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Volume 11
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Batteries, Volume 11, Issue 5 (May 2025) – 33 articles

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21 pages, 5422 KiB  
Article
Fast-Charging Optimization Method for Lithium-Ion Battery Packs Based on Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient Algorithm
by Zhi Zhang, Taijun Guo, Yefeng Liu, Xinfu Pang and Zedong Zheng
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050199 (registering DOI) - 17 May 2025
Abstract
Fast-charging technology for lithium-ion batteries is of great significance in reducing charging time and enhancing user experience. However, during fast charging, the imbalance among battery cells can affect the overall performance and available capacity of the battery pack. Moreover, the charging efficiency not [...] Read more.
Fast-charging technology for lithium-ion batteries is of great significance in reducing charging time and enhancing user experience. However, during fast charging, the imbalance among battery cells can affect the overall performance and available capacity of the battery pack. Moreover, the charging efficiency not only is limited by the battery technology itself but is also closely related to the optimization of the charging strategy. To address the optimization of fast charging for lithium-ion batteries, this paper proposes a method based on deep reinforcement learning. First, a deep reinforcement learning charging optimization model is constructed, aiming to minimize charging time and SOC balancing cost, with constraints on battery voltage, temperature, SOC, and SOH. The model employs the deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm integrated with reward centralization and entropy regularization mechanisms, aiming to dynamically adjust the charging current to achieve an optimal balance between fast charging and battery health. Experimental results indicate that the proposed method enhances charging efficiency, contributes to extending battery life, and supports the safety of the charging process. Compared to the traditional constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV) strategy, the improved DDPG strategy reduces the total charging time by 60 s and the balancing time from 540 s to 470 s. Furthermore, compared to the basic DDPG method, the proposed algorithm shows a clear advantage in charging efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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25 pages, 3389 KiB  
Article
A Thermal Runaway Protection Strategy for Prismatic Lithium-Ion Battery Modules Based on Phase Change and Thermal Decomposition of Sodium Acetate Trihydrate
by Tianqi Yang, Hanwei Xu, Chengfu Xie, Linzhi Xu, Min Liu, Lingyu Chen, Qianqian Xin, Juan Zeng, Hengyun Zhang and Jinsheng Xiao
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050198 (registering DOI) - 17 May 2025
Abstract
With the rapid development of battery energy storage technology, the issue of thermal runaway (TR) in lithium-ion batteries has become a key challenge restricting their safe application. This study presents an innovative protection strategy that integrates liquid cooling with sodium acetate trihydrate (SAT)-based [...] Read more.
With the rapid development of battery energy storage technology, the issue of thermal runaway (TR) in lithium-ion batteries has become a key challenge restricting their safe application. This study presents an innovative protection strategy that integrates liquid cooling with sodium acetate trihydrate (SAT)-based composite phase change materials (CPCM) to mitigate TR and its propagation in prismatic battery modules. Through numerical simulation, this study systematically investigates the TR protection mechanism and optimization pathways for prismatic battery modules. The results indicate that pure SAT exhibits poor latent heat performance due to its low thermal conductivity. In contrast, the incorporation of expanded graphite (EG) significantly enhances thermal conductivity and improves the overall latent heat performance. Compared to traditional paraffin-expanded graphite (PA-EG), SAT-EG, with a latent heat 4.8 times higher than that of PA-EG, demonstrates more than six times the effectiveness in delaying thermal runaway propagation (TRP). When combined with liquid cooling, the TR protection effect is further enhanced, and TR will not be triggered when the initial abnormal heat generation rate is relatively low. Even if an abnormal battery experiences TR, its propagation will be prevented when the thickness of the SAT-EG exceeds 12 mm. Ambient temperature influences both the peak temperature and the timing of its occurrence in the battery module. Among the different liquid cooling layouts, the combined bottom and side cooling scheme exhibits superior performance compared to the standalone schemes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
19 pages, 1500 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Study of the Gas Volume and Composition Generated by 5 Ah Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) Li-Ion Pouch Cells Through Different Failure Mechanisms at Varying States of Charge
by Gemma E. Howard, Katie C. Abbott, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard and Daniel Howard
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050197 (registering DOI) - 17 May 2025
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail penetration. Tests were conducted in air and N2 atmospheres. Additional external heat tests were performed on cells at 5, 25, 50, and 75% SoC and on two, three, and four cell blocks. Gas volumes were calculated, and the gas composition was given for H2, CO, CO2, C2H4, C2H6, CH4, C3H6, and C3H8. For tests under an air atmosphere at 100% SoC, the volume of gas varied between abuse methods: 3.9 L (external heat), 6.4 L (overcharge), and 8.9 L (nail penetration). The gas composition was found to predominantly contain H2, CO2, and CO for all abuse methods; however, higher concentrations of H2 and CO were present in tests performed under N2. External heat tests at different SoCs showed that the gas volume decreased with SoC. Overall, the type of abuse method can have a large effect on the gas volume and composition produced by cell failure. Full article
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15 pages, 4350 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Thermal Runaway in Prismatic Batteries with Dual-Parallel Jelly-Roll Architecture Under Thermal Abuse Conditions
by Jinmei Li, Dong Li, Xin Li, Ting Sun and Qiang Li
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050196 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
In response to the increasingly serious global warming crisis, new energy batteries have progressively replaced highly polluting primary energy sources. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely implemented due to their high safety and energy density. Although LIBs exhibit enhanced safety features, significant fire risks [...] Read more.
In response to the increasingly serious global warming crisis, new energy batteries have progressively replaced highly polluting primary energy sources. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely implemented due to their high safety and energy density. Although LIBs exhibit enhanced safety features, significant fire risks persist during thermal runaway (TR) events occurring in charging/discharging processes. To elucidate dual-parallel jelly-roll architecture TR characteristics of LIBs under varied operational conditions, this study integrates theoretical analysis with experimental methods, conducting thermal abuse tests under four distinct working conditions: open circuit, constant-current charging, constant-voltage charging, and discharging. The results demonstrate substantial differences in TR characteristics across operational conditions. A thermodynamic equilibrium-based triggering model proved capable of qualitatively evaluating TR risk levels under these conditions. Furthermore, the established TR triggering model reveals that the intensified Joule heating and polarization effects during constant-current charging account for its elevated fire risk compared to other states. These findings provide operational guidelines for optimizing safety strategies in energy storage power stations. Full article
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14 pages, 9950 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Laser Material Interaction of Lithium Copper Foils Under Different Process Gases for All-Solid-State Batteries
by Lars O. Schmidt, Houssin Wehbe, Sven Hartwig and Maja W. Kandula
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050195 - 15 May 2025
Viewed by 60
Abstract
Lithium metal exhibits strong adhesive properties and a highly reactive nature, which complicates conventional mechanical separation methods. Laser cutting, as a contactless process, is possible under a defined drying room atmosphere. However, it is a costly process and therefore not suitable for industrial [...] Read more.
Lithium metal exhibits strong adhesive properties and a highly reactive nature, which complicates conventional mechanical separation methods. Laser cutting, as a contactless process, is possible under a defined drying room atmosphere. However, it is a costly process and therefore not suitable for industrial usage. Consequently, the development of a cost-effective process gas is imperative for the future implementation of lithium metal. In this research, the laser cutting of 30 µm lithium copper composite foil is performed under different process gases (nitrogen and argon) and ambient atmospheres with different water contents to determine the ablation potential depended on the process gas. To assess the laser–material interaction, the impact of pulse repetition frequency and cutting velocity on the material behavior was investigated. To this end, the ablation behavior, the resulting cutting edges, and the electrochemical performance were thoroughly explored. The findings reveal a dependence of the ablation behavior on the water content in the ambient atmosphere, as well as a reduced energy input for a complete shot through when using an inert gas. The resulting cutting edges result in nearly similar outcomes with regard to the heat-affected zone. The electrochemical performance illustrates the influence of the laser process with different gases, taking into account the changed electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Full article
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18 pages, 1112 KiB  
Article
Domain Generalization Using Maximum Mean Discrepancy Loss for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Wenbin Li, Yue Yang and Stefan Pischinger
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050194 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 159
Abstract
The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated [...] Read more.
The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated life prediction. In this work, a data-driven algorithm based on stacked Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) encoder–decoders is proposed for RUL prediction. The encoder and upstream decoder form an autoencoder framework for feature extraction. The encoder and the downstream decoder form the encoder–decoder framework for RUL prediction. To enhance generalization during training, the Maximum Mean Discrepancy (MMD) loss is included in the autoencoder framework. The similarity of aging patterns is analyzed during splitting source and target datasets through k-means and Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). The Euclidean metric with accumulated Equivalent Cycle Number (ECN) sequence during aging shows better performance for similarity-based data splitting than the Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) distance metric based on capacity fading trajectory. The experimental results indicate that the proposed algorithm can provide accurate RUL prediction using 5% fading data and shows good generalization with Coefficient of Determination (R2) score of 0.98. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven Modeling, Degradation, Control, and Advanced Management Systems for Batteries)
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102 pages, 24905 KiB  
Review
One Stone, Three Birds: Innovations and Challenges of Layered Double Hydroxides in Batteries, Supercapacitors, and Hydrogen Production
by Syed Shaheen Shah, Manisha Das and Takaya Ogawa
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050193 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 282
Abstract
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs), notable for their unique two-dimensional layered structures, have attracted significant research attention due to their exceptional versatility and promising performance in energy storage and conversion applications. This comprehensive review systematically addresses the fundamentals and diverse synthesis strategies for LDHs, [...] Read more.
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs), notable for their unique two-dimensional layered structures, have attracted significant research attention due to their exceptional versatility and promising performance in energy storage and conversion applications. This comprehensive review systematically addresses the fundamentals and diverse synthesis strategies for LDHs, including co-precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, electrochemical deposition, sol-gel processes, ultrasonication, and exfoliation techniques. The synthesis methods profoundly influence the physicochemical properties, morphology, and electrochemical performance of LDHs, necessitating a detailed understanding to optimize their applications. In this paper, the role of LDHs in batteries, supercapacitors, and hydrogen production is critically evaluated. We discuss their incorporation in various battery systems, such as lithium-ion, lithium–sulfur, sodium-ion, chloride-ion, zinc-ion, and zinc–air batteries, highlighting their structural and electrochemical advantages. Additionally, the superior pseudocapacitive behavior and high energy densities offered by LDHs in supercapacitors are elucidated. The effectiveness of LDHs in hydrogen production, particularly through electrocatalytic water splitting, underscores their significance in renewable energy systems. This review paper uniquely integrates these three pivotal energy technologies, outlining current innovations and challenges, thus fulfilling a critical need for the scientific community by providing consolidated insights and guiding future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)
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35 pages, 4575 KiB  
Review
Advances in Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells
by Christos Argirusis, Niyaz Alizadeh, Maria-Εleni Katsanou, Nikolaos Argirusis and Georgia Sourkouni
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050192 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 244
Abstract
The growing demand for energy, coupled with the unsustainable nature of fossil fuels due to global warming and the greenhouse effect, have led to the advancement of renewable energy production concepts. Innovations such as photovoltaics, wind energy, and infrared energy harvesters are emerging [...] Read more.
The growing demand for energy, coupled with the unsustainable nature of fossil fuels due to global warming and the greenhouse effect, have led to the advancement of renewable energy production concepts. Innovations such as photovoltaics, wind energy, and infrared energy harvesters are emerging as viable solutions. The challenge lies in the stochastic nature of renewable energy sources, which necessitates the implementation of electrical energy storage solutions, whether through batteries, supercapacitors, or hydrogen production. In this regard, innovative materials are essential to address the questions associated with these technologies. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crucial for achieving clean and efficient energy conversion in fuel cells and storage in batteries and supercapacitors. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) can be used as electrocatalytic materials, membranes for electrolytes, and energy storage materials. They exhibit exceptional design versatility, large surface, and can be functionalized with ligands with several charges and metallic centers. This article offers an in-depth examination of materials and devices utilizing metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for electrochemical processes concerning the generation, transformation, and storage of electrical energy. This review specifically focuses on rechargeable batteries and fuel cells that incorporate MOFs. Finally, an outlook on the potential applications of MOFs in electrochemical industries is presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Materials for Rechargeable Batteries)
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25 pages, 8273 KiB  
Article
Laser Printing of Silicon-Containing Anodes with Polyacrylic Acid
by Ulrich Rist and Wilhelm Pfleging
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050191 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 153
Abstract
To enhance the performance of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, high-capacity silicon is increasingly introduced as active material for anodes. Furthermore, advanced batteries with new electrode architectures—so-called 3D architectures—can provide significantly enhanced electrochemical performance compared to state-of-the-art batteries. To facilitate and speed up the architectural [...] Read more.
To enhance the performance of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, high-capacity silicon is increasingly introduced as active material for anodes. Furthermore, advanced batteries with new electrode architectures—so-called 3D architectures—can provide significantly enhanced electrochemical performance compared to state-of-the-art batteries. To facilitate and speed up the architectural development, the laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) process was applied as a digital additive manufacturing method. As polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), the binder commonly used in the LIFT process, is not a suitable binder for silicon-containing electrodes due to its weak binding forces, polyacrylic acid (PAA) was introduced as a binder for use in printable electrode pastes. Since water as a solvent in such pastes evaporates quickly and the corresponding printing time would be too short, glycerol was added to the solvent mixture in different amounts. The silicon in the printed electrodes reaches a specific capacity of more than 3000 mAh·g–1 for most of the printed anodes. To further improve the electrochemical performance of the printed electrodes, as well as the rheology of the slurries, two different conductive additives with different particle sizes were used. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)
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8 pages, 2424 KiB  
Article
A Modified Acrylic Binder Used for the Graphite Negative Electrode in LithiumIon Batteries
by Lianxiang Feng, Wenting Chen, Feng Hai, Xin Gao, Yuyu Ban, Weicheng Xue, Wentao Yan, Yunxiao Yang and Mingtao Li
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050190 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 132
Abstract
The water-based binder has the advantages of non-toxic, non-flammable, small odor, and no pollution to the environment. However, there are problems such as low bond strength and poor battery cycle life of commonly used binders on the market. In this paper, the acrylic [...] Read more.
The water-based binder has the advantages of non-toxic, non-flammable, small odor, and no pollution to the environment. However, there are problems such as low bond strength and poor battery cycle life of commonly used binders on the market. In this paper, the acrylic binder is modified. In addition, acrylic acid/methacrylic acid, acrylonitrile, and octadecyl acrylate/octadecyl methacrylate are copolymerized at high temperature, and a new binder for graphite anode is successfully developed. The binder can significantly improve the affinity between the graphite anode and the electrolyte and the integrity of the graphite particles during the cycle, so that the battery has better electrochemical performance. During the charge and discharge cycle of 1 C, the graphite anode coated with PAANa as a binder was able to cycle 360 cycles and remain stable, which is far better than the 192 cycles of the commercial binder LA133. It is proved that the experimental formula has a certain commercial application prospect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Binders and Additives for Rechargeable Batteries)
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11 pages, 15871 KiB  
Article
Low-Cost, Sustainable Hybrid Aqueous Zinc Metal Batteries Using Ethyl Cellulose as a Binder
by Pedro Pablo Machado Pico, Stefano Colonna and Fabio Ronci
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050189 - 11 May 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
Despite their inherently lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), aqueous zinc metal batteries (AZMBs) have recently attracted interest as rechargeable energy storage devices due to their low cost and high operational and environmental safety. They are composed of metallic zinc as the [...] Read more.
Despite their inherently lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), aqueous zinc metal batteries (AZMBs) have recently attracted interest as rechargeable energy storage devices due to their low cost and high operational and environmental safety. They are composed of metallic zinc as the anode, an aqueous zinc salt electrolyte and a cathode capable of (de)intercalating Zn2+ ions upon its (oxidation) reduction reaction. In this work, we studied a hybrid AZMB in which a dual-ion electrolyte containing both Zn2+ and Li+ ions was used in conjunction with a Li+ ion intercalation cathode, i.e., LiFePO4 (LFP), one of the most common, reliable, and cheap cathodes for LIBs. In this study, we present evidence that, thanks to its insolubility in water, ethyl cellulose (EC) can be effectively utilized as a binder for cathode membranes in AZMBs. Furthermore, its solubility in alcohol provides a significant advantage in avoiding the use of toxic solvents, contributing to a safer and more environmentally friendly approach to the formulation process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Application, and Characterization of New Electrode Materials for Advanced Batteries)
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19 pages, 3126 KiB  
Article
Multiband Multisine Excitation Signal for Online Impedance Spectroscopy of Battery Cells
by Roberta Ramilli, Nicola Lowenthal, Marco Crescentini and Pier Andrea Traverso
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050188 - 10 May 2025
Viewed by 230
Abstract
Multisine electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) represents a highly promising technique for the online characterization of battery functional states, offering the potential to monitor, in real-time, key degradation phenomena such as aging, internal resistance variation, and state of health (SoH) evolution. However, its widespread [...] Read more.
Multisine electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) represents a highly promising technique for the online characterization of battery functional states, offering the potential to monitor, in real-time, key degradation phenomena such as aging, internal resistance variation, and state of health (SoH) evolution. However, its widespread adoption in embedded systems is currently limited by the need to balance measurement accuracy with strict energy constraints and the requirement for short acquisition times. This work proposes a novel broadband EIS approach based on a multiband multisine excitation strategy in which the excitation signal spectrum is divided into multiple sub-bands that are sequentially explored. This enables the available energy to be concentrated on a limited portion of the spectrum at a time, thereby significantly improving the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) without substantially increasing the total measurement time. The result is a more energy-efficient method that maintains high diagnostic precision. We further investigated the optimal design of these multiband multisine sequences, taking into account realistic constraints imposed by the sensing hardware such as limitations in excitation amplitude and noise level. The effectiveness of the proposed method was demonstrated within a comprehensive simulation framework implementing a complete impedance measurement system. Compared with conventional excitation techniques (i.e., the sine sweep and the classical single-band multisine methods), the proposed strategy is an optimal trade-off solution both in terms of energy efficiency and measurement time. Therefore, the technique is a valuable solution for real-time, embedded, and in situ battery diagnostics, with direct implications for the development of intelligent battery management systems (BMS), predictive maintenance, and enhanced safety in energy storage applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Battery Measurement and Management Systems)
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11 pages, 6157 KiB  
Article
Numerical Study of the Effects of Heat Loss and Solid Thermal Conductivity on Syngas Production for Fuel Cells
by Xiaolong Wang, Mengmeng Yu, Zunmin Li, Zhen Wang, Xiuxia Zhang, Junrui Shi, Xiangjin Kong and Jinsheng Lv
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050187 - 9 May 2025
Viewed by 232
Abstract
Syngas can be used as feedstock for efficient energy conversion in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). In the current paper, the conversion efficiency of methane to synthesis gas (H2 and CO) within a two-layer porous media reactor is investigated by a one-dimensional [...] Read more.
Syngas can be used as feedstock for efficient energy conversion in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). In the current paper, the conversion efficiency of methane to synthesis gas (H2 and CO) within a two-layer porous media reactor is investigated by a one-dimensional two-temperature model. A detailed chemical reaction mechanism GRI-Mech 1.2 is used to describe the chemical processes. Attention is focused on CO2 content in the methane/air mixture, heat loss to the surroundings, and solid thermal conductivity on temperature distribution and conversion efficiency. Numerical results show that addition of CO2 to the methane/air mixture improves the conversion efficiency. For a molar ratio of CO2/CH4 = 1, the conversion efficiency reaches 44.8%. An increase in heat loss to the surroundings leads to a decrease in conversion efficiency. A greater solid thermal conductivity can improve the conversion efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges, Progress, and Outlook of High-Performance Fuel Cells)
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14 pages, 3257 KiB  
Article
Enhanced OCV Estimation in LiFePO4 Batteries: A Novel Statistical Approach Leveraging Real-Time Knee/Elbow Detection
by Teodor-Iulian Voicila, Bogdan-Adrian Enache, Vasilis Argyriou, Panagiotis Sarigiannidis, Mihai-Alexandru Pisla and George-Calin Seritan
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050186 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
The rapid advancement of electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems has significantly increased the demand for reliable and efficient battery technologies. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries are particularly suitable for these applications due to their superior thermal stability and long cycle [...] Read more.
The rapid advancement of electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems has significantly increased the demand for reliable and efficient battery technologies. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries are particularly suitable for these applications due to their superior thermal stability and long cycle life. A critical parameter in optimizing the performance of LFP batteries is the open-circuit voltage (OCV), essential for accurate state of charge (SoC) estimation. The accurate determination of the OCV is challenging due to relaxation effects post-charging/discharging, causing voltage changes for up to 24 h or even more until stabilization. This paper presents a novel statistical model for OCV estimation that employs an online observer to detect the knee/elbow point in the voltage relaxation curve. By utilizing the voltage at the knee/elbow point and the initial voltage, the model accurately computes the OCV at the stabilization point. The proposed method, validated with extensive experimental data, achieves high accuracy, with a computed error of less than 0.26% for charging and under 1.2% for discharging. Full article
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64 pages, 6751 KiB  
Review
Powering the Future Smart Mobility: A European Perspective on Battery Storage
by Natascia Andrenacci, Francesco Vitiello, Chiara Boccaletti and Francesco Vellucci
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050185 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 245
Abstract
Batteries are central to the global energy system and fundamental elements for energy transition and future mobility. In particular, the growth in electric vehicle (EV) sales is pushing up demand for batteries. Most of the battery demand for EVs today can be met [...] Read more.
Batteries are central to the global energy system and fundamental elements for energy transition and future mobility. In particular, the growth in electric vehicle (EV) sales is pushing up demand for batteries. Most of the battery demand for EVs today can be met with domestic or regional production in China, while the share of imports remains relatively large in Europe and the United States. Boosting the industrial base for battery production is therefore a key task for the EU. To make its battery supply chains secure, resilient, and sustainable, the EU’s approach consists of improving cooperation among stakeholders, providing the sector with funding, and establishing a comprehensive regulatory framework. In this paper, an accurate review of the state-of-the-art of automotive batteries is provided, including the performance, safety, sustainability, and costs of the different battery technologies. The significant challenges the EU battery sector must face, such as dependencies on third countries and high energy and labor costs, are discussed. An overview of the present European regulation and of future trends is provided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 2869 KiB  
Article
Study on Thermal Behavior and Safety Properties of Na4Fe3(PO4)2(P2O7) and NaNi1/3Fe1/3Mn1/3O2 Cathode-Based Sodium Ion Battery
by Ran Yu, Shiyang Liu, Xuehai Li, Bin Wei and Xiaochao Wu
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050184 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 165
Abstract
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) share similar working principles with lithium-ion batteries while demonstrating cost advantages. However, the current understanding of their safety characteristics remains insufficient, and the thermal runaway mechanisms of different SIB systems have not been fully elucidated. This study investigated the following [...] Read more.
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) share similar working principles with lithium-ion batteries while demonstrating cost advantages. However, the current understanding of their safety characteristics remains insufficient, and the thermal runaway mechanisms of different SIB systems have not been fully elucidated. This study investigated the following two mainstream sodium-ion battery systems: polyanion-type compound (PAC) and layered transition metal oxide (TMO) cathodes. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was employed to evaluate the thermal stability of cathodes and anodes, examining the effects of state of charge (SOC), cycling, and overcharging on electrode thermal stability. The thermal stability of electrolytes with different compositions was also characterized and analyzed. Additionally, adiabatic thermal runaway tests were conducted using an accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC) to explore temperature–voltage evolution patterns and temperature rise rates. The study systematically investigated heat-generating reactions during various thermal runaway stages and conducted a comparative analysis of the thermal runaway characteristics between these two battery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Electric Vehicles—2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 4014 KiB  
Article
SOH Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Distribution of Relaxation Times Parameters and Long Short-Term Memory Model
by Abdul Shakoor Akram, Muhammad Sohaib and Woojin Choi
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050183 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 207
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are extensively utilized in modern applications due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and efficiency. With the increasing demand for sustainable energy storage solutions, accurately estimating the State of Health (SOH) is essential to address challenges related to battery [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries are extensively utilized in modern applications due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and efficiency. With the increasing demand for sustainable energy storage solutions, accurately estimating the State of Health (SOH) is essential to address challenges related to battery degradation and secondary life management. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used diagnostic tool for evaluating battery performance due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, EIS often struggles to decouple overlapping electrochemical processes. The Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRT) method has emerged as a powerful alternative, enabling the isolation of key processes, such as ohmic resistance, SEI resistance, charge transfer resistance, and diffusion, thereby providing deeper insights into battery aging mechanisms. This paper presents a novel approach for estimating the State of Health (SOH) of batteries by leveraging DRT parameters across multiple State of Charge (SOC) levels. This study incorporates data from three lithium-ion batteries, each with distinct initial capacities, introducing variability that reflects the natural differences observed in real-world battery performance. By employing a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)-based machine learning model, the proposed framework demonstrates a superior accuracy in SOH prediction compared to traditional EIS-based methods. The results highlight the sensitivity of DRT parameters to SOH degradation and validate their effectiveness as reliable indicators for battery health. This research underscores the potential of combining a DRT analysis with AI-driven models to advance scalable, precise, and interpretable battery diagnostics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 951 KiB  
Article
A Water-Based Fire-Extinguishing Agent of Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Fire via an Analytic Hierarchy Process-Fuzzy TOPSIS Decision-Marking Method
by Shuai Yuan, Kuo Wang, Feng Tai, Donghao Cheng, Qi Zhang, Yujie Cui, Xinming Qian, Chunwen Sun, Song Liu and Xin Chen
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050182 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 214
Abstract
It is well known that the safety concerns surrounding lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), such as fire and explosion, are currently a bottleneck problem for the large-scale usage of energy storage power stations. The study of water-based fire-extinguishing agents used for LIBs is a promising [...] Read more.
It is well known that the safety concerns surrounding lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), such as fire and explosion, are currently a bottleneck problem for the large-scale usage of energy storage power stations. The study of water-based fire-extinguishing agents used for LIBs is a promising direction. How to choose a suitable water-based fire-extinguishing agent is a significant scientific problem. In this study, a comprehensive evaluation model, including four primary indexes and eleven secondary indexes was established, which was used in the scenario of an electrochemical energy storage power station. The model is only suitable for assessing water-based fire extinguishing for suppressing lithium iron phosphate battery fire. Based on the comprehensive evaluation index system and extinguishing experiment data, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) combined with fuzzy TOPSIS was used to evaluate the performances of the three kinds of water-based fire-extinguishing agents. According to the results of the fuzzy binary contrast method, the three kinds of fire-extinguishing agents could be ranked as follows: YS1000 > F-500 additive > pure water. The study provided a method for choosing and preparing a suitable fire-extinguishing agent for lithium iron phosphate batteries. Full article
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34 pages, 11293 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in the Application of MOFs in Supercapacitors
by Christos Argirusis, Maria-Eleni Katsanou, Niyaz Alizadeh, Nikolaos Argirusis and Georgia Sourkouni
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050181 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 382
Abstract
As the need for energy is constantly increasing and in the long term fossil fuels are not an option because of global overheating due to the greenhouse effect, alternative energy production concepts such as photovoltaics, wind energy, IR energy harvesters etc., have been [...] Read more.
As the need for energy is constantly increasing and in the long term fossil fuels are not an option because of global overheating due to the greenhouse effect, alternative energy production concepts such as photovoltaics, wind energy, IR energy harvesters etc., have been developed. The problem is that renewable energy sources are stochastic, and therefore there is a need for electrical energy storage either in rechargeable batteries or in high-performance supercapacitors. In this respect, novel materials are needed to meet the challenges that are related to these technologies. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) represent highly promising materials for energy storage applications in supercapacitors (SCs) and thus in recent years have become essential for clean and efficient energy conversion and storage. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) present numerous benefits as electrocatalysts, electrolyte membranes, and fuel storage materials; they exhibit exceptional design versatility, extensive surface-to-volume ratios, and permit functionalization with multivalent ligands and metal centers. Here we present an overview of MOF-based materials for electrical energy storage using high-performance supercapacitors. This review deals with recent advances in MOF-based materials for supercapacitors. Finally, an outlook on the future use and restrictions of MOFs in electrochemical applications, with focus on supercapacitors, is given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Supercapacitors: Advancements & Challenges)
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22 pages, 3660 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Encoder BHTP Autoencoder for Robust Lithium Battery SOH Prediction Under Small-Sample Scenarios
by Chang Liu, Shunli Wang, Zhiqiang Ma, Siyuan Guo and Yixiong Qin
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050180 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 222
Abstract
Accurate prediction of the state of health (SOH) in lithium batteries (LiBs) is essential for ensuring operational safety, extending battery lifespan, and enabling effective second-life applications. However, achieving precise SOH prediction under small-sample conditions remains a significant challenge due to inherent variability among [...] Read more.
Accurate prediction of the state of health (SOH) in lithium batteries (LiBs) is essential for ensuring operational safety, extending battery lifespan, and enabling effective second-life applications. However, achieving precise SOH prediction under small-sample conditions remains a significant challenge due to inherent variability among battery cells and capacity recovery phenomena, which result in irregular degradation patterns and hinder effective feature extraction. To overcome these challenges, this study introduces an advanced autoencoder-based method specifically designed for SOH prediction in small-sample scenarios. This method employs a multi-encoder structure—comprising token, positional, and temporal encoders—to comprehensively capture the multi-dimensional characteristics of SOH sequences. Furthermore, a BHTP module is integrated to facilitate feature fusion and enhance the model’s stability and interpretability. By utilizing a pre-training and fine-tuning strategy, the proposed method effectively reduces computational complexity and the number of model parameters while maintaining high prediction accuracy. The validation of the NASA 18650 lithium cobalt oxide battery dataset under various discharge strategies shows that the proposed method achieves fast convergence and outperforms traditional prediction methods. Compared with other models, our method reduces the RMSE by 0.004 and the MAE by 0.003 on average. In addition, ablation experiments show that the addition of the multi-encoder structure and the BHTP module improves the RMSE and MAE by 0.008 and 0.007 on average, respectively. These results highlight the robustness and utility of the proposed method in real battery management systems, especially under data-scarce conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Reliability and Health Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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52 pages, 1276 KiB  
Review
A Review of Battery Energy Storage Optimization in the Built Environment
by Simone Coccato, Khadija Barhmi, Ioannis Lampropoulos, Sara Golroodbari and Wilfried van Sark
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050179 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 804
Abstract
The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage [...] Read more.
The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage for photovoltaic systems, peak shaving, load shifting, demand response, and backup power. Distinct from prior review studies, our work provides a structured framework categorizing battery applications, spanning individual use, shared systems, and energy communities, and examines modeling techniques like State of Charge estimation and degradation analysis. Highlighting the integration of batteries with renewable infrastructures, we explore multi-objective optimization strategies and hierarchical decomposition methods for effective battery utilization. The findings underscore that advanced battery management systems and technological innovations are aimed at extending battery life and enhancing efficiency. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and propose directions for future research, with a focus on scaling battery applications to meet operational, economic, and environmental objectives. By bridging theoretical insights with practical applications, this review contributes to advancing the understanding and optimization of residential energy storage systems within the energy transition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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25 pages, 3739 KiB  
Article
Electrochemical–Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects
by Milad Tulabi and Roberto Bubbico
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050178 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 468
Abstract
The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or thermal abuse, which can lead to catastrophic failures. While most TR models focus on fresh cells, aging significantly impacts battery behavior and safety. This study develops an electrochemical–thermal coupled model that incorporates aging effects to better predict thermal behavior and TR initiation in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. The model is validated against experimental data for fresh NMC and aged NCA cells, and statistical analysis is conducted to identify key factors influencing TR (p < 0.05). A full factorial design evaluates the effects of internal resistance (10, 20, 30, and 40 mΩ), capacity (1, 2, 3, and 5 Ah), and current rate (1C, 3C, 6C, and 8C) on temperature evolution. Additionally, a machine learning algorithm (logistic regression) is employed to identify an internal resistance threshold, beyond which thermal runaway (TR) becomes highly probable, and to predict TR probability based on key battery parameters. The model achieved a high prediction accuracy of 95% on the test dataset. Results indicate that aging affects thermal stability in complex ways. The increased internal resistance exacerbates heating rates, while capacity fade reduces stored energy, mitigating TR risk. These findings provide a validated framework for enhancing battery thermal management and predictive safety mechanisms, which contributed to the development of safer, more reliable Li-ion energy storage systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)
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27 pages, 7012 KiB  
Article
Molten Salt Electrolyte for Na-ZnCl2 All-Liquid Battery for Grid Storage
by Wenjin Ding, Ralf Hoffmann, Akshata Barge, Ole S. Kjos, Norbert Weber, Tom Weier and Thomas Bauer
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050177 - 1 May 2025
Viewed by 243
Abstract
Zeolite Battery Research Africa (ZEBRA) batteries (Na-NiCl2 solid electrolyte batteries, SEBs) have commercial applications in energy storage due to their low costs and recyclability, long lifetime, and high safety. In commercial ZEBRA batteries, Ni electrode and beta’’-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE) have a [...] Read more.
Zeolite Battery Research Africa (ZEBRA) batteries (Na-NiCl2 solid electrolyte batteries, SEBs) have commercial applications in energy storage due to their low costs and recyclability, long lifetime, and high safety. In commercial ZEBRA batteries, Ni electrode and beta’’-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE) have a more than 70% share of the overall cell material costs. Na-ZnCl2 all-liquid batteries (ALBs), which replace Ni with abundant and low-cost Zn and BASE electrolyte with molten salt electrolyte, could reduce costs and provide a longer lifetime and higher safety, making their application in grid storage promising. However, compared to SEBs, ALBs are in an early development stage, particularly for their molten salt electrolytes, which have a significant effect on the battery performance. Physical and chemical properties of the salt electrolyte like melting temperatures and solubilities of electrode materials (i.e., Na and Zn metal) are vital for the molten salt electrolyte selection and battery cell design and optimization. In this work, the binary and ternary phase diagrams of salt mixtures containing NaCl, CaCl2, BaCl2, SrCl2, and KCl, obtained via FactSage simulation and DSC measurements, as well as the solubilities of electrode materials (Na and Zn metals), are presented and used for the selection of the molten salt electrolyte. Moreover, various criteria, considered for the selection of the molten salt electrolyte, include high electromotive force (EMF) for suitable electrochemical properties, low melting temperature for large charge/discharge range, low solubilities of electrode materials for low self-discharge, low material costs, and high material abundance for easy scale-up. Based on these criteria, the NaCl-CaCl2-BaCl2 and NaCl-SrCl2-KCl salt mixtures are selected as the two most promising ALB molten salt electrolytes and suggested to be tested in the ALB demonstrators currently under development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrode Materials and Electrolyte for Rechargeable Batteries)
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16 pages, 1987 KiB  
Perspective
A Perspective on the Challenges and Prospects of Realizing the Second Life of Retired EV Batteries
by Prodip K. Das
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050176 - 28 Apr 2025
Viewed by 464
Abstract
As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity [...] Read more.
As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity and functionality. This has led to growing interest in exploring second-life applications for retired EV batteries, ranging from stationary energy storage to grid stabilization and beyond. However, numerous challenges must be addressed to unlock the full potential of this emerging sector. This paper delves into the key challenges and prospects associated with the second life of retired EV batteries. It examines technical hurdles, such as battery degradation, safety concerns, and the development of efficient repurposing methods, along with regulatory and economic barriers, including standards for battery reuse, recycling infrastructure, and market dynamics. Additionally, it highlights the potential environmental benefits, including reduced carbon emissions and resource conservation. In conclusion, the second life of retired EV batteries presents both challenges and opportunities. Addressing technical, regulatory, and economic barriers will be essential for realizing the full potential of this growing sector. However, with continued innovation and collaboration across industries, the future looks bright for leveraging retired EV batteries to create a more sustainable energy ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Second-Life Applications and Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries)
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19 pages, 4869 KiB  
Article
New BMS Topology with Active Cell Balancing Between Electric Vehicles’ Traction and Auxiliary Batteries
by José Gabriel O. Pinto, Manuel Freitas Silva, Luis A. M. Barros and José A. Afonso
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050175 - 27 Apr 2025
Viewed by 326
Abstract
This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with the auxiliary battery. The proposed topology allows both the selection of the cells involved in the balancing process and the charging of the auxiliary battery, eliminating the need for a dedicated dc-dc isolated power converter. The flexibility of this topology allows the adoption of different balancing strategies, which can be used to improve balancing efficiency. The proposed topology was first analyzed through computer simulations, and a laboratory BMS prototype was developed. The results from the simulation and experimental tests validate the topology operation and its performance in transferring energy between the cells and the auxiliary battery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 13103 KiB  
Article
State-of-Health Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Lightweight DimConv-GFNet
by Kehao Huang, Jianqiang Kang, Jing V. Wang, Qian Wang and Oukai Wu
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050174 - 26 Apr 2025
Viewed by 246
Abstract
The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the [...] Read more.
The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the multi-scale local features from different sensor signals, and lightweight global filter networks (GFNet) to capture long-range dependencies in the Fourier frequency domain. Unlike Transformer attention architectures, GFNet utilizes spectral properties to facilitate global information exchange with a lower computational complexity. Experiments on two datasets with a total of 167 commercial LFP/graphite cells validate the effectiveness of DimConv-GFNet. Although the model shows slightly lower accuracy compared to the DimConv-Transformer baseline, it delivers competitive performance with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.335%, mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.233% and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 0.230%. Remarkably, the DimConv-GFNet substantially reduces computational demands, requiring fewer than one-third of the Floating Point Operations (FLOPs) and parameters of DimConv-Transformer. These results demonstrate DimConv-GFNet strikes a good balance between accuracy and efficiency, positioning it as a promising solution for efficient and accurate SOH estimation in battery management applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 5921 KiB  
Article
Study on Mechanical Properties and Microstructural Evolution of Composite Copper Foils Following Long-Term Storage
by Yujie Yan, Haibo Chen, Hang Li, Jing Hu, Ziye Xue, Jianli Zhang, Qiang Chen, Guangya Hou and Yiping Tang
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050173 - 25 Apr 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper [...] Read more.
Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper foil decreases by 9.76%, and the elongation rate drops by 26.32%. The internal texture of the composite copper foil shifts from a highly oriented (111) plane to a more random crystal plane orientation and the bonding strength is significantly improved. The study reveals that the residual stress within the copper layer provides the driving force for the changes in the microstructure; the intermediate PET layer plays a buffering and absorbing role in the stress-release process. It regulates the redistribution of stress, promoting the alteration of the copper layer’s texture and the refinement of grains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Secondary Batteries: Recent Processes and Future Challenges)
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27 pages, 7505 KiB  
Article
Modular Multifunctional Composite Structure for CubeSat Applications: Embedded Battery Prototype Thermal Analysis
by Giorgio Capovilla, Enrico Cestino, Leonardo Reyneri and Federico Valpiani
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050172 - 23 Apr 2025
Viewed by 276
Abstract
The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite [...] Read more.
The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite materials. This enables increased CubeSat mass efficiency and payload volume. An embedded battery tile has been designed, built, and tested from a vibration point of view. In the present work, the LiPo batteries selected for the prototype have been tested with the HPPC testing procedure, to extract their equivalent Randles circuit parameters. Thus, the thermal power dissipation from the batteries can be estimated. With these data, Thermal Desktop simulations of a representative ARAMIS CubeSat are performed, considering LEO orbit and hot/cold cases. Firstly, a parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the thermal behaviors of various design alternatives. A suitable configuration for the CubeSat was then found, enabling the validation of the embedded battery tile from a thermal point of view. The final configuration includes heaters for the LiPo batteries, a commercial CubeSat skeleton made in aluminum alloy, and a top coating for smart tiles with proper solar absorptivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)
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23 pages, 10702 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress in Cathode-Free Zinc Electrolytic MnO2 Batteries: Electrolytes and Electrodes
by Shiwei Liu, Zhongqi Liang, Hang Zhou, Weizheng Cai, Jiazhen Wu, Qianhui Zhang, Guoshen Yang, Walid A. Daoud, Zanxiang Nie, Pritesh Hiralal, Shiqiang Luo and Gehan A. J. Amaratunga
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050171 - 23 Apr 2025
Viewed by 328
Abstract
Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO2) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) [...] Read more.
Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO2) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) enhance ion transport, dual-electrolyte configurations (ion-selective membranes/hydrogels) reduce Zn corrosion. Near-neutral strategies utilize nanomicelles/complexing agents to regulate MnO2 deposition. Moreover, mediators (I−, Br−, Cr3+) reactivate MnO2 but require shuttle-effect control. For the electrodes/current collectors, electrode innovations including SEI/CEI layers and surfactant-driven phase tuning are introduced. Electrode-free designs and integrated “supercapattery” systems combining supercapacitors with Zn–MnO2/I2 chemistries are also discussed. This review highlights electrolyte–electrode synergy and hybrid device potential, paving the way for sustainable, high-performance Zn–MnO2 systems. Full article
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9 pages, 1696 KiB  
Article
Interactions Between Trivalent Elements Enable Ultrastable LDH Cathode for High-Performance Zinc Battery
by Junhua Zeng, Jinlei Gao, Wenyao Lu, Jiashuo Feng and Ting Deng
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050170 - 23 Apr 2025
Viewed by 183
Abstract
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical [...] Read more.
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical application in AZIBs. Herein, a ternary CoMnAl LDH is synthesized via the facile coprecipitation method as the cathode material for AZIB. The interaction between trivalent Al3+ and Mn3+ not only lowers the redox energy barrier but also enhances the electronic structure, as proved by EIS analysis and DFT simulation. As a result, the synthesized CoMnAl LDH displays a high specific capacity of 238.9 mAh g−1 at 0.5 A g−1, an outstanding rate performance (138.8 mAh g−1 at 5 A g−1), and a stable cyclability (92% capacity retention after 2000 cycles). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)
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