Batteries

16 pages, 1987 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

A Perspective on the Challenges and Prospects of Realizing the Second Life of Retired EV Batteries

by Prodip K. Das

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050176 - 28 Apr 2025

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As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity [...] Read more.

As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity and functionality. This has led to growing interest in exploring second-life applications for retired EV batteries, ranging from stationary energy storage to grid stabilization and beyond. However, numerous challenges must be addressed to unlock the full potential of this emerging sector. This paper delves into the key challenges and prospects associated with the second life of retired EV batteries. It examines technical hurdles, such as battery degradation, safety concerns, and the development of efficient repurposing methods, along with regulatory and economic barriers, including standards for battery reuse, recycling infrastructure, and market dynamics. Additionally, it highlights the potential environmental benefits, including reduced carbon emissions and resource conservation. In conclusion, the second life of retired EV batteries presents both challenges and opportunities. Addressing technical, regulatory, and economic barriers will be essential for realizing the full potential of this growing sector. However, with continued innovation and collaboration across industries, the future looks bright for leveraging retired EV batteries to create a more sustainable energy ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Second-Life Applications and Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries)

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19 pages, 4869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New BMS Topology with Active Cell Balancing Between Electric Vehicles’ Traction and Auxiliary Batteries

by José Gabriel O. Pinto, Manuel Freitas Silva, Luis A. M. Barros and José A. Afonso

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050175 - 27 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with the auxiliary battery. The proposed topology allows both the selection of the cells involved in the balancing process and the charging of the auxiliary battery, eliminating the need for a dedicated dc-dc isolated power converter. The flexibility of this topology allows the adoption of different balancing strategies, which can be used to improve balancing efficiency. The proposed topology was first analyzed through computer simulations, and a laboratory BMS prototype was developed. The results from the simulation and experimental tests validate the topology operation and its performance in transferring energy between the cells and the auxiliary battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 13103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State-of-Health Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Lightweight DimConv-GFNet

by Kehao Huang, Jianqiang Kang, Jing V. Wang, Qian Wang and Oukai Wu

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050174 - 26 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the [...] Read more.

The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the multi-scale local features from different sensor signals, and lightweight global filter networks (GFNet) to capture long-range dependencies in the Fourier frequency domain. Unlike Transformer attention architectures, GFNet utilizes spectral properties to facilitate global information exchange with a lower computational complexity. Experiments on two datasets with a total of 167 commercial LFP/graphite cells validate the effectiveness of DimConv-GFNet. Although the model shows slightly lower accuracy compared to the DimConv-Transformer baseline, it delivers competitive performance with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.335%, mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.233% and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 0.230%. Remarkably, the DimConv-GFNet substantially reduces computational demands, requiring fewer than one-third of the Floating Point Operations (FLOPs) and parameters of DimConv-Transformer. These results demonstrate DimConv-GFNet strikes a good balance between accuracy and efficiency, positioning it as a promising solution for efficient and accurate SOH estimation in battery management applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 5921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanical Properties and Microstructural Evolution of Composite Copper Foils Following Long-Term Storage

by Yujie Yan, Haibo Chen, Hang Li, Jing Hu, Ziye Xue, Jianli Zhang, Qiang Chen, Guangya Hou and Yiping Tang

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050173 - 25 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper [...] Read more.

Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper foil decreases by 9.76%, and the elongation rate drops by 26.32%. The internal texture of the composite copper foil shifts from a highly oriented (111) plane to a more random crystal plane orientation and the bonding strength is significantly improved. The study reveals that the residual stress within the copper layer provides the driving force for the changes in the microstructure; the intermediate PET layer plays a buffering and absorbing role in the stress-release process. It regulates the redistribution of stress, promoting the alteration of the copper layer’s texture and the refinement of grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Secondary Batteries: Recent Processes and Future Challenges)

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27 pages, 7505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modular Multifunctional Composite Structure for CubeSat Applications: Embedded Battery Prototype Thermal Analysis

by Giorgio Capovilla, Enrico Cestino, Leonardo Reyneri and Federico Valpiani

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050172 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite [...] Read more.

The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite materials. This enables increased CubeSat mass efficiency and payload volume. An embedded battery tile has been designed, built, and tested from a vibration point of view. In the present work, the LiPo batteries selected for the prototype have been tested with the HPPC testing procedure, to extract their equivalent Randles circuit parameters. Thus, the thermal power dissipation from the batteries can be estimated. With these data, Thermal Desktop simulations of a representative ARAMIS CubeSat are performed, considering LEO orbit and hot/cold cases. Firstly, a parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the thermal behaviors of various design alternatives. A suitable configuration for the CubeSat was then found, enabling the validation of the embedded battery tile from a thermal point of view. The final configuration includes heaters for the LiPo batteries, a commercial CubeSat skeleton made in aluminum alloy, and a top coating for smart tiles with proper solar absorptivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)

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23 pages, 10702 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in Cathode-Free Zinc Electrolytic MnO₂ Batteries: Electrolytes and Electrodes

by Shiwei Liu, Zhongqi Liang, Hang Zhou, Weizheng Cai, Jiazhen Wu, Qianhui Zhang, Guoshen Yang, Walid A. Daoud, Zanxiang Nie, Pritesh Hiralal, Shiqiang Luo and Gehan A. J. Amaratunga

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050171 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) [...] Read more.

Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) enhance ion transport, dual-electrolyte configurations (ion-selective membranes/hydrogels) reduce Zn corrosion. Near-neutral strategies utilize nanomicelles/complexing agents to regulate MnO₂ deposition. Moreover, mediators (I⁻, Br⁻, Cr³⁺) reactivate MnO₂ but require shuttle-effect control. For the electrodes/current collectors, electrode innovations including SEI/CEI layers and surfactant-driven phase tuning are introduced. Electrode-free designs and integrated “supercapattery” systems combining supercapacitors with Zn–MnO₂/I₂ chemistries are also discussed. This review highlights electrolyte–electrode synergy and hybrid device potential, paving the way for sustainable, high-performance Zn–MnO₂ systems. Full article

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9 pages, 1696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactions Between Trivalent Elements Enable Ultrastable LDH Cathode for High-Performance Zinc Battery

by Junhua Zeng, Jinlei Gao, Wenyao Lu, Jiashuo Feng and Ting Deng

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050170 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical [...] Read more.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical application in AZIBs. Herein, a ternary CoMnAl LDH is synthesized via the facile coprecipitation method as the cathode material for AZIB. The interaction between trivalent Al³⁺ and Mn³⁺ not only lowers the redox energy barrier but also enhances the electronic structure, as proved by EIS analysis and DFT simulation. As a result, the synthesized CoMnAl LDH displays a high specific capacity of 238.9 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.5 A g⁻¹, an outstanding rate performance (138.8 mAh g⁻¹ at 5 A g⁻¹), and a stable cyclability (92% capacity retention after 2000 cycles). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)

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Graphical abstract

22 pages, 3518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microgrid Energy Management Considering Energy Storage Degradation Cost

by Yiming Zhao, Hongrui Li, Changsheng Wan, Dong Du and Bo Chen

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050169 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

There are many challenges in incorporating the attenuation cost of energy storage into the optimization of microgrid operations due to the randomness of renewable energy supply, the high cost of controlled power generation, and the complexity associated with calculating the cost of battery [...] Read more.

There are many challenges in incorporating the attenuation cost of energy storage into the optimization of microgrid operations due to the randomness of renewable energy supply, the high cost of controlled power generation, and the complexity associated with calculating the cost of battery attenuation. Therefore, this paper proposes a microgrid energy management scheme considering the attenuation cost of energy storage. This scheme analyzes the power generation mode and uncertainty factors of distributed generators in detail. The influence of charge and discharge depth on the cycle life and residual value of the energy storage system was analyzed, and the energy storage attenuation cost model was established. Finally, considering the cost of power generation, environmental treatment, and the deterioration cost of energy storage systems, the objective function of the comprehensive operation cost of microgrids is formulated. The improved sine cosine algorithm (SCA) is used to simulate the energy output optimization of various distributed generators in the microgrid. The results show that the algorithm can effectively reduce the comprehensive operation cost of microgrids and improve their energy utilization efficiency, which proves the practical significance and reference value of the method for microgrid energy management. Full article

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17 pages, 5165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modular Cell Balancing Circuit and Strategy Based on Bidirectional Flyback Converter

by Yipei Wang, Jun-Hyeong Kwon, Seong-Cheol Choi, Guangxu Zhou and Sung-Jun Park

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050168 - 23 Apr 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

In this paper, a modular cell balancing circuit based on a bidirectional flyback converter (BFC) is designed, which is equipped with a symmetrical BFC for each cell. The primary side of all BFCs is in parallel with the battery pack, and the secondary [...] Read more.

In this paper, a modular cell balancing circuit based on a bidirectional flyback converter (BFC) is designed, which is equipped with a symmetrical BFC for each cell. The primary side of all BFCs is in parallel with the battery pack, and the secondary side is connected to the individual cells. Such an input-parallel output-series structure allows for bidirectional and controllable energy transfer among the cells. The control of the charging/discharging for a specific cell can be realized by adjusting the PWM signal on the primary or secondary side of the corresponding BFC. Based on this, three cell balancing strategies are proposed: maximum voltage discharge (MXVD), minimum voltage charge (MNVC), and maximum and minimum voltage balancing (MX&MNB). For MX&MNB, which is essentially a combination of MXVD and MNVC, it controls the maximum voltage cell discharging and minimum voltage cell charging simultaneously, where the energy is transferred directly between the two cells with the largest voltage difference. A cell balancing prototype is built and tested to verify the feasibility and stability of the proposed strategy. All three proposed methods can implement cell balancing simply and effectively, while the MX&MNB provides a faster speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Control and Optimization of Battery Energy Storage Systems—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 9495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SOH Estimation Method for Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Partial Discharge Curves Based on CGKAN

by Shengfeng He, Wenhu Qin, Zhonghua Yun, Chao Wu and Chongbin Sun

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050167 - 23 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is essential to ensure the safe and stable operation of equipment such as electric vehicles. To address the limitations in the accuracy and robustness of existing methods under complex operating conditions, a [...] Read more.

Accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is essential to ensure the safe and stable operation of equipment such as electric vehicles. To address the limitations in the accuracy and robustness of existing methods under complex operating conditions, a CNN-BiGRU-KAN (CGKAN) method for SOH estimation based on partial discharge curves is proposed. Firstly, random forest analysis is applied to extract features highly correlated with battery health from the partial discharge curve data. Next, a SOH estimation framework based on the CGKAN model is developed, where 1-Dimensional-Convolutional Neural Networks (1D-CNN) are used to extract deep features from the original data, Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (BiGRU) captures the bidirectional dependencies of the time series, and Kolmogorov–Arnold Networks (KAN) enhances the modeling of complex nonlinear features through its nonlinear mapping capabilities, thereby improving the accuracy of SOH estimation. Finally, multiple experiments under different conditions are conducted, and the results demonstrate that the proposed CGKAN method, by integrating the individual advantages of 1D-CNN, BiGRU, and KAN, efficiently captures complex nonlinear patterns in battery health features and maintains stable performance across various operating conditions. Full article

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Batteries, Volume 11, Issue 5 (May 2025) – 10 articles

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