to implementation, enabling quantification of their impacts on annual and daily energy use, peak reduction, and load-profile shape. The proposed ECMs are classified into two subcategories: working-day ECMs and time-slot-modification ECMs. The first category involves adjusting the number of working days per week. The second category includes several scheduling-based strategies, namely seasonal time shifts, modification of lecture and tutorial session durations, rearrangement of lectures and tutorial sessions, and shifting peak-demand time slots. The simulation results show that modifying lecture and tutorial durations (ECM3) is the most effective measure, achieving 6.2% annual energy savings, followed by seasonal time shifts (ECM2) with 5.8%. For peak demand, reducing operation during peak periods (ECM5) lowers the daily peak load by 25.9%. The combined implementation of the proposed ECMs reduces annual energy consumption by up to 16% and daily peak demand by 29.4%. The findings highlight the substantial potential of structured audit-informed operational strategies in university buildings, emphasizing their role as low-risk, high-impact interventions for peak management and energy performance enhancement.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101891

Authors: Mingzhe Cui Cuikun Wang Caihua Chen Huahua Qiu Yuhua Pan Baixiang Wang

Seismic resilience assessment of high-rise buildings heavily relies on the deformation limits and fragility data of structural components, yet such data is still lacking for steel-reinforced concrete (SRC) columns, which are widely used in high-rise structures. To address this gap, this study establishes a test database consisting of 312 SRC column specimens, including 17 input parameters and three key experimental results, i.e., failure mode, yielding drift ratio θy, and ultimate drift ratio θu. Two machine learning (ML) frameworks are proposed and four ML models are trained and compared. It is found that the two-stage framework incorporating a failure mode classification shows only a slight improvement in the model performance. Thus, an end-to-end framework is recommended due to its simplicity and avoidance of error propagation, and RF and XGBoost models are adopted and tuned for θy and θu prediction for their optimal performance. Model interpretation is carried out using permutation importance (PI) and SHAP analyses to verify consistency with domain knowledge, with the key influencing factors identified as longitudinal reinforcement strength (fyl) and axial load ratio (nt) for deformation capacity, and shear-span ratio (λ) for failure mode classification. The performance of ML models is compared with conventional data-fitting approaches, and it is proven that ML models outperform conventional formulas, with the R2 for predicting θy and θu improved by 26.5% and 32.9%, the RMSE reduced by 30.0% and 30.4%, and the MAPE reduced by 18.5% and 48.4%, respectively, thus providing a powerful data-driven tool for the seismic resilience assessment of SRC columns and expanding the fragility data of composite components.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101890

Authors: Kangmin Bae Sebeen Yoon Sangmin Lee Minseung Cha Hyunsoo Kim Taehoon Kim

Fireproofing spray work at construction sites is still performed manually, making consistent spray quality difficult to maintain and exposing workers to dust and fall hazards during elevated work. This study applied Quality Function Deployment (QFD) to the design of a fireproofing spray robot by translating field requirements into technical characteristics and identifying five major design conflicts: reach capability vs. stability, spray module flexibility vs. stability, sensor protection vs. sensing visibility, material supply reliability vs. stability, and material supply reliability vs. working range. Based on these conflicts, four designs were then proposed: sensor cover design, material supply continuity design, extended reach and stabilization design, and adaptive nozzle positioning design. A customer requirement-weighted evaluation showed that extended reach and stabilization design received the highest score because it most directly addressed accessibility to target surfaces at various heights, working range per setup, and stable operation at elevated positions. The other designs mainly addressed sensing reliability, material supply continuity, and nozzle adaptability to different member geometries and surface orientations. Accordingly, this study provides a QFD-based design for a fireproofing spray robot intended to address broader field requirements than previous systems developed for specific operating conditions.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101889

Authors: Yan Feng Shuai Li Liang Gong Jingquan Wang

The construction of highway suspension bridges has entered a new era, with the main span now exceeding 2300 m. However, the vertical stiffness design of such super-long-span structures remains a critical challenge, particularly regarding the selection of appropriate stiffness indices and the determination of their permissible limits. This study establishes an evaluation framework that integrates vehicle-bridge interaction (VBI) analysis to account for safety and comfort requirements with a systematic method for evaluating key stiffness indicators. Applying this framework to the 2300-m Zhangjinggao Bridge, the results demonstrate that local dynamic comfort at the girder ends governs the structural design. The results show that deflection, curvature, and girder-end rotation are strongly correlated, with Spearman correlation coefficients exceeding 0.92 within the investigated range. Among them, the maximum girder-end rotation is identified as the governing serviceability indicator. By combining the comfort threshold of 0.315 m/s2 with the vehicle-bridge interaction results, a permissible girder-end rotation limit of 0.025 rad is proposed.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101888

Authors: Marek Dohojda Mateusz Grzęda Olga Szlachetka

In traditional masonry construction, roof trusses are anchored to walls using conventional anchors embedded directly into the reinforced concrete ring beam. However, in lightweight structures, installing a ring beam may impose an additional load on the wall, which may not necessarily improve its bearing capacity. The use of lightweight concrete, due to its specific properties, represents a significant advancement in modern construction, but requires special consideration in the design of anchoring systems. Based on the anchoring solution proposed by the author, steel, galvanized, screw-type anchors installed directly into lightweight perlite concrete blocks were assumed. Experimental tests and analyses of these anchors provide a basis for the development of design approaches for lightweight structures. The results demonstrate the feasibility of using bonded anchors in perlite concrete and indicate their potential applicability in practical engineering design.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101887

Authors: Sihan Chen Zheyuan Chen Yao Chen

Passive solar shading is an effective strategy for reducing building energy demand, but its performance varies with climate, façade orientation, and thermal inertia. This study develops a sequentially coupled framework that links geometric shading calculation, anisotropic window heat gain prediction, and indoor thermal balance analysis across low- and high-latitude scenarios. For the low-latitude case, the model identifies a stable engineering overhang depth of about 1.85 m under the reference design space and weather inputs, while preserving winter solar admission. When compared with an unshaded baseline case with the same envelope, glazing, weather file, and internal gain assumptions, the optimized dynamic shading configuration reduces annual cooling load by more than 42% in the Guangzhou case study. For the high-latitude case, coupling shading with thermal mass parameters improves annual energy performance, and the best tested configuration achieves an energy-saving efficiency of 37.83% with an annual heating load of 96.14 MWh in the Stockholm scenario. The uncertainty and sensitivity analysis reports deterministic quantitative ranges and representative cases: the low-latitude recommended depth remains within the 1.85–1.864 m engineering neighborhood, while the Stockholm sensitivity sweeps show heating-load reductions of approximately 32.2–34.1% and indoor temperature variation reductions of up to 60.5–78.3% across the tested thermal mass parameter ranges. The discussion also clarifies the influence pathways of literature-sourced PCM and thermal property parameters, especially latent heat, thermal conductivity, and effective heat capacity. The quantitative validation boundary analysis distinguishes internal verification, controlled baseline benchmarking, and the external EnergyPlus/IDA ICE or measurement comparison still required for calibrated prediction. The results support the framework as a model-development tool for comparing passive design strategies under clearly defined assumptions, validation boundaries, practical engineering limits, and deterministic sensitivity ranges.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101884

Authors: Lingli Zhang Shengshi Dou Ruirui Wang

Water and mud inrush represent some of the most catastrophic geological hazards encountered in tunnel engineering. Underground Magnetic Resonance Sounding (UMRS) holds significant potential for prospecting hydrogeological parameters within adverse geological bodies. The implementation of the method is limited, however, by the challenge of undesired frequency offsets between the assumed and true Larmor frequencies and poor signal-to-noise ratios in the tunnel environment. For the adaptation of UMRS to the tunnel environments, accurate modeling considering the off-resonance effects and magnitude enhancement of received signals is required. The traditional UMRS application assumes that on-resonance excitation is valid for any circumstance. Neglecting the effects of undesired frequency offsets produces a significant influence on amplitudes and phases of UMRS signals, as demonstrated by our models. Moving beyond the on-resonance excitation condition, we focus on a primary study of a novel multi-off-resonance excitation method using a broadband pulse, in which the off-resonance effects are exploited for improving signal magnitudes of UMRS. To implement the method we proposed, a new excitation pulse with several spectral peaks in a finite bandwidth is presented. Each spectral peak of the excitation spectrum contributes to the response voltage according to its spectral amplitude and offsets to Larmor frequency. The spectrum of the new excitation pulse can be modulated according to demands. The feasibility of the excitation pulse and method are supported by synthetic experiments using three different pulse parameters. Significant magnitude enhancement in the sounding curves is presented in the occurrence of undesired frequency offsets with different magnitudes. Furthermore, the method we proposed provides signal enhancement for the deeper water occurrence in the presence of an undesired frequency offset. We note that the present study is a theoretical and numerical proof-of-concept investigation. Experimental validation, including laboratory-scale physical model tests and field tunnel measurements, is planned as future work once suitable transmitter instrumentation becomes available.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101886

Authors: Yixin Chen Wanying Yang Tao Li Xiuyun Chen Bo Yuan

This study addresses the critical challenge of low reactivity and environmental leaching associated with high-volume phosphogypsum by implementing an ettringite seed induction strategy to optimize foam concrete performance. These issues may lead to insufficient mechanical reliability, weak structural integrity, and environmental safety concerns in engineering applications. The results demonstrate that an optimal 2% seed dosage increases the 28-day compressive strength to 4.7 MPa, which represents a 150% improvement over the control while maintaining mass loss below 3.0% after 15 wet–dry cycles. Microstructural analysis reveals that the seeds serve as heterogeneous nucleation sites that help mitigate the inhibitory effects of phosphogypsum impurities to facilitate the growth of a dense 3D interlocking ettringite framework within the pore walls. This densification significantly reinforces the mechanical skeleton and reduces phosphorus leaching by 64.2%. However, excessive seed dosages at or above 5% may promote local AFt accumulation and rheological slurry-bubble mismatch which could contribute to microstructural defects and strength regression. The findings are expected to provide a scientific basis for the engineering application of high-volume phosphogypsum in foam concrete, particularly as lightweight fillers and non-load-bearing construction materials for sustainable construction.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101885

Authors: Aocong Zhang Hongsheng Qiu Shenghui Shan Bin Zhu

Top-heavy industrial towers, which carry large, concentrated masses of equipment at upper levels and feature open lower stories, are vertically irregular by design and tend to amplify seismic displacement and acceleration demands near the tower top. Although tuned mass dampers (TMDs) have been studied extensively for buildings, bridges and chimneys, their application to this particular class of slender industrial towers—where production-equipment vibration tolerance, retrofit accessibility and limited downtime drive the design—has received little dedicated attention. This paper reports a focused numerical investigation of seismic response mitigation for a 101.2 m molten-asphalt granulation tower retrofitted with a single pendulum-type TMD. A three-dimensional coupled finite element (FE) model was constructed in ABAQUS using C3D8R solid elements for the reinforced-concrete shaft and T3D2 truss elements for the embedded reinforcement; modal analysis returned a fundamental frequency of 0.912 Hz and a torsional-to-translational period ratio of 0.65, indicating a translational-mode-dominated response. Elastic time-history analyses under the El Centro and Taft records together with a code-spectrum-compatible synthetic accelerogram show that a pendulum TMD with mass ratio μ = 2.5%, tuning frequency offset Δf = 5% and damping ratio ξ = 10%—installed at the uppermost equipment level guided by the modal-displacement criterion—reduces the peak top displacement, peak top acceleration and peak base shear by roughly 23%, 23% and 22%, respectively, in both principal directions. The controlled top acceleration falls comfortably below the 2.94 m/s2 operational tolerance of the on-tower melting equipment. To address the rationality of the chosen TMD parameters, a single-variable parametric sensitivity study spanning μ ∈ [1%, 5%], ξ ∈ [5%, 15%] and Δf ∈ [0%, 10%] is performed on an equivalent reduced model that captures the qualitative parameter-response trends; the chosen baseline values lie inside a stable performance plateau and are shown to be a balanced compromise among the three response measures. The principal contribution of the work is, therefore, (i) a complete TMD retrofit framework—modal-based placement, parameter design, coupled FE assembly and multi-record verification—adapted to top-heavy industrial towers, and (ii) qualitative evidence, supported by a sensitivity scan, with a robust proposed parameter set for small-to-moderate detuning. The study is restricted to elastic time-history analyses under frequent-earthquake-level excitation, three ground-motion records and a fixed-base assumption; nonlinear response, larger record sets and soil–structure interaction effects are explicitly identified as scope limitations and are left for follow-up work.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101883

Authors: Qiuya Wang Yichen Wang Qinxi Dong Kunpeng Zhao Zengwu Liu Yongfang Zhou Yingke Liu Ruixue Chen

Aiming at the problems of main cable geometry calculation and control accuracy in construction for long-span asymmetric suspension bridges, this paper proposes a practical method for main cable geometry calculation of asymmetric suspension bridges based on the Rushankou Bridge. Firstly, a hanger–pylon–girder model was established to obtain the constraint force at the hanger top. Then, with the mid-span sag of the main cable set as the control target, the coordinates and unstressed length of the main cable in the completed bridge state were obtained based on the pylon–cable model. Finally, the final main cable geometry and unstressed length were obtained based on the main cable–hanger–pylon–girder model. The reliability of the method in this paper was validated by engineering monitoring data. Using the simulation model, the influence laws and degrees of parameters including temperature, main cable elastic modulus, main cable weight, hanger force and main girder weight on the main cable geometry were investigated. It is indicated that the method in this paper is capable of accurately calculating the main cable shape of asymmetric suspension bridges. After the installation of cable clamps and hangers, the theoretical and measured deformations of the main cable are in good agreement. The theoretical and measured values at the mid-span L/2 of the main span are −233.9 cm and −234.7 cm, respectively, with a deviation of 8 mm. The largest discrepancy between the calculated and actual deformations of the main cable is located at 7L/8 of the main span, which is merely 2.2 cm. The deformation of the main cable is greatly affected by temperature changes; each 1 °C temperature variation leads to a mid-span deformation of about 2.4 cm in the main cable. If the influence of temperature variation on main cable geometry is ignored during construction, it will cause errors in the main cable elevation after installation. The effect of the main cable elastic modulus on its deformation cannot be neglected, and a 10% variation in the main cable elastic modulus leads to a 58 cm change in the main cable geometry.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101882

Authors: Zoran Pučko Gal Rednak Matjaž Denac Nataša Šuman

The increasing demand for efficient and sustainable building design has led to the development of nD BIM, which integrates multiple dimensions such as time (4D), cost (5D), and environmental performance (6D and beyond). However, existing approaches often lack an integrated decision-making framework that supports the simultaneous evaluation of these criteria, particularly in the early design phase of building envelope systems. This study proposes a unified nD BIM-based decision-making framework for building assemblies, using authoring tools, namely the BIM approach and LCA methodology. The proposed framework is applied in an empirical case study, where several design variants of a multi-residential building are developed and analyzed through 4D and 5D BIM models to assess construction time and costs, while environmental impacts are evaluated using selected key indicators, e.g., Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), and the consumption of non-renewable primary energy (PENRT). The outcomes of these analyses are integrated into a multi-criteria decision-making model based on a weighting system. The results demonstrate that an nD BIM-based unified weighted decision model enhances decision-making by enabling transparent comparison of design alternatives and identification of trade-offs, thereby supporting more efficient and sustainable building envelope design while improving decision quality and reducing uncertainty for designers, engineers, and project investors.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101881

Authors: Guanxu Long Mengqi Guo Xiaoteng Zhou Mengfei Liu Ziyi Lyu Yue Zhao

To clarify the carbon emission characteristics of steel–concrete bridges and address the gap in carbon emission accounting standards within the bridge sector, this study focuses on carbon emissions during the materialization phase of bridge engineering. Employing inventory analysis and emission factor methods, combined with the specific carbon emission patterns of this phase, a carbon emission accounting model was developed, a carbon emission factor database was established, and carbon emissions were calculated for a prestressed steel–concrete bridge on a highway in Shandong Province. The calculation results indicate that the carbon emissions during the materialization phase of prestressed reinforced concrete bridges amount to 3,092,237.79 kg CO2e. Of this total, 77.74% of carbon emissions are concentrated in the building materials production stage, with emissions from building materials in the superstructure and lower structure accounting for 81.25% of the emissions across materials production stages. Material transportation and on-site construction account for 9.87% and 12.39%, respectively. Among these, high-carbon equipment constitutes less than 10% of the total quantity but contributes over 70% of emissions. Due to the coal-dependent energy structure in North China, the total carbon emissions are 31.90% higher than the national average. The multi-factor sensitivity analysis shows that the aggregate transportation distance becomes the most sensitive parameter, which changes the traditional cognitive paradigm of “material quantity dominance”. Some emission reduction measures are provided for the sources of key carbon emissions in the materialization stage of bridges.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101880

Authors: Jakub Gorzka Izabela Maria Burda Lucyna Nyka

Climate-driven intensification of pluvial and fluvial flooding increasingly challenges lowland cities in Central Europe, while conventional protection and land-use controls offer limited flexibility under growing hydrological variability. A planning-oriented framework is developed and tested to integrate hydro-adaptive housing into climate-resilient urban development using three typologies: elevated foundations, amphibious dwellings and modular floating platforms. The framework links hazard profiles and site-enabling conditions to typology selection and considers supporting blue–green measures within the broader adaptation context. It is applied to three flood-prone settings in northern Poland representing a coastal delta, a river confluence and a lower-river terrace. The methodology combines GIS-based hazard mapping; one-dimensional unsteady-flow HEC-RAS simulations for 50-, 100- and 500-year design events; and parametric structural modelling in Rhino–Grasshopper. Performance is assessed using maximum inundation depth, surface-water retention time, and a probabilistic building damage index. Amphibious dwellings reduce modelled 100-year flood damage by 62% relative to slab-on-grade construction, while modular floating platforms maintain habitability under water-level rises exceeding 5.0 m. In addition, bioretention and blue–green corridors reduce retention time by 18–31%. The results provide a planning-oriented decision logic for expanding adaptive housing options in flood-prone lowland settings under increasing hydrological variability.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101879

Authors: Xingwang Liu Fan Liu Hongwei Li Chenxu Li Yang Liu Xiangji Yan Xiang Hou

Inter-module connections are the critical load-transfer components in modular steel buildings (MSBs), whose mechanical behavior directly governs the overall safety and seismic performance of the entire structural system. To address the unresolved issue that the influence of complex loading conditions, especially the coupling effect of biaxial bending, on the load-transfer mechanism and degradation law of bayonet-type self-locking and unlockable connections remains poorly understood, two groups of full-scale quasi-static tests were conducted in this study. Specimen S1 (0°) was designed for the in-plane compression–bending–shear loading condition, while Specimen S2 (45°) was designed for the spatial compression–biaxial bending–shear loading condition. The test results demonstrate that both groups of specimens exhibit typical three-stage mechanical characteristics. The average initial stiffness of Specimen S1 (0°) is 5.47 kN/mm, while that of Specimen S2 (45°) is 6.08 kN/mm. The average ultimate load of S1 (0°) reaches 162.8 kN, and that of S2 (45°) is 164.85 kN. The average ductility coefficient of S1 (0°) and S2 (45°) is 2.79 and 2.14, respectively. Comparative analysis indicates that Specimen S1 (0°) presents superior energy dissipation capacity and ductility, while Specimen S2 (45°) has higher initial stiffness accompanied by faster stiffness degradation in the late loading stage. A high-fidelity refined FE model of the bayonet-type self-locking and unlockable connection was established. The FE analysis results are in good agreement with the test results, with the relative error of the positive flexural bearing capacity controlled within 5%. On this basis, parametric FE analysis was carried out to explore the influence of axial compression ratio on the mechanical performance of the connection. Furthermore, theoretical calculation formulas for the ultimate flexural bearing capacity of the connection under in-plane compression–bending–shear loading and spatial compression–biaxial bending–shear loading were proposed respectively. The calculated results are compared with the test data, with all relative errors within 10%, which verifies that the proposed formulas have favorable prediction accuracy for the ultimate flexural bearing capacity of the connection under both aforementioned complex loading conditions.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101878

Authors: Xiaojian Zhang Qi Ma Jiao Feng Guoshuai Sun Tan Tian

As the construction industry faces increasing complexity and uncertainty, multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods have been widely adopted in construction and project management. However, their application in the specific context of livelihood-related building projects during public health emergencies remains insufficiently explored. Existing MCDM approaches lack an integrated framework that combines qualitative factor identification with quantitative evaluation under emergency conditions. To address this gap, this study proposes an extended hybrid decision-making system based on multi-criteria decision-making theory, integrating grounded theory, the Fuzzy DEMATEL method, the CRITIC method, and the PFHWD-TOPSIS evaluation approach. Taking a hospital project in China during the COVID-19 pandemic as a case study, an evaluation indicator system tailored to livelihood-related building construction under public health emergencies is developed and a systematic analysis of the key influencing factors and scheme rankings is conducted. The results show that, besides traditional evaluation criteria, factors such as epidemic prevention and safety management play a critical role in construction decision-making under emergency conditions. Furthermore, the proposed hybrid MCDM framework significantly enhances the scientific rigor and robustness of scheme prioritization. This study not only provides theoretical support and practical guidance for livelihood-related building construction during public health emergencies but also offers valuable insights for optimizing decision-making in similar high-uncertainty contexts.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101877

Authors: Yu Wang Xinyi Zhao Guohao Sun Qingwen Li Lan Qiao Jing Liu

Energy efficiency retrofits are widely promoted for public buildings, yet evidence from large-scale real-world projects remains limited compared with simulation-based assessments. This study leverages measured pre- and post-retrofit operational data from 530 public building retrofit projects across 11 provinces/municipalities in China to quantify realized energy-saving performance and screening-level cost-effectiveness across building types and climate zones. Wilcoxon and Kruskal–Wallis tests were employed to ensure statistical rigor. Retrofit measures were grouped into seven categories (e.g., HVAC, lighting, envelope, monitoring/management), and a median-based four-quadrant framework was employed to characterize investment–savings profiles by climate zone and building function. Across the full sample, mean energy use intensity decreased by 19.1%, with 99.2% of projects achieving positive savings. Savings varied markedly by building type: commercial and hotels achieved the highest savings intensities (26.5–28.0 kWh/(m2·a)), while education and cultural buildings generally showed lower gains, with some projects having < 10 kWh/(m2·a). Technology performance exhibited distinct climate and building suitability. Envelope retrofits were most effective in the Cold and Hot Summer–Cold Winter zones (13.30–22.06 kWh/(m2·a)) but yielded limited benefits in the Hot Summer–Warm Winter zone (~1.73 kWh/(m2·a)). HVAC and lighting upgrades delivered comparatively stable savings across climates and building types and dominated retrofit portfolios. Based on these findings, we propose a tiered strategy: prioritizing HVAC and envelope upgrades for high-load sectors while focusing on low-cost optimizations for educational facilities to mitigate investment risks. The findings provide large-scale empirical evidence to support climate- and building-specific retrofit prioritization and investment decision-making under real-world operating conditions.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101876

Authors: Evangelos Efthymiou Charalampos Gkountas

Indisputably, the evolution of innovative manufacturing methods such as additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing in the last decade has started gradually to influence the construction field, offering significant benefit potential, particularly in the field of metallic materials. In the case of aluminium alloys, the implementation of the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) method, an AM sub-type, has recently emerged as a promising alternative to conventional rolling and extrusion, enabling unprecedented geometric flexibility, lower energy demand, and reduced tooling costs. However, the selection of an appropriate feedstock alloy poses a major challenge, as inherent trade-offs between strength, ductility, and printing-induced anisotropy arise. In this context, this study presents a thorough multi-scale numerical investigation, spanning from the cross-sectional to the global structural scale. The structural performance of several two-story moment-resisting frames was evaluated, comparing frames featuring WAAM-fabricated columns against conventional extruded and rolled benchmarks. The assessment included three 3D-printed alloys (Al-Mg, Al-Cu, Al-Mg-Si), differing in ductility levels, featuring topology-optimized and internal lattice-reinforced cross-sectional geometries. Linear elastic analyses reveal that global lateral stiffness heavily governs the response of slender frames, where WAAM was able to efficiently decrease the corresponding inter-story drifts by maximizing cross-sectional inertia without necessitating the utilization of larger external member dimensions. Furthermore, nonlinear static (pushover) analyses provided valuable insight into critical design considerations, exposing a profound strength-ductility trade-off in printed aluminium alloy load-bearing members.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101875

Authors: Azharul Karim Mahmudul Hasan Shahida Begum Sabrina Fawzia

The reduction in energy demand in buildings through the adaptation of energy-efficient strategies is attracting significant attention from the research community. In this context green building concepts can contribute towards achieving national sustainable development goals (SDGs) and NetZero targets. Given the substantial energy demand associated with heating and cooling in commercial and residential buildings, enhancing energy efficiency has become essential for achieving sustainable development, particularly amid ongoing global energy challenges. The Envelope Thermal Transfer Value (ETTV) model has been established as a simplified method of calculating building loads; however, its integration with green building elements remains limited, particularly in subtropical climates. Furthermore, the combined effects of living walls, green façades, and green roofs on building energy performance have not been comprehensively investigated. In this study, an extensive experimental investigation was conducted using prototype buildings under controlled conditions to evaluate the thermal performance of green elements. Modified ETTV formulations incorporating green envelope systems have been developed, and the thermodynamic effects of these green elements on the building energy performance have been analysed. The results demonstrate that integrating green elements significantly reduces thermal heat gain and cooling energy demand. Specifically, a combination of a living wall on a west facing wall and a green roof could reduce the thermal heat gain by up to 30%.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101874

Authors: Huafei Huang Zhengnan Zhong Yanying Lin Cuihong Wang Junwei He Guohui Luo

Urban plazas in hot-humid climates face severe heat exposure risks due to high sky view factors and limited shading, yet conventional thermal mitigation strategies predominantly rely on plaza-wide performance metrics that misalign with actual pedestrian exposure patterns. This study proposes a pedestrian-oriented microclimate optimization framework that integrates agent-based pedestrian movement simulation (PedSim) with coupled CFD microclimate modeling to enhance outdoor thermal comfort precisely where people walk and congregate. A representative urban plaza (32,300 m2) in a hot-humid climate was analyzed under extreme summer design conditions. Three scenarios were systematically compared: (1) baseline configuration, (2) plaza-wide greening optimization (uniform distribution), and (3) pedestrian-oriented optimization guided by exposure-weighted movement hotspots. Microclimatic variables were simulated using urbanMicroclimateFoam (OpenFOAM), incorporating coupled airflow, heat/moisture transport, radiation, and vegetation modules. Thermal comfort was quantified using Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) and the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) at both plaza-wide and pedestrian hotspot scales. Winter simulations were further conducted to assess seasonal trade-offs. Results demonstrate that under identical green coverage ratio (6.6%), the pedestrian-oriented strategy achieves substantially greater thermal comfort improvements in high-use areas. Compared to the baseline, hotspot MRT and UTCI were reduced by up to 5.0 °C and 3.0 °C, respectively, whereas the plaza-wide scheme yielded only marginal improvements (ΔUTCI < 1 °C). Notably, the pedestrian-oriented layout outperformed plaza-wide optimization within hotspots by 0.8 °C UTCI reduction without compromising winter thermal comfort, maintaining 100% thermally comfortable area ratios in both scenarios. This research reveals that the spatial configuration of vegetation is equally critical as coverage quantity for pedestrian thermal exposure. By explicitly linking tree placement to movement patterns, the proposed framework offers a human-centered, resource-efficient pathway for climate-responsive urban design, providing actionable insights for mitigating heat stress in densely populated open spaces without increasing green infrastructure costs.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101873

Authors: Xiaohan Yu Shifen Li Jingqiu Li Yuan Kuang

As a key convergence zone between the Circum-Bohai Sea cultural circle and the land–sea interface of Northeast Asia, the Liaoning coastal area has been shaped by multicultural integration, endowing its dwellings with distinctive cultural hybridity and geographic adaptability. This study takes 160 traditional dwellings as samples and integrates field surveys, historical documents, and multi-source geographic data to construct a multi-dimensional feature identification system. Quantitative classification is conducted using principal component analysis and systematic clustering, and external validity is verified through historical document comparison and spatial overlay analysis. The results indicate that five dwelling pedigrees are identified: the Coastal Quadrangle Courtyard Type, the Coastal Flat-Roofed Middle Courtyard Type, the Coastal Gabled-Roof Small Courtyard Type, the Mountainous Gabled-Roof Small Courtyard Type, and the Plain Flat-Roofed Long Courtyard Type. Regarding the formation mechanism, geographic detectors reveal that the coupling effect of migration culture and topographical conditions is the dominant mechanism shaping pedigree differentiation. This study verifies the applicability of integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in dwelling research within multicultural convergence zones, constructs a pedigree framework for traditional dwellings in coastal Liaoning, and provides a theoretical basis for the systematic understanding and sustainable conservation of vernacular architectural heritage in the Circum-Bohai Sea region.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101872

Authors: Weicheng Zhang Yuan Wang Caiji Jiang Jing Guo Fan Yang Ziyi Zhou Xinyu Tian Tao Yang

Giant cantilevered tree-shaped steel structures are highly susceptible to cumulative deformation and geometric deviation during staged construction due to their complex spatial configuration, long cantilever characteristics, and nonlinear load transfer mechanisms. To address these challenges, this study investigates deformation monitoring and control of such structures based on 3D laser scanning, taking the “Tree of Life” project as a representative case. A high-precision full-field monitoring system is established to acquire multi-stage point cloud data throughout the construction process. The collected data are registered with the BIM model to quantify spatial deviations and track the deformation evolution of key structural components. Meanwhile, a staged preloading–unloading strategy is implemented to simulate operational loads, reconstruct load transfer paths, and regulate structural deformation during construction. Based on continuous field measurements, the deformation characteristics of different structural regions, including ring beams, rotating platforms, and trunk–branch systems, are systematically analyzed. The results indicate that the structure exhibits a pronounced global torsional deformation pattern. The displacement of ring beams ranges from 40.35 mm to 80.15 mm, while the maximum local displacement reaches 131.37 mm in geometrically complex regions, primarily attributed to the coupling effects of complex geometry, long cantilever action, stiffness discontinuity, and load concentration. Furthermore, deformation exhibits a progressive and stage-dependent accumulation pattern under sequential loading–unloading processes. The proposed monitoring and control approach achieves millimeter-level accuracy and enables effective feedback for construction adjustment and deviation mitigation. The integration of 3D laser scanning with staged load regulation provides a reliable technical framework for deformation monitoring and control of complex cantilevered steel structures. While the findings are based on a single complex project, further validation on additional cases is required to fully establish the general applicability of the proposed framework, although its integration of 3D monitoring, BIM registration, and staged load regulation suggests potential transferability to other large-scale cantilevered steel structures with similar geometric complexity.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101870

Authors: Xiao Li Ruirui Qian Tengfang Dong Chengquan Wang Xinquan Wang Yuxuan Ding Kaijun He

To investigate the mechanical performance of prefabricated cable ducts under soil cover and vehicle wheel loads, refined numerical analysis models were established using ABAQUS finite element software (ABAQUS 6.14-4)for three different structural configurations: four-piece type, inverted four-piece type, and layered type. This study is purely based on finite element numerical simulations without experimental validation. By varying the soil cover thickness (0.5 m, 1.0 m, 2.0 m) and the position of the wheel load (offset distance of 0–1.5 m), the displacement distribution, stress development patterns, and damage characteristics of vulnerable parts for the three duct types were systematically analyzed. The results indicate that under soil cover loads, none of the three duct types experienced damage, and the mid-span displacement and tensile stress of the top slab exhibited an approximately linear growth relationship with the soil cover thickness. The layered duct demonstrated the best overall integrity, with a maximum tensile stress of only 0.098 MPa at a soil cover thickness of 2.0 m, which is approximately 5.8% of that of the four-piece duct. Under wheel loads, the four-piece duct experienced damage under an unoffset 105 kN wheel load, with a maximum steel reinforcement stress of 419.6 MPa, exceeding the yield strength. Due to its double-layer reinforcement in the top slab, the inverted four-piece duct exhibited a failure load increased to over 140 kN, with a maximum steel reinforcement stress of only 103.1 MPa, showing significantly improved ductility. Within the analyzed load cases, no stress indicator exceeded the adopted material thresholds, with a maximum tensile stress of only 0.15 MPa, demonstrating the optimal comprehensive performance. The offset of the wheel load significantly reduced the tensile stress in the top slab; when the offset distance increased from 0 to 1.5 m, the reduction in tensile stress of the four-piece duct top slab exceeded 80%. However, it increased the unevenness of stress distribution on both sides of the duct and altered the stress mode of the side walls. All the above findings are obtained from numerical simulations and can provide a theoretical reference for engineering design. The research findings can provide a theoretical basis for the engineering design and optimization of prefabricated cable ducts.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101871

Authors: Wafaa Anwar Sulaiman Goriel Tamás Molnár Erzsébet Szeréna Zoltán

The present study aims to explore the relationship between theory and practice by evaluating the feasibility of quantification and evaluation for assessing the spatial performance and circulation logic in historic domestic architecture to inform adaptive reuse strategies. The study examines several courtyard houses in a representative residential area within Erbil Citadel in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, an area of immense cultural, architectural, and historical value. The selection of the sample is based on the chronological, typological, and spatial diversity of residential architecture in Erbil Citadel. The study uses an integrated methodological approach to investigate the spatial configuration of each sample building. To ensure increased analytical rigor and to compare its findings with similar studies in different contexts, the results are further validated using Euclidean distance and Pearson correlation to assess the compatibility of existing characteristics with proposed adaptive reuse strategies across different contexts. The results show that quantitative spatial analysis can be an effective tool in identifying the potential of existing residential architecture in terms of its spatial configuration while preserving its cultural value. The study concludes that its proposed approach can serve as an effective model for adaptive reuse planning in similar contexts.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101869

Authors: Martin Sedlačík David Markusík Vladislav Cába Vlastimil Bílek Jiří Smilek Lukáš Kalina

Increasing the durability and extending the lifespan of existing concrete structures are critical challenges in modern infrastructure maintenance. Lithium silicates have emerged as effective concrete densifiers due to their ability to improve surface hardness and resistance to degradation. However, their practical application is often hindered by difficulties in controlling the gelation process, which is crucial for their performance. This study explored the potential of alkali nitrates as gelation agents for lithium silicate systems. Multifaceted investigation of the gelation and ripening processes was conducted to provide deeper insights into the underlying mechanisms. Selected lithium silicate systems were then used to treat cementitious samples to evaluate their performance as concrete densifiers. Prepared silicate systems proved to be structurally stable and able to significantly reduce water penetration, especially in the early stages of water immersion.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101868

Authors: Jingting Meng Jie Chen Ziqi Zhang Shaoyu Chen

To address the challenge of efficiently and cost-effectively generating images of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) furniture that can adapt to diverse modern spatial contexts for visual communication, this paper proposes and constructs an Generative Artificial Intelligence (AIGC) virtual studio system based on ComfyUI. The system is designed for ICH furniture designers, cultural communicators, and digital preservation practitioners, aiming to overcome the bottlenecks of scene switching encountered in traditional photography and 3D modeling. First, furniture images and user scene descriptions are collected, and a dual lexicon consisting of AI prompts and user prompts is constructed. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is then applied to weight and filter prompt combinations, forming a quantifiable and integrated prompt system. Second, a visual workflow incorporating ControlNet and IPAdapter nodes is built in ComfyUI to enable the transfer of ICH furniture images to various preset spatial scenes. Finally, a Likert-scale comparison is conducted between the experimental group (using AHP-weighted prompts) and the control group (using unweighted prompts). The results show that the experimental group achieves significant improvements in image realism, style consistency, and cultural communication effectiveness. The images generated by this system can be directly used for digital display, e-commerce product pages, design proposals, and cultural archives of ICH furniture. The method is applicable to the context-aware AIGC generation of traditional furniture and home products, provided that a certain amount of image data and a ComfyUI environment are available. This study provides a reusable technical pathway for the modern visual presentation of ICH furniture and offers methodological support and empirical evidence for the integration of AIGC into environmental design.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101867

Authors: Taofeeq D. Moshood James O. B. Rotimi Wajiha Shahzad

The New Zealand construction industry, while central to national infrastructure and economic development, continues to grapple with persistent performance challenges rooted in weak strategic governance and fragmented decision-making processes. This study examines the relationship between strategic decision-making and organisational performance within the New Zealand construction sector, addressing a gap that construction management scholarship has largely left unattended. The study draws on survey data from construction professionals across diverse organisational sizes, project types, and regions in New Zealand, employing Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) as its analytical approach. The analysis identifies four significant predictors of construction business performance: strategic decision formulation, strategic decision implementation practices, strategic decision evaluation, and financial strength. Workforce capabilities, by contrast, did not demonstrate a statistically significant relationship with performance outcomes. This nuanced finding challenges prevailing assumptions about the primacy of human capital in construction performance models. The structural model achieved strong explanatory power, confirming the robustness of the proposed framework. These findings offer theoretically coherent, empirically supported insights into strategic performance determinants among mid-sized construction organisations in New Zealand. The voluntary sampling design and modest sample size of 102 respondents define the inferential boundaries of these conclusions.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101866

Authors: Jiachen Shen Jun Miao Benlong Chen Jinting Wang Jianwen Pan

Gate hoist structures are safety-critical appurtenant systems in hydropower projects, yet their seismic behavior has received far less attention than that of dam bodies. This study investigates the seismic performance of a gate hoist structure in a roller-compacted concrete gravity dam using a three-dimensional finite element model of the foundation–dam–gate hoist structure system. Linear-elastic time-history analyses are performed for both unreinforced and brace-reinforced configurations under the design earthquake. Seismic performance is evaluated using principal stress, the point safety factor, the section safety factor, and demand-to-capacity ratio (DCR). The results show that tensile stress is concentrated mainly at beam–column joints in the unreinforced structure, where the maximum principal stress exceeds the concrete tensile strength and local cracking may occur. Brace reinforcement reduces the peak tensile stress and improves the safety level at critical locations, while vulnerable regions may shift to the beam–brace joints rather than being completely eliminated. These findings indicate that the seismic safety of gate hoist structures is better assessed within an integrated dam–structure system, while multi-index evaluation provides a more comprehensive basis for identifying vulnerable regions and assessing reinforcement effectiveness.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101865

Authors: Bixiong Li Chengcheng Yan Lianghui Li Wenfeng Liu Yanke Zhang Sumin Guan

This study aims to explore the feasibility of utilizing high-titanium slag sand (HTSS) as a sustainable alternative to quartz sand in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC). The results indicated that incorporating HTSS accelerated cement hydration, enhancing 7-d and 28-d compressive strengths by up to 42.1% and 33.1%, respectively. Notably, at a 100% replacement ratio, the mixture exhibits distinct strain-hardening behavior with uniaxial tensile strength exceeding 6 MPa. Concurrently, autogenous shrinkage is reduced by 32% at 5 h and 68% at 7 d, while CO2 emissions and energy consumption are lowered by 53 kg/m3 and 826 kJ/m3, respectively. Despite its rough and porous morphology, HTSS only marginally affects rheological properties. These findings provide theoretical insights into the development of low-carbon, low-shrinkage UHPC through the strategic valorization of industrial solid waste.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101857

Authors: Sulan Li Wei Liu Shibin Lin Heyao Chen

To address the challenges of accelerated deterioration of concrete bridges caused by overloaded vehicles, this paper proposes a multi-stage heterogeneous visual framework for overloaded vehicle identification. First, a block-wise foreground–background separation method based on two-dimensional correlation coefficients is introduced and integrated with an improved Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) to achieve dynamic background modeling and robust foreground extraction from images. Next, the Fuzzy C-Means (FCM) clustering algorithm is employed to automatically localize vehicle regions. Subsequently, Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) features of vehicle candidate regions, reduced by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), are extracted and combined with a Support Vector Machine (SVM) to eliminate non-vehicle objects. Finally, an enhanced YOLOv8 model is constructed for axle-count-based overloaded vehicle detection, in which Inception modules are embedded into the CSP Darknet backbone to capture multi-scale deep hierarchical features. Meanwhile, Canny edge detection and affine transformation are fused to optimize axle-counting recognition, and overloaded vehicles are classified in accordance with the Chinese national standard GB1589-2016. Experimental results on real-world concrete bridge surveillance scenarios show that the proposed method can significantly suppress noise in vehicle foreground extraction. After SVM post-processing, the vehicle purification accuracy reaches 98.75%, with a precision of 100% for the non-vehicle category. Compared with the vanilla YOLOv8, the proposed multi-stage heterogeneous visual framework improves the precision, recall, and mAP@50 by 8%, 12.5%, and 7.2%, respectively, for heavy-duty vehicle axle recognition. The axle-feature-based heavy vehicle recognition method achieves an overall identification accuracy of 92%.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101864

Authors: Huan Liu Zulkifl Ahmed Shuhong Wang Alipujiang Jierula Qinkuan Hou Meaza Girma Demisa Mohamad Shahsad Khoram Chen Ding Muhammad Ishaq

Recent advances in deep learning and artificial intelligence (AI) have significantly transformed the analysis of rock slopes and geotechnical structures. Rock slope stability is governed by complex interactions among rock mass discontinuity networks, mechanical properties, environmental loading conditions, and stress redistribution. Traditional analytical and numerical methods, including discrete element methods, finite element simulations, and limit equilibrium approaches, provide valuable insights; however, they often have limitations in capturing complex failure mechanisms and handling heterogeneous datasets. This review systematically synthesizes recent developments in AI-driven approaches for rock slope engineering, with particular emphasis on their integration with physical and numerical modeling frameworks and their role in improving the performance assessment of geotechnical systems. Key applications include machine learning-based slope stability prediction, automated discontinuity detection, surrogate modeling for numerical simulations, and spatiotemporal forecasting of slope deformation using monitoring data. The review further discusses emerging approaches such as physics-informed machine learning, digital twin systems, and hybrid AI–numerical frameworks, which combine data-driven learning with established rock mechanics principles. In addition, the potential of AI technologies to support sustainable rock slope management is evaluated, including early warning systems, optimal stabilization design, and resilient infrastructure monitoring. Finally, major challenges related to data quality, model interpretability, uncertainty, and integration with physical models are identified. The review suggests that future research should focus on integrating AI with physics-based modeling and uncertainty quantification, supported by rigorous validation strategies and high-quality datasets, to improve reliability and practical applicability in rock slope engineering. This paper provides a comprehensive perspective on how AI and deep learning can improve the understanding, prediction, and long-term management of rock slopes in modern geotechnical engineering practice.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101854

Authors: Wei Li Yicheng Zhu Rui He Shuang Cui Yinbo Zhang Yuxi Li Bo Tian Wenliang Guo

Clinker-free binders derived from industrial solid wastes are promising for low-carbon construction, but many binder designs still rely on reagent-grade activators. This study investigates carbide slag (CS) as a substitute for a conventional alkali activator route in a waste-derived clinker-free binder composed of fly ash, coal gasification slag, and blast furnace slag. The CS-based binder is benchmarked against unactivated, mechanically processed, and Ca(OH)2-activated reference binders. The CS-based route shows sustained strength development from 3 to 28 d and achieves 20.04 MPa compressive strength at 28 d, slightly higher than the Ca(OH)2-activated reference (18.78 MPa). Mercury intrusion porosimetry reveals clear pore refinement: the fraction of pore throats ≤ 50 nm increased to 40.96% in the CS-based binder, compared with 1.50% in the unactivated milled-CGS reference, and the median pore throat decreased to 70.01 nm. Calorimetric kinetic fitting showed that the CS-based binder had a higher fitted cumulative heat release, 58.75 J·g−1, than the Ca(OH)2-activated reference, 23.36 J·g−1, indicating a more sustained reaction process. FTIR, TG-DTG, XRD, and SEM-EDS further supported differences in gel development and Ca-bearing phase evolution. In particular, the CS-based binder showed a high-temperature mass loss above 600 °C of 14.11%, compared with 5.83% for the Ca(OH)2-activated reference, and a stronger relative calcite signal. These results show that CS substitution is not equivalent to simple Ca(OH)2 addition and provides binder-scale evidence for designing waste-derived clinker-free binders with reduced reliance on reagent-grade activation.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101863

Authors: Chao Yang Mengqiu Zhang Yiheng Wang Ping Lyu Chunfeng Chao Yu Chen Wenjun An Lei Wu Leilei Li

In near-fault regions, intense vertical seismic excitation combined with the widespread lack of tensile capacity in bridge bearings can readily induce vertical separation between piers and girders. To systematically investigate the effect of such separation-and-impact phenomena on bridge seismic performance, this study develops a finite-element model in OpenSees and conducts a fragility analysis. Bearing constraint degradation is simulated by adjusting the bearings’ horizontal mechanical parameters between connected and unconnected states. Results indicate that when the excitation period approaches the bridge’s vertical natural period, pier–girder vertical separation is readily triggered, which in turn amplifies the structure’s horizontal dynamic response and leads to substantial increases in base moment and shear in the piers. This process not only alters horizontal relative displacements between piers and girders—exacerbating the risk of bearing damage—but also affects the shear and moment capacity demands on the piers. Fragility analysis shows that vertical separation raises the probabilities of reaching severe damage and complete collapse by 22.6% and 27.5%, respectively. Parametric studies further reveal that increased bearing damping exacerbates the adverse effects of vertical separation, with response amplification under varying PGA levels rising from 19.2% to 41.3%; conversely, increased bearing stiffness reduces the critical PGA required to trigger separation, thereby increasing the overall risk of structural failure. This study clarifies the mechanism of vertical separation and collision and provides a theoretical basis for seismic design and bearing selection for beam bridges in near-fault areas.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101859

Authors: Haodong Hu Xiang Zhao Bin Cheng

As a typical representative of traditional architecture in western Sichuan, the construction techniques of traditional Tibetan dwellings carry profound cultural significance. However, with the continuous advancement of urbanization, these dwellings face multiple challenges, including the loss of traditional construction methods, functional obsolescence, and stylistic deviation. In response, the systematic study of the architectural genealogy of traditional Tibetan dwellings and their modernization has become an urgent academic issue. This study focuses on Ganzi and Aba, the two major Tibetan settlement areas in western Sichuan, conducting field surveys across 21 counties, 31 typical villages, and 161 traditional Tibetan dwellings. It systematically analyzes the building techniques of these dwellings and identifies recurrent typological features. On this basis, the paper interprets three principal regionalized constructive patterns through a genealogy-oriented analytical framework. The resulting framework provides an evidence-based foundation for conservation planning and context-sensitive contemporary translation. This research not only offers operational methods and theoretical support for the preservation of Tibetan architecture, but also proposes principles and strategies.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101862

Authors: Dianjie Zhang Qi Wu Tengsheng Li Bing Han

To further enhance the convenience, economic efficiency, and safety of damage detection for small- and medium-span bridges, this article presents a damage identification method founded on the bridge deflection at the vehicle position. This method is developed through theoretical derivations, numerical simulations, and laboratory validation using scaled samples, and it offers potential applications for bridge structures. The sum of the fourth-order coefficients of the bridge deflection at the vehicle position is employed as the damage identification index. Theoretical derivation indicates that this index can locate the damage position and quantitatively describe the damage degree without relying on undamaged bridge information. Each damaged part is independent of the others and is not influenced by undamaged parts. Through numerical simulation of the vehicle–bridge interaction system, the effectiveness of this index in identifying single or multiple bridge damage points on the beam is analyzed. The impacts of factors such as damage degrees, measurement noise, and road surface roughness on the recognition effect are also examined. Using high-precision laser displacement sensors, a dual-track synchronous model test is conducted. A “secondary difference” method is proposed to process the test data, which once again verifies the effectiveness of the method. It is pointed out that reducing the vehicle speed and increasing the vehicle weight can improve the accuracy of damage identification. The research presented in this article is founded on theoretical derivations, numerical simulations, and laboratory validation with scaled samples.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101860

Authors: Eun Jung Kim Hyemin Sim

In the context of rapid population aging, aging in place, or remaining in one’s home and community as one grows older, has become an important policy and research issue. This study examines how environmental factors related to age-friendly cities are associated with aging in place across age groups in urban regeneration areas, focusing on nine urban regeneration community facilities in Daegu, South Korea. Survey data from 563 adults with experience using these facilities were used as the primary dataset, supplemented by GIS-based neighborhood environment data. Environmental factors were categorized into three dimensions—built environment, social environment, and health and social services—and their associations with aging in place were examined using logistic regression models estimated separately for three age groups (young, middle-aged, and older adults). The results indicate that associations between environmental factors and aging in place vary across age groups. The built environment was more strongly associated with aging in place among older adults, particularly in relation to housing and transportation, whereas the social environment, including social inclusion and participation, was significant only among young adults. Within health and social services, community support and health services were consistently associated with aging in place across all age groups. In addition, descriptive findings from selected cases indicate that high levels of aging in place among older adults were observed in both transit-oriented urban settings and nature-oriented non-urban settings. Overall, the findings highlight the need for age-responsive and context-sensitive environmental strategies in urban regeneration areas.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101861

Authors: Junhua Sun Xiaohong Liu Qingyuan Li Shiliang Wang

Urban heat inequality represents a critical barrier to inclusive climate-resilient governance. While existing research has extensively mapped surface temperature patterns, the dynamic evolution of human thermal stress and the divergent regulatory efficiencies of cooling features across socio-economic contexts remain poorly understood. This study integrates multi-source datasets from 15 typical Chinese cities, employing a machine learning framework and GeoShapley interpretation to resolve the drivers of heat inequality across spatio-temporal and mechanistic dimensions. The findings demonstrate that high-density urbanization in China leads to a spatial synchronization of wealth and heat exposure, contrasting with the “Luxury Effect” observed in low-density Western contexts and indicating that high-income urban cores bear significantly higher absolute thermal stress. This inequality exhibits pronounced seasonal dynamics, where extreme summer conditions non-linearly amplify exposure gaps between socio-economic groups. Crucially, the results identify a systemic failure of cooling mechanisms in low-income communities, where the empirical thermal response of physical features deviates from expected patterns, failing to mitigate or even exacerbating perceived heat stress. These results emphasize that urban mitigation should move beyond quantitative resource expansion toward efficiency restoration, utilizing targeted spatial optimization to achieve precision climate justice.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101858

Authors: Xiaobo Li Ruifeng Xie Gai Lin Dexi Liu Zibao Jiao

Steel reinforcement corrosion induced by chloride ingress in coastal environments is the dominant factor leading to the durability degradation of concrete structures. In this study, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete beams and Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) concrete beams were used as test specimens, subjected to sustained loads to induce cracks, and exposed to accelerated reinforcement corrosion through 10 wet–dry cycles using a 3% NaCl solution. Testing methods including half-cell potential, corrosion current, and acoustic emission signals were employed to quantify the likelihood and progression of reinforcement corrosion. The results show that the half-cell potential of the loaded PPC beams remained below −350 mV, with a corrosion current density exceeding 0.5 μA/cm2, indicating a significantly higher corrosion risk than that of the OPC beams; under unloaded conditions, the half-cell potential of the PPC beams remained consistently above −200 mV, with a corrosion current density below 0.2 μA/cm2, exhibiting superior corrosion resistance. The event counts in the acoustic emission tests additionally revealed the progression of chloride ions gradually penetrating and corroding the steel reinforcement. Although PPC beams exhibit lower early-stage crack resistance under loading conditions and are prone to forming more cracks, their advantage in resisting chloride ingress becomes significant after appropriate mitigation measures are implemented to reduce early crack formation, making them remain a preferred material for reinforced concrete members in coastal environments.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101855

Authors: Mingyu Chang Haosen Qin Zhengwei Li

Pipe networks are essential components of modern building infrastructure, including heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) water systems, water distribution networks (WDNs), and district heating and cooling (DHC) systems. Leakage in these systems can lead to increased energy consumption, loss of thermal efficiency, and unstable system operation, thereby affecting indoor environmental quality and overall building performance. Despite differences in scale and application, similar leakage mechanisms are also observed in other pipe network systems, such as oil and gas pipelines and liquid cooling networks. These shared characteristics motivate a unified analytical perspective across different applications. This review provides a systematic analysis of leakage diagnosis methods, with a focus on machine learning (ML) approaches. The results indicate that ML methods have become a dominant research direction due to their ability to capture nonlinear relationships and process high-dimensional data. However, their effectiveness is often constrained by the limited availability of labeled leakage data, sensitivity to dynamic operating conditions, and insufficient physical interpretability. This review provides a structured framework for understanding ML-based leakage diagnosis and offers insights into the integration of data-driven and physics-based approaches for pipe network systems. In addition, the potential role of reinforcement learning (RL) is briefly discussed as an emerging direction for handling dynamic and adaptive scenarios. Compared with ML-based methods, RL has not yet been systematically explored in leakage diagnosis and remains at an early stage of development. This review synthesizes current methodologies, identifies key challenges, and outlines future research directions.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101856

Authors: Yinglin Wang Xiaofang Wen Lingyu Kong Anson Tsz Kwan Chan Liang Zhu

Urban drainage systems (UDSs) are critical built assets increasingly challenged by short-duration extreme rainfall, aging infrastructure, and rising surcharge risk. Physics-based hydrodynamic models are widely used for system assessment, but their high computational cost limits real-time operational prediction. Existing data-driven prediction approaches improve computational efficiency, but often rely mainly on sensor inputs and provide limited asset-level interpretation. This study develops an explainable digital twin for real-time prediction of storm-driven water level response in a separate sewer network in the Yangtze River Delta, China. The framework integrates 5 min monitoring and SCADA data, including water level, flow, pump status, and rainfall, with GIS and as-built asset information, including pipe geometry, hydraulic capacity, catchment characteristics, and network connectivity. A hybrid TCN-LSTM model was developed to predict water level and surcharge risk probability at 15–60 min lead times. A surrogate-based SHAP module was used to explain model predictions at the node and subcatchment scales. Multi-source fusion reduced the RMSE by approximately 18% compared with sensor-only baselines. The SHAP results showed that the pipe capacity-related variables and upstream contributing area were the main drivers of surcharge onset. The framework provides interpretable, operationally relevant predictions to support the resilience-oriented management of urban drainage systems.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101853

Authors: Wei Na Yinlong Li

Establishing a reliable heating energy benchmark for urban buildings is essential for effective energy management, yet benchmark accuracy is often constrained by multiple building characteristics and uncertainty in energy prediction. This study investigated the influence of scale heterogeneity on the heating energy use intensity (EUI) of office buildings. A Bayesian surrogate model was developed, trained, and validated, yielding acceptable accuracy, with a CVRMSE of 12.37% and an NMBE of −1.02%, both within the limits recommended by ASHRAE Guideline 14-2023. The validated model was then used to simulate the heating EUI of office buildings with floor areas from 100 to 100,000 m2 under climatic conditions ranging from 3250 to 9698 HDD65. The results showed a clear inverse relationship between building scale and heating EUI. Smaller buildings were more sensitive to scale variation, with pronounced declines around 1000 and 3000 m2, while the decline rate weakened beyond 5000 m2. Climatic severity remained the dominant factor controlling the absolute level of heating demand, but the climatic differences in heating EUI gradually narrowed as building scale increased. Moreover, the scale effect persisted longer under colder climatic conditions. These findings provide a reference for establishing scale-sensitive heating energy benchmarks in urban public buildings.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16101852

Authors: Zimo Li Hongyu Zhao Xiangyu Wang

3D printed concrete technology has demonstrated great potential in transforming construction methods, improving efficiency, and reducing environmental impacts. However, the current quality control and identification of 3D printed concrete mainly rely on manual experience and traditional non-real-time measurements, enabling the printed quality to face major challenges. Although an increasing number of studies have investigated automated quality monitoring and defect detection in 3D printed concrete, a dedicated review that systematically synthesizes these methods is still lacking. This paper provides a comprehensive review of automated quality monitoring methods for 3D printed concrete, focusing on current techniques, challenges, and future applications. Optical image processing and machine learning have been successfully used to detect defects in 3D printed concrete, although these methods have limitations in real-time performance, automation, and data quality. Further, deep learning-based methods have shown great potential in improving the accuracy and automation of defect detection, although data annotation, model generalization, large-scale construction projects, and real-time integration still face challenges. Finally, the integration of quality monitoring with building information modeling and further developments in multi-source data fusion, data augmentation, real-time adaptive control, and active quality control are recommended to address current challenges.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091851

Authors: Xiao Zhang Jing Chen Ping Lyu Baowen Zhang Chee-Loong Chin Chau-Khun Ma Hao Fu Hanwen Cui

Ancient town tourism has become an important component of cultural tourism in China. However, rapid tourism growth has intensified differences in the use of public spaces between residents and tourists, leading to increasing spatial tensions in historic urban areas. This study evaluates public building spaces in ancient towns from the perspectives of residents and tourists and identifies their differentiated needs. Three representative ancient towns in Fujian Province, China, with different tourism resource types and development characteristics, were selected as case studies. The IPA–KANO approach was used to examine differences in user perceptions and priority needs. Based on a literature review, an evaluation system was developed with three dimensions: traditional style, sensory experience, and supporting facilities. The results reveal clear resident–tourist differences in public space priorities and show that these differences vary across ancient towns with different tourism development contexts. Residents place greater emphasis on the maintenance of the environment and facilities and on everyday usability, whereas tourists are more sensitive to public toilet settings and sun and rain shelter facilities. These findings indicate that resident–tourist divergence is context dependent rather than fixed and provide a basis for differentiated spatial optimization and sustainable management.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091846

Authors: Yongze He Jian Xu Sheng Li

In high-fill load reduction cut-and-cover tunnels (HFLRCCTs), the vertical earth pressure (VEP) after load reduction cannot be accurately determined using conventional methods. This study employs discrete element method (DEM) simulation to analyze the load reduction mechanism of expanded polystyrene (EPS). A mechanical analysis model is established, from which a VEP calculation method is derived. Then, based on the concept of relative differential settlement (RDS), a simplified VEP calculation method is proposed as a more practical alternative. The results indicate that the average VEP above the cut-and-cover tunnel (CCT) is smaller when the cross-section is rectangular, and the optimal load reduction effect occurs at a slope angle of 60–70°. Quantitatively, the inclusion of EPS reduces the VEP by 60–70%. Based on the DEM results, the RDS in the top section of the EPS layer (δ0) exhibits a strong linear correlation with the upward additional VEP (p2) (R2 > 0.99). The optimal load reduction effect occurs at H/h = 9/2. Thicker EPS layers enhance load reduction (increasing the thickness from 0.10 m to 0.15 m improves the load reduction rate by 8%), while a lower EPS density (12–20 kg/m3) provides better performance. The proposed RDS-based formula predicts the VEP with errors of 0.43–4.58% compared with cases reported in the literature (max error 1.10 kPa, RMSE = 0.51 kPa, MAPE = 4.18%). Compared with the elasticity-based method, the RDS-based method is simpler and more intuitive for engineering practice. However, this study has some limitations: the use of the two-dimensional DEM is not applicable to the case of tunnel portals and has not been verified in practical engineering.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091849

Authors: Dhanasingh Sivalinga Vijayan Parthiban Devarajan Edyta Nartowska Arvindan Sivasuriyan Anna Piętocha Eugeniusz Koda

Copper slag (CS) was considered a major by-product produced from the copper refining industry, which estimates about 2.2 to 3 tons generated during the production of every one ton of copper. At the same time, continuous dumping and improper disposal of this byproduct have led to serious environmental problems, especially due to the leaching of heavy metals into soil and water. This review carefully studies the potential of CS as a sustainable construction material through a clear distinction of its performance, especially when used as a fine aggregate and as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM). Due to the presence of higher content of iron and silica, higher hardness, and very low water absorption, it was found that CS helps in improving the density and durability of concrete. When used as a fine aggregate, CS enhances workability, strength, and durability at an optimum level of about 40%, mainly due to better particle packing and reduced pore connectivity. On the other hand, when used as an SCM, CS contributes to long-term strength through pozzolanic reactions and the formation of C–S–H gel, but its replacement level should be limited to about 20% to avoid loss of early-age strength caused by reduced alkalinity. In terms of durability, the use of CS can reduce water absorption by up to 60%, lower chloride penetration, and improve resistance to sulfate attack. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment studies show that CS can reduce global warming potential by about 12–19% and also decrease overall energy consumption. Statistical validation using multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and separate regression modeling with an R2 value of about 0.965, which supports these optimum replacement levels up to 40% for fine aggregate and 20% for cement, providing a good balance between strength, durability, environmental benefits, and cost. Overall, this review shows that CS is a valuable and multi-functional material that supports circular economy practices when used with a proper mix design based on specific applications.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091847

Authors: Hassan Barkat Artur Bressanelli Teixeira Asfandyaar Saifullah Khan Carlos Hoffmann Sampaio Josep Oliva Moncunill Weslei Monteiro Ambrós Fortunato Lucas Quembo Raposo Bruna de Oliveira Gomes

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) poses a significant environmental challenge, and the efficient recovery of high-quality recycled aggregates (RA) is vital for sustainable resource use. This study assesses how water jigging functions as a gravimetric separation method for ceramics, bricks, gypsum, and concrete, emulating the composition of inert CDW components. Material parameters, including bulk density, specific gravity, and shape factor, were initially measured to evaluate their effect on separation performance. Laboratory jig tests employed various controlled feed combinations, and the material stratification was analyzed at different levels of the jigging bed. The results exhibited that separation performance is dependent strongly on mixture complexity and density contrast. In binary mixtures, the B3 mixture showed the sharpest separation, reaching ceramic recovery to 92.65% in dense layer and separation efficiency of 90.59%. The materials with similar properties, particularly ceramics and bricks, showed greater overlap in layers and weaker stratification. In ternary systems the ceramics recovered mainly in intermediate layer with recovery range 46.8–49.6% and the maximum separation efficiency was 19.21%. Results indicating that addition of third component reduces the separation sharpness due to differences in particle morphology and overlapping density ranges. This investigation shows that water jigging has potential for ceramic-rich fractions upgrading in CDW, especially if differences between density of components are significant.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091850

Authors: Mei-yung Leung Yueran Li Khursheed Ahmed

Depression has emerged as a prevalent psychological disease among older people, causing severe disruption to patients and society. Lighting in the built environment plays a powerful role in relieving depression. However, the varied impacts of different lighting effects and specific areas have not been clearly clarified or effectively implemented. This study established a Lighting Effects–Depression Model and investigated relationships between lighting effects in areas of care and attention homes and depression in older people. A quantitative survey was conducted through face-to-face interviews with older residents from care and attention homes. On-site observations were used to investigate lighting conditions and installations. Lighting effects (uniformity, navigation, colour, glare) of bedrooms, corridors, and dining rooms on depression (lack of energy, sleep disorders, task performance decline, low life satisfaction, low self-satisfaction, negative feelings) were analyzed. The results indicated significant influences of colour improving task performance, while glare induced sleep disorders across all areas examined. Furthermore, navigation and uniformity in bedrooms positively impacted depression via self-satisfaction and life satisfaction. Recommendations for utilizing lighting effects were proposed to relieve depressive symptoms in older people in care and attention homes.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091848

Authors: Sheila Miranda Correia Souza Leilane Duarte Moreira Diego Lima Medeiros Tiago Assunção Santos Isabel das Mercês Costa

The cement industry has been seeking strategies to ensure the circularity of materials through the incorporation of solid waste into its processes, driven by the environmental challenges associated with cement production, such as high CO2 emissions and resource consumption. In this context, marble residue (MR) has been investigated for application in cementitious materials, including as a partial cement substitute, which also mitigates MR deposition as an inert waste in landfills. Although its technical feasibility has shown promising results, environmental justification is still necessary to validate this technology. This research presents a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of MR as a substitute for limestone filler in ternary cement production, promoting circular economy principles. The environmental impacts of three formulations were compared: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), used as the reference; limestone calcined clay cement (LC3), composed of calcined clay and limestone filler; and LC3-R, which incorporates 15% MR in place of limestone filler. The cradle-to-gate LCA included raw material extraction through to cement production, using OpenLCA (v2.3) and the Ecoinvent database (v3.6). The impact categories analyzed included abiotic depletion (ADP), abiotic depletion of fossil fuels (ADP-ff), global warming potential (GWP 100a), ozone layer depletion (ODP), human toxicity potential (HTP), and acidification potential (AP). Results showed that LC3-R had the lowest environmental impacts, with reductions up to 39% compared to OPC and 11% compared to LC3. A sensitivity analysis was conducted for environmental and economic dimensions to assess the influence of MR transportation distances in the LC3-R context. The LC3-R formulation remained environmentally viable up to an additional 400 km compared to OPC, and up to 100 km compared to LC3, being also competitive in the economic dimension. The results highlight the benefits of incorporating marble residue into LC3 cement, contributing to environmental impact reduction and promoting resource efficiency within a circular economy approach.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091845

Authors: Neng Han Dong Wang Fengjun Sun Wei Yu Yunlong Liu Minjuan Zheng

This study addresses the critical issues of rigid energy use and insufficient demand-side responsiveness in office buildings’ Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) systems under complex summer conditions. Existing research lacks fine-grained characterisation of short-term load fluctuations and often fails to accurately couple energy efficiency with humidity-adapted thermal comfort. To fill this gap, this paper proposes an integrated Model Predictive Control (MPC) framework driven by load characteristic identification and a novel hybrid prediction model. First, based on actual hourly metered data (683,280 records), K-means clustering was employed to identify three typical load patterns, pinpointing short-term peak loads in core office zones as the primary target for flexible regulation. Second, a high-precision GS-DBO-ELM prediction model—integrating Grid Search and Dung Beetle Optimisation—was developed to capture the nonlinear dynamics of VRF energy consumption and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). The model achieved an R2 of 0.99 with relative errors constrained within ±5%. Finally, a multi-objective MPC strategy, solved via an improved Artificial Hummingbird Algorithm (HAGSAHA) and weighted by the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), was implemented to dynamically adjust zone-level temperature setpoints. Results demonstrate that the proposed MPC strategy reduces daily cooling energy consumption by 7.95–10.69% and peak loads by 15.3%, while maintaining strict thermal comfort (PMV within ±0.5). Under a time-of-use pricing mechanism, the flexible scheduling strategy achieved a 12.37% total electricity reduction and a 9.54% reduction in operating costs. This work provides a highly replicable, climate-tailored solution for low-carbon, flexible energy management in public buildings.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091844

Authors: Zuomu Hu Shiliang Wang

Seat selection in learning spaces intuitively reflects user preferences for micro-environments and facilities. To address the lack of integrated analysis of multi-dimensional factors in existing research, this study constructs a framework merging multi-source dynamic sensing with explainable machine learning (XGBoost/SHAP/GAM) to decode the non-linear environment–behavior mechanisms underlying seat selection in study rooms. A multi-source dataset was constructed using YOLOv8 for non-intrusive extraction of seat occupancy and user attributes (gender and learning efficiency), combined with Ladybug-based luminous–thermal simulations and spatial topological measurements. The results indicate that: (1) key environmental variables exhibit distinct comfort thresholds, with an optimal illuminance of 400–600 lx and an effective attraction radius for power sockets of 1.5–3.0 m; (2) high-efficiency learners are highly sensitive to path interference, exhibiting a prominent “defensive” seat selection strategy; (3) significant divergences exist between genders regarding spatial depth preferences; and (4) compensatory and synergistic effects exist among multi-dimensional factors, where peak occupancy or superior lighting enhances user tolerance for the absence of sockets. This study quantifies the non-linear interactions between micro-physical environments and spatial behavior, providing a direct data-driven basis for refined facility deployment, dynamic luminous–thermal interventions, and scientific dynamic–static zoning in future learning spaces.

Buildings doi: 10.3390/buildings16091842

Authors: Peizhen Li Chen Gu Zhen Xu

A novel self-centering variable friction damper (SC-VFD) was designed, which has the characteristics of high bearing capacity and good durability. This damper has a dual self-centering mechanism, which can provide restoring force via a coil spring under small earthquakes, as well as restoring force via a coil spring and a disc spring under medium or large earthquakes. In addition, this damper has variable friction capacity under different earthquakes. The configuration and the working mechanism of the SC-VFD was studied, and the mechanical model was established; then, finite element analysis of the SC-VFD was carried out. The results show that the SC-VFD has good self-centering performance and energy dissipation capacity; the residual displacement could be controlled by adjusting the preload and the stiffness of the disc spring; the hysteresis curves obtained through theoretical calculation and numerical simulation are in good agreement, verifying the correctness of the theoretical model and the finite element model. Finally, a four-story steel frame structure was designed for seismic performance analysis in order to verify the effect of the SC-VFD on the energy dissipation and vibration reduction of the frame structure. The results show that the vibration reduction rates of the SC-VFD can reach 33% under frequent earthquakes and 51% under rare earthquakes. Therefore, the SC-VFD has good seismic effects and can be applied to increase the resilience of building structures.