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Batteries
Volume 11
Issue 4
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Batteries, Volume 11, Issue 4 (April 2025) – 51 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): K. Aissou et al. report the fabrication of polymeric membranes with optimized ionic conductivity (IC) and good permeability—key properties for next-generation anion exchange membranes (AEMs) aimed at reducing Ohmic losses and improving water management in alkaline membrane fuel cells. Hydrophilic ion-conducting double-gyroid (DG) nanochannels were created within block copolymer (BCP) AEMs by combining solvent vapor annealing (SVA) with a methylation process. The resulting DG-structured BCP AEMs, in their OH− counter-anion form, exhibited an IC of ~2.8 mS.cm−1 at 20 °C and high water permeability (~384 LMH.bar−1), whereas as-cast AEM analogs with a disordered phase showed much lower IC values (~1.2 mS.cm−1). View tis paper
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20 pages, 4221 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Flow and Mass Transfer Characteristics of an All-Iron Semi-Solid Redox Flow Battery
by Heyao Li, Zhuqian Zhang, Haojie Zhang and Yuchen Zhou
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040166 - 21 Apr 2025
Viewed by 240
Abstract
To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an [...] Read more.
To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an additional external magnetic field are further investigated in the semi-solid battery experiment. The results show that the mass transfer of the slurry in the battery flow channel and the prolonged discharge time are significantly affected by the additional external magnetic fields. In addition, a three-dimensional model of the semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented in detail, and it is verified to be reliable by experimental data. The simulation results show that the ion concentration distributions in the battery become more uniform with the increase in the flow rate and the initial concentration. Furthermore, it is also found that the size of the flow channel influences the mass transfer efficiency of the slurry. After optimizing the flow channel, it is found that when the flow channel length of the slurry inlet and outlet section is 2 cm, the operating efficiency of the semi-solid battery shows an increasing trend. This work provides comprehensive insight into the improvement of the performances of flow batteries, which will be conducive to the practical application of flow batteries. Full article
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18 pages, 3885 KiB  
Article
A Pathway to Circular Economy-Converting Li-Ion Battery Recycling Waste into Graphite/rGO Composite Electrocatalysts for Zinc–Air Batteries
by Reio Praats, Jani Sainio, Milla Vikberg, Lassi Klemettinen, Benjamin P. Wilson, Mari Lundström, Ivar Kruusenberg and Kerli Liivand
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040165 - 21 Apr 2025
Viewed by 390
Abstract
Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most deployed energy storage technologies worldwide, providing power for a wide range of applications—from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles (EVs). The growing demand for LIBs, coupled with a shortage of critical battery materials, has prompted [...] Read more.
Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most deployed energy storage technologies worldwide, providing power for a wide range of applications—from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles (EVs). The growing demand for LIBs, coupled with a shortage of critical battery materials, has prompted the scientific community to seek ways to improve material utilization through the recycling of end-of-life LIBs. While valuable battery metals are already being recycled on an industrial scale, graphite—a material classified as a critical resource—continues to be discarded. In this study, graphite waste recovered from the recycling of LIBs was successfully upcycled into an active graphite/rGO (reduced graphene oxide) composite oxygen electrocatalyst. The precursor graphite for rGO synthesis was also extracted from LIBs. Incorporating rGO into the graphite significantly enhanced the specific surface area and porosity of the resulting composite, facilitating effective doping with residual metals during subsequent nitrogen doping via pyrolysis. These composite catalysts enhanced both the oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions, enabling their use as air electrode catalyst materials in zinc–air batteries (ZABs). The best-performing composite catalyst demonstrated an impressive power density of 100 mW cm−2 and exceptional cycling stability for 137 h. This research further demonstrates the utilization of waste fractions from LIB recycling to drive advancements in energy conversion technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)
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29 pages, 9382 KiB  
Article
Heat Pipe Embedded Battery Cooling System for Future Electric Vehicle
by Su-Jong Kim, Ji-Su Lee and Seok-Ho Rhi
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040164 - 20 Apr 2025
Viewed by 467
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the performance of a new cooling system whose mechanism is integrated with an immersion cooling system and a heat pipe mechanism. The study comprises an experimental test and a numerical analysis using the 1-D model. [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study is to examine the performance of a new cooling system whose mechanism is integrated with an immersion cooling system and a heat pipe mechanism. The study comprises an experimental test and a numerical analysis using the 1-D model. In the experiment, a metal heating block that simulated the pouch-type cell was used. It was composed of multiple heaters and thermal sensors, working as a heating model of the battery while observing the thermal behavior of the cell at the same time. The temperature of the heating block was influenced by the types of working fluid and wick structure, which are the key points of this system. Their role is to promote the heat exchange process by facilitating the evaporation and condensation processes. Their performance was evaluated based on different types of shapes and materials of wicks. The simulation model was designed and its feasibility verified with the experiment results. Furthermore, different types of dielectric working fluids and variations in porosities were examined through the simulation model, which are crucial to determining the characteristics of the wick structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Management for Batteries: 2nd Edition)
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31 pages, 1468 KiB  
Review
Critical and Strategic Raw Materials for Energy Storage Devices
by Maham Mahnoor, Rabia Chandio, Anum Inam and Inam Ul Ahad
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040163 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 383
Abstract
The performance and scalability of energy storage systems play a key role in the transition toward intermittent renewable energy systems and the achievement of decarbonization targets through means of resilient electrical grids. Despite significant research and technology advancements, the scalability of innovative energy [...] Read more.
The performance and scalability of energy storage systems play a key role in the transition toward intermittent renewable energy systems and the achievement of decarbonization targets through means of resilient electrical grids. Despite significant research and technology advancements, the scalability of innovative energy storage systems remains challenging due to the scarcity of raw materials (used for the production of energy storage media, cathodes, anodes, separators, conductive agents, and electrolytes). The European Commission has identified certain raw materials as both economically important and subject to supply risks, designating them as critical and strategic raw materials. In this review, a comprehensive analysis is conducted regarding 28 raw materials and rare earth elements which are essential for the production of batteries, supercapacitors, and other storage systems, emphasizing their criticality, strategic importance, supply chain vulnerabilities, and associated environmental and social impacts. This study also addresses potential substitute materials for energy storage devices and innovations that make these devices recyclable. Future trends are briefly discussed, including advancements in alternative chemistries and innovations to improve energy density in advanced batteries and supercapacitors, paving the way for hybrid energy solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)
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14 pages, 3925 KiB  
Article
Capacity and State-of-Health Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Reduced Equivalent Circuit Models
by Hakeem Thomas and Mark H. Weatherspoon
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040162 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 371
Abstract
Knowledge of battery health and its degradation has been a research focus since it enables users to use batteries optimally. The dynamic electrochemical properties within a cell can be represented by an equivalent circuit to observe the impedance over a range of frequencies, [...] Read more.
Knowledge of battery health and its degradation has been a research focus since it enables users to use batteries optimally. The dynamic electrochemical properties within a cell can be represented by an equivalent circuit to observe the impedance over a range of frequencies, which is an indicator of the cell’s degradation buildup from an electrical framework. This process provides information on the different electrochemical processes observed at different frequency ranges, which can be used to optimally predict the capacity fade of a cell. With the increasing demand for batteries, faster and less computationally intensive means are being explored to predict the capacity degradation of batteries. The proposed method in this article introduces an effective reduced equivalent circuit model (ER-ECM) for battery prognosis studies. The ER-ECM measures the parameters of impedance spectra from the high- to mid-frequency regions for data input. These parameters are then used to accurately predict the capacity of the battery and its state of health. The results show that the overarching charge transfer resistance provides the most salient data for capacity predictions, having an average capacity error of 1.4%, which is a 40% reduction compared to using all the parameters of the ER-ECM. The ECMs used in this study also provide faster model training and testing by 6% compared to using global impedance spectra. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Modeling: Models, Charging Strategies, Performance Estimations and Thermal Management)
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24 pages, 553 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Kalman Filter and H-Infinity Filter for Battery State of Charge Estimation with a Detailed Validation Method
by Waleri Milde and Laurin Kerle
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040161 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 347
Abstract
Accurate and reliable estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for the performance and safety of battery management systems (BMS) in applications such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems. However, there is a lack of comprehensive comparative [...] Read more.
Accurate and reliable estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for the performance and safety of battery management systems (BMS) in applications such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems. However, there is a lack of comprehensive comparative studies evaluating different SOC estimation methods under standardized conditions. In this paper, we address this gap by providing a comprehensive, objective comparison of various Kalman and H-Infinity filter variants for battery SOC estimation, utilizing a detailed validation method based on well-defined criteria. The main contributions of this work are: (1) Implementation of multiple filter variants using a consistent equivalent circuit battery model; (2) Development of a standardized validation method for objective performance evaluation; (3) Detailed mathematical formulations enhancing reproducibility; (4) Evaluation of computational efficiency on a digital signal processor (DSP) to provide practical insights for real-time applications. Our findings reveal that while neither filter type is universally superior, the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and H-Infinity Filter (HIF) offer a solid balance between estimation accuracy and computational load, making them reliable choices for general applications. This work advances the understanding of SOC estimation methods and aids practitioners in balancing accuracy and computational efficiency for real-world applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Energy Storage and Applications)
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19 pages, 3739 KiB  
Article
Online Core Temperature Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries via an Aging-Integrated ECM-1D Coupled Model-Based Algorithm
by Yiqi Jia, Lorenzo Brancato, Marco Giglio and Francesco Cadini
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040160 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
Thermal management is pivotal for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of LIBs under dynamic conditions. Accurate core temperature monitoring remains a key BTMS challenge for predicting thermal distributions and mitigating TR risks. This study proposes a real-time core temperature estimation framework integrating [...] Read more.
Thermal management is pivotal for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of LIBs under dynamic conditions. Accurate core temperature monitoring remains a key BTMS challenge for predicting thermal distributions and mitigating TR risks. This study proposes a real-time core temperature estimation framework integrating joint EKF with an electro-thermal-aging model (ECM-1D). Using only surface temperature and voltage measurements, it simultaneously estimates core temperature, SOC, and capacity with bidirectional electro-thermal coupling. The hybrid approach pre-calibrates temperature/SOC/SOH-dependent parameters offline while updating capacity online. Validation under extreme conditions (high-rate cycling, aging, and ISCs) demonstrates 60% lower core temperature RMSE during high-rate cycling, a maximum estimation error below 0.9 K, and 58.9% reduction in SOC estimation error under aging conditions versus existing methods. The framework reliably tracks core temperature trends despite parasitic heat and signal noise, enabling earlier critical temperature warnings. This provides a foundation for TR prevention, advancing battery safety for EV and grid storage applications. Future extensions could integrate physical aging mechanisms and enhance fault detection capabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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20 pages, 15674 KiB  
Article
Binder-Free Fe-N-C-O Bifunctional Electrocatalyst in Nickel Foam for Aqueous Zinc–Air Batteries
by Jorge González-Morales, Jadra Mosa and Mario Aparicio
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040159 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts [...] Read more.
The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts hinder the large-scale integration of ZABs into the electric grid. This study presents binder-free Fe-based bifunctional electrocatalysts synthesized via a sol–gel method, followed by thermal treatment under ammonia flow. Supported on nickel foam, the catalyst exhibits enhanced activity for both the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER), essential for ZAB operation. This work addresses two critical challenges in the development of ZABs: first, the replacement of costly cobalt or platinum-group-metal (PGM)-based catalysts with an efficient alternative; second, the achievement of prolonged battery performance under real conditions without passivation. Structural analysis confirms the integration of iron nitrides, oxides, and carbon, resulting in high conductivity and catalytic stability without relying on precious or cobalt-based metals. Electrochemical tests reveal that the catalyst calcined at 800 °C delivers superior performance, achieving a four-electron ORR mechanism and prolonged operational life compared to its 900 °C counterpart. Both catalysts outperform conventional Pt/C-RuO2 systems in stability and selective bifunctionality, offering a more sustainable and cost-effective alternative. The innovative combination of nitrogen, carbon, and iron compounds overcomes limitations associated with traditional materials, paving the way for scalable, high-performance applications in renewable energy storage. This work underscores the potential of transition metal-based catalysts in advancing the commercial viability of ZABs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 2332 KiB  
Article
Preparation of Mesoporous Boron-Doped Porous Carbon Derived from Coffee Grounds via Hybrid Activation for Carbon Capture and Storage
by Hyeon Hye Kim, Kay-Hyeok An and Byung-Joo Kim
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040158 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 268
Abstract
The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere necessitates the development of efficient carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Among these, adsorption-based methods using porous carbon (PC) have attracted considerable attention due to their low energy requirements and cost-effectiveness. [...] Read more.
The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere necessitates the development of efficient carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Among these, adsorption-based methods using porous carbon (PC) have attracted considerable attention due to their low energy requirements and cost-effectiveness. Biomass waste-derived porous carbon is particularly attractive as a sustainable alternative, offering environmental benefits and high-value applications with low costs. In this study, coffee grounds (CGs) were selected as a precursor due to their abundance and cost-effectiveness compared with other biomass wastes. To improve the pore characteristics of CG-derived carbon (CCG), boric acid treatment was applied during carbonization followed by steam activation to prepare boron-doped CG-derived porous carbon (B-PCG). The N2/77K adsorption–desorption isotherms revealed a significant increase in the specific surface area and total pore volume of B-PCG from 1590 m2/g and 0.71 cm3/g to 2060 m2/g and 1.01 cm3/g, respectively, compared with PCG. Furthermore, high pressure CO2 adsorption analysis at 298 K up to 50 bar showed an approximately 50% improvement in CO2 adsorption capacity for B-PCG compared with PCG. These results suggest that boron doping is an effective strategy to optimize the pore structure and adsorption performance of biomass-derived porous carbon materials for CCS application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Carbon-Based Materials for Next-Generation Batteries and Supercapacitors)
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19 pages, 257 KiB  
Review
Advances in Standardised Battery Testing for Enhanced Safety and Innovation in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review
by Márton Pepó, Soma Fullér, Tibor Cseke and Zoltán Weltsch
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040157 - 16 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 706
Abstract
Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which [...] Read more.
Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which often do not keep pace with technological developments and are not harmonised across regions, limiting their effectiveness in real-world applications. The paper stresses the need for the continuous review of test protocols through collaboration between researchers, manufacturers, and regulators. A detailed case study of the BYD Dolphin battery demonstrates the practical importance of comprehensive testing in real-world conditions, spanning electrical, thermal, and mechanical ranges. The review concludes that up-to-date, harmonised, and scenario-specific test methods are needed to ensure accurate battery assessment, support global comparability, and enable the safe introduction of next-generation batteries for electric mobility and energy storage. Future work should prioritise operational monitoring, open access data sharing, and the development of sustainability-focused practices such as recycling and reclamation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
15 pages, 5960 KiB  
Article
The Use of Cognate Cosolvent to Mediate Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for High-Voltage and Long-Cycling Lithium-Metal Batteries
by Ying Hu, Dandan Wang, Qijie Yu, Ziyi He, Fengrui Deng, Hao Yan, Tinglu Song, Jin-Cheng Zheng and Yang Dai
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040156 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 340
Abstract
Localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) are promising systems for improving the high-voltage performance and interfacial stability of lithium-metal batteries (LMBs). Unfortunately, they are always challenged by liquid–liquid phase separation during solution preparation. Further investigation is always required when the prepared electrolyte has encountered liquid–liquid [...] Read more.
Localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) are promising systems for improving the high-voltage performance and interfacial stability of lithium-metal batteries (LMBs). Unfortunately, they are always challenged by liquid–liquid phase separation during solution preparation. Further investigation is always required when the prepared electrolyte has encountered liquid–liquid phase separation previously. Here, we propose a “cognate cosolvent” strategy to mediate phase-separated LiBF4/fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC)|ethyl trifluoroacetate (TFAE) mixtures with ethyl acetate (EA), forming effective LiBF4/FEC/EA/TFAE-based LHCEs (B-LHCEs). Because of their unique solvation structure, the B-LHCEs exhibit high oxidative stability, facilitating Li+ transport. The optimized B-LHCEs help single-crystal LiMn0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2/Li batteries form robust interphases, improving interfacial stability. As a result, distinct performance can be obtained (4.5 V, 500 cycles, ~90%, 1400, ~70%; 25 C, 128 mAh g−1, 4.7 V, 500, 82.5%). This work turns the “impossible” into an “effective” high-voltage electrolyte design, transcending the previous paradigms of electrolyte investigation and enriching LHCE preparation research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 3734 KiB  
Article
Tailoring Two-Dimensional NiFeCo-Layered Double Hydroxide onto One-Dimensional N-Doped CNTs for High-Performance Bifunctional Air Electrodes in Flexible Zinc–Air Batteries
by Yeon-Woo Kim, Ayeon Lee and Sung Hoon Ahn
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040155 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 337
Abstract
The development of bifunctional air electrodes with high activity and durability is essential for advancing flexible zinc–air batteries. Herein, a hierarchical electrode structure is designed by growing N-doped carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on copper foam, where CNTs serve as highly active oxygen reduction reaction [...] Read more.
The development of bifunctional air electrodes with high activity and durability is essential for advancing flexible zinc–air batteries. Herein, a hierarchical electrode structure is designed by growing N-doped carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on copper foam, where CNTs serve as highly active oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) sites. The controlled deposition of NiFeCo-layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanosheets, optimized to maintain ORR activity while enhancing oxygen evolution reaction (OER) performance, enables a finely tuned bifunctional catalyst. This architecture achieves outstanding electrochemical properties, requiring only 0.897 V vs. RHE and 1.446 V vs. RHE to reach 10 mA cm−2 in 1 M KOH, thereby minimizing overpotentials. When implemented as an air electrode in a quasi-solid-state zinc–air battery, the system demonstrates remarkable cycling stability, sustaining performance for over 300 h. Furthermore, a 16 cm2 pouch-type zinc–air battery delivers a high discharge capacity of 0.62 Ah, highlighting the scalability of this design. This work presents a robust and scalable strategy for developing high-performance bifunctional air electrodes, offering a promising route for next-generation flexible energy storage systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)
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14 pages, 4189 KiB  
Article
Big Data Study of the Impact of Residential Usage and Inhomogeneities on the Diagnosability of PV-Connected Batteries
by Fahim Yasir, Saeed Sepasi and Matthieu Dubarry
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040154 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 449
Abstract
Grid-connected battery energy storage systems are usually used 24/7, which could prevent the utilization of typical diagnosis and prognosis techniques that require controlled conditions. While some new approaches have been proposed at the laboratory level, the impact of real-world conditions could still be [...] Read more.
Grid-connected battery energy storage systems are usually used 24/7, which could prevent the utilization of typical diagnosis and prognosis techniques that require controlled conditions. While some new approaches have been proposed at the laboratory level, the impact of real-world conditions could still be problematic. This work investigates both the impact of additional residential usage on the cells while charging and of inhomogeneities on the diagnosability of batteries charged from photovoltaic systems. Using Big-Data synthetic datasets covering more than ten thousand possible degradations, we will show that these impacts can be accommodated to retain good diagnosability under auspicious conditions to reach average RMSEs around 2.75%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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34 pages, 8194 KiB  
Article
Optimisation of Solid-State Batteries: A Modelling Approach to Battery Design
by Jan Felix Plumeyer, Friedrich Moesle, Sebastian Wolf, Henrik Born, Heiner Hans Heimes and Achim Kampker
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040153 - 14 Apr 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
Solid-state batteries (SSBs) present a promising advancement in energy storage technology, with the potential to achieve higher energy densities and enhanced safety compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries. However, their commercialisation is hindered by technical limitations and fragmented research efforts that predominantly focus on [...] Read more.
Solid-state batteries (SSBs) present a promising advancement in energy storage technology, with the potential to achieve higher energy densities and enhanced safety compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries. However, their commercialisation is hindered by technical limitations and fragmented research efforts that predominantly focus on materials or individual performance parameters. This narrow scope limits SSB design and optimisation, potentially delaying the transition to commercial cells. Addressing these challenges requires a systematic framework that integrates key design and performance considerations. This study introduces a modelling framework that addresses these challenges by offering a systematic approach to SSB design. The model streamlines the design process by enabling users to define material selections and cell configurations while calculating key performance indicators (KPIs), such as energy density, power density, and resistance, as well as the specifications required for cell manufacturing. A material compatibility validation feature ensures appropriate selection of anode, cathode, and electrolyte materials, while an integrated sensitivity analysis (SA) function identifies critical design parameters for performance optimisation. The model’s accuracy and applicability were validated through comparisons with experimental data, established design frameworks, and the reverse-engineering of commercial SSB prototypes. Results show that the model predicts energy densities within a ±4% deviation in most cases. Additionally, the application of SA highlights its effectiveness in refining design parameters and optimising cell configurations. Despite certain limitations, the model remains a valuable tool in the early stages of battery concept development. It offers researchers and industry professionals a practical means to assess the feasibility of SSB designs and support future scale-up and industrialisation efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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34 pages, 38166 KiB  
Review
Gas Generation in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Mechanisms, Failure Pathways, and Thermal Safety Implications
by Tianyu Gong, Xuzhi Duan, Yan Shan and Lang Huang
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040152 - 13 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1148
Abstract
Gas evolution in lithium-ion batteries represents a pivotal yet underaddressed concern, significantly compromising long-term cyclability and safety through complex interfacial dynamics and material degradation across both normal operation and extreme thermal scenarios. While extensive research has focused on isolated gas generation mechanisms in [...] Read more.
Gas evolution in lithium-ion batteries represents a pivotal yet underaddressed concern, significantly compromising long-term cyclability and safety through complex interfacial dynamics and material degradation across both normal operation and extreme thermal scenarios. While extensive research has focused on isolated gas generation mechanisms in specific components, critical knowledge gaps persist in understanding cross-component interactions and the cascading failure pathways it induced. This review systematically decouples gas generation mechanisms at cathodes (e.g., lattice oxygen-driven CO2/CO in high-nickel layered oxides), anodes (e.g., stress-triggered solvent reduction in silicon composites), electrolytes (solvent decomposition), and auxiliary materials (binder/separator degradation), while uniquely establishing their synergistic impacts on battery stability. Distinct from prior modular analyses, we emphasize that: (1) emerging systems exhibit fundamentally different gas evolution thermodynamics compared to conventional materials, exemplified by sulfide solid electrolytes releasing H2S/SO2 via unique anionic redox pathways; (2) gas crosstalk between components creates compounding risks—retained gases induce electrolyte dry-out and ion transport barriers during cycling, while combustible gas–O2 mixtures accelerate thermal runaway through chain reactions. This review proposes three key strategies to suppress gas generation: (1) oxygen lattice stabilization via dopant engineering, (2) solvent decomposition mitigation through tailored interphases engineering, and (3) gas-selective adaptive separator development. Furthermore, it establishes a multiscale design framework spanning atomic defect control to pack-level thermal management, providing actionable guidelines for battery engineering. By correlating early gas detection metrics with degradation patterns, the work enables predictive safety systems and standardized protocols, directly guiding the development of reliable high-energy batteries for electric vehicles and grid storage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Safety Lithium-Ion Batteries: Basics, Progress and Challenges)
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21 pages, 18354 KiB  
Article
On the Morphological Evolution with Cycling of a Ball-Milled Si Slag-Based Electrode for Li-Ion Batteries
by Alexandre Heitz, Victor Vanpeene, Samuel Quéméré, Natalie Herkendaal, Thierry Douillard, Isaac Martens, Marta Mirolo and Lionel Roué
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040151 - 11 Apr 2025
Viewed by 431
Abstract
A Si/SiC/SiO2 (53/44/3 wt.%) composite is evaluated as an anode material for Li-ion batteries. This material, a result of the high-energy ball-milling of a by-product of the carbothermal reduction of silica (Si slag), is predominantly made up of micrometric particles of amorphous [...] Read more.
A Si/SiC/SiO2 (53/44/3 wt.%) composite is evaluated as an anode material for Li-ion batteries. This material, a result of the high-energy ball-milling of a by-product of the carbothermal reduction of silica (Si slag), is predominantly made up of micrometric particles of amorphous or short-range order Si in which submicrometric SiC inclusions are dispersed. Its capacity is 860 mAh g−1 (1.7 mAh cm−2) after 200 cycles in half-cell configuration and 1.6 mAh cm−2 after 70 cycles in full-cell. The SiC component is not electroactive for lithiation but plays a key role in the electrode stability by preventing the formation of the c-Li15Si4 phase, known to accelerate electrode degradation. It is shown that capacity decay with cycling mainly originates from solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth rather than particle disconnections. Complementary wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) analyses confirm the SEI grows alongside cycling and allows for the highlighting of its major components, namely, Li2CO3 and LiF. The morphological evolution of the electrode upon cycling is studied by electrochemical dilatometry, operando optical microscopy, and focused ion beam (FIB) and broad ion beam (BIB) scanning electron microscopy (SEM). No particle cracking is observed. However, reconstructed 3D imaging of the electrodes before and after 10 and 200 cycles clearly shows that the particles progressively evolve a dendritic structure. The SEI grows on and within the particles and induces a significant decrease in the electrode’s porosity and an increase in its thickness. Full article
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19 pages, 19904 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Lithium Battery Cycle Aging Based on Temperature Increase During Charging
by Hanchi Hong, Yu Zhu, Luigi d’Apolito and Shuiwen Shen
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040150 - 10 Apr 2025
Viewed by 539
Abstract
This study investigates the temperature increase characteristics of lithium-ion batteries under various states of health (SOHs) and proposes an aging assessment method based on temperature increase. The analysis of experimental data reveals that temperature increase behavior varies across different locations on the battery, [...] Read more.
This study investigates the temperature increase characteristics of lithium-ion batteries under various states of health (SOHs) and proposes an aging assessment method based on temperature increase. The analysis of experimental data reveals that temperature increase behavior varies across different locations on the battery, particularly at the center of its large surface area, as the battery ages. This study demonstrates that monitoring surface temperature increase can serve as an effective method for rapid SOH assessment and provides insights into performance degradation and electrode aging. Furthermore, this approach enables the preliminary diagnosis of battery health by tracking temperature changes, without requiring complex equipment, making it highly practical and suitable for widespread application. In addition, this study discusses the potential impact of lithium plating on temperature increase characteristics and its implications for battery safety. Full article
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21 pages, 1231 KiB  
Article
Advanced Load Cycle Generation for Electrical Energy Storage Systems Using Gradient Random Pulse Method and Information Maximising-Recurrent Conditional Generative Adversarial Networks
by Steven Neupert, Jiaqi Yao and Julia Kowal
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040149 - 9 Apr 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
The paper presents two approaches to generating load cycles for electrical energy storage systems. A load cycle is described as the operation of an energy storage system. The cycles can include different metrics depending on the storage application. Load cycle analysis using the [...] Read more.
The paper presents two approaches to generating load cycles for electrical energy storage systems. A load cycle is described as the operation of an energy storage system. The cycles can include different metrics depending on the storage application. Load cycle analysis using the rainflow counting method is employed to understand and validate the metrics of the load cycles generated. Current load cycle generation can involve clustering methods, random microtrip methods, and machine learning techniques. The study includes a random microtrip method that utilises the Random Pulse Method (RPM) and enhances it to develop an improved version called the Gradient Random Pulse Method (gradRPM), which includes the control of stress factors such as the gradient of the state of charge (SOC). This method is relatively simple but, in many cases, it fulfills its purpose. Another more sophisticated method to control stress factors has been proposed, namely the Information Maximising-Recurrent Conditional Generative Adversarial Network (Info-RCGAN). It uses a deep learning algorithm to follow a machine learning-based, data-driven load cycle generation approach. Both approaches use the measurement dataset of a BMW i3 over multiple years to generate new synthetic load cycles. After generating the load cycles using both approaches, they are applied in a laboratory environment to evaluate the stress factors and validate how similar the synthetic data are to a real measurement. The results provide insights into generating simulation or testing data for electrical energy storage applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 6710 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of an Electromagnetic Induction-Based Thermal Propagation Test Method for Large-Format Lithium-Ion Battery Systems
by Changyong Jin, Jiangna Gu, Chengshan Xu, Wanlin Wang, Lirong Liu and Xuning Feng
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040148 - 9 Apr 2025
Viewed by 431
Abstract
This study establishes a standardized framework for thermal propagation test in nickel-7 lithium-ion battery systems through a high-frequency electromagnetic induction heating method. The non-intrusive triggering mechanism enables precise thermal runaway initiation within two seconds through localized eddy current heating (>1200 °C), validated through [...] Read more.
This study establishes a standardized framework for thermal propagation test in nickel-7 lithium-ion battery systems through a high-frequency electromagnetic induction heating method. The non-intrusive triggering mechanism enables precise thermal runaway initiation within two seconds through localized eddy current heating (>1200 °C), validated through cell-level tests with 100% success rate across diverse trigger positions. System-level thermal propagation tests were conducted on two identical battery boxes. The parallel experiments revealed distinct propagation patterns influenced by system sealing quality. In the inadequately sealed system (Box 01), flame formation led to accelerated thermal propagation through enhanced convective and radiative heat transfer. In contrast, the well-sealed system (Box 02) maintained an oxygen-deficient environment, resulting in a controlled sequential propagation pattern. The testing methodology incorporating dummy modules proved efficient for validating thermal protection strategies while optimizing costs. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of thermal runaway propagation mechanisms and the development of standardized testing protocols for large-format battery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Safety and Fire Prevention in Electric Vehicles)
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37 pages, 8167 KiB  
Review
Ionic Liquids and Ammoniates as Electrolytes for Advanced Sodium-Based Secondary Batteries
by Pablo Hiller-Vallina, Carmen Miralles, Andrés Parra-Puerto and Roberto Gómez
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040147 - 9 Apr 2025
Viewed by 728
Abstract
This review aims to provide an up-to-date report on the state of the art of electrolytes based on (quasi-)ionic liquids for sodium batteries. Electrolytes based on conventional ionic liquids are classified into one-anion- and two-anion-type electrolytes according to the number of different anions [...] Read more.
This review aims to provide an up-to-date report on the state of the art of electrolytes based on (quasi-)ionic liquids for sodium batteries. Electrolytes based on conventional ionic liquids are classified into one-anion- and two-anion-type electrolytes according to the number of different anions present in the media. Their application for sodium-based batteries is revised, and the potential advantages of two-anion-type electrolytes are highlighted and rationalized based on the higher tunability of interactions among the different electrolyte components enabled by the presence of two different anionic species. Next, the synthesis and properties of liquid ammonia solvates (aka liquid ammoniates) are presented, with a focus on their use as alternative electrolytes. Attention is paid to some of the outstanding properties of ammoniates, notably, their high conductivity and sodium concentrations, together with their ability to sustain dendrite-free sodium deposition, not only on sodium but also on copper collectors. Finally, the prospects and limitations of these electrolytes for the development of new sodium-based batteries, including anode-less devices, are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Secondary Batteries: Recent Processes and Future Challenges)
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12 pages, 4129 KiB  
Article
Structural Design of Dry-Processed Lithium-Rich Mn-Based Materials with High Loading for Enhanced Energy Density
by Yujie Ma, Haojin Guo, Tai Yang and Zhifeng Wang
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040146 - 7 Apr 2025
Viewed by 416
Abstract
With the growing demand for electric vehicles and consumer electronics, lithium-ion batteries with a high energy density are urgently needed. Lithium-rich manganese-based materials (LRMs) are known for their high theoretical specific capacity, rapid electron/ion transfer, and high output voltage. Constructing electrodes with a [...] Read more.
With the growing demand for electric vehicles and consumer electronics, lithium-ion batteries with a high energy density are urgently needed. Lithium-rich manganese-based materials (LRMs) are known for their high theoretical specific capacity, rapid electron/ion transfer, and high output voltage. Constructing electrodes with a substantial amount of active materials is a viable method for enhancing the energy density of batteries. In this study, we prepare thick LRM electrodes through a dry process method of binder fibrillation. A point-to-line-to-surface three-dimensional conductive network is designed by carbon agents with various morphologies. This structural design improves conductivity and facilitates efficient ion and electron transport due to close particle contact and tight packing. A high-loading cathode (35 mg cm−2) is fabricated, achieving an impressive areal capacity of up to 7.9 mAh cm−2. Moreover, the pouch cell paired with a lithium metal anode exhibits a remarkable energy density of 949 Wh kg−1. Compared with the cathodes prepared by the wet process, the dry process optimizes the pathways for e−/Li+ transport, leading to reduced resistance, superior coulombic efficiency, retention over cycling, and minimized side reaction. Therefore, the novel structural adoption of the dry process represents a promising avenue for driving innovation and pushing the boundaries for enhanced energy density for batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Design, Preparation, Reaction Mechanisms of Electrode Materials, and Battery Life Evaluation)
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19 pages, 2019 KiB  
Article
Early Prediction of Battery Lifetime Using Centered Isotonic Regression with Quantile-Transformed Features
by Muhammad Arslan Khan, Yixing Wang and Benben Jiang
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040145 - 7 Apr 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
The rapid development of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries has raised requirements for cycle life prediction to ensure safety and reliability. However, the intricate and nonlinear behavior of the battery degradation process poses significant challenges in accurately predicting its cycle life at an early stage. [...] Read more.
The rapid development of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries has raised requirements for cycle life prediction to ensure safety and reliability. However, the intricate and nonlinear behavior of the battery degradation process poses significant challenges in accurately predicting its cycle life at an early stage. This work addresses the battery lifetime prediction problem by leveraging machine learning (ML) methods. First, we apply quantile transformation (QT) to both features and battery cycle lives to improve their correlation. Next, we adopt a centered isotonic regression (CIR) method in our work, a variant of isotonic regression (IR) that centers the feature values and then reduces overfitting to improve model performance. Finally, we perform convex regression (CR) to capture specific patterns in the battery dataset where monotonicity is absent and achieve an overall prediction for battery cycle lives. To validate our proposed method, we have done a comprehensive comparison among several different benchmarks, including elastic net, gradient boosting regression tree, decision tree, support vector machine, random forest, and Gaussian process regression. In contrast to existing methods, our CIR model has shown the best performance, with an average percentage error of 9.8% and a root mean square error of 149 cycles. These experiment results demonstrate the capability and potential of our proposed CIR model in the problem of battery lifetime prediction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Advanced Battery Systems)
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45 pages, 19696 KiB  
Review
Carbon-Based Thermal Management Solutions and Innovations for Improved Battery Safety: A Review
by Benjamin Tawiah, Emmanuel A. Ofori, Daming Chen, Yang Ming, Yongdan Hou, Hao Jia and Bin Fei
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040144 - 7 Apr 2025
Viewed by 807
Abstract
The extensive use of lithium-ion batteries and other energy storage systems (ESS) in recent years has resulted in a critical need for effective thermal management solutions that ensure safe and reliable operations. Carbon-based materials (C-bMs) are a promising candidate for addressing the thermal [...] Read more.
The extensive use of lithium-ion batteries and other energy storage systems (ESS) in recent years has resulted in a critical need for effective thermal management solutions that ensure safe and reliable operations. Carbon-based materials (C-bMs) are a promising candidate for addressing the thermal challenges in ESS due to their unique thermal, electrical, and structural properties. This article provides a concise overview of C-bM thermal management solutions for improved battery safety. The key thermal management requirements and failure modes associated with battery systems are highlighted, underscoring the importance of effective battery thermal management (BTM). Various forms of C-bMs, including graphite, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon foams, nanodiamonds, and graphdiyne, are examined for their potential applications in battery thermal management systems. The recent innovations and advancements in C-bM thermal management solutions, such as phase change composites, heat pipes, and thermal interface materials, are highlighted. Furthermore, the latest research trends focus mainly on the development of hybrid battery thermal management solutions, carbon-based aerogels, and complex C-bM structures with tailored thermal pathways for optimized thermal management. Most of the current innovations are still at the laboratory scale; hence, future research efforts will be focused on developing integrated multi-functional C-bMs, sustainable and scalable manufacturing techniques, self-healing C-bMs composites, intelligent C-bMs, and further explorations of uncommon C-bMs. These advancements are bound to enhance performance, sustainability, and application-specific adaptations for BTM. This article provides valuable insights for researchers, and stakeholders interested in leveraging C-bMs for BTM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Thermal Performance and Management: Advances and Challenges)
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15 pages, 1904 KiB  
Article
Design of a High-Voltage Insulation Resistance Detection System for Commercial Vehicles
by Feng Guo, Danping She, Xinfeng Zhang and Yue Han
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040143 - 7 Apr 2025
Viewed by 386
Abstract
Based on the safety monitoring requirements of power batteries for new energy commercial vehicles, this study proposes a battery insulation detection method utilizing the bridge method in combination with existing insulation detection techniques. Through optimization and improvement of this methodology, an insulation detection [...] Read more.
Based on the safety monitoring requirements of power batteries for new energy commercial vehicles, this study proposes a battery insulation detection method utilizing the bridge method in combination with existing insulation detection techniques. Through optimization and improvement of this methodology, an insulation detection system for new energy commercial vehicle power batteries was developed, along with a dynamic online calculation method for insulation resistance. Comprehensive experimental testing under multiple operational conditions demonstrates that the proposed system achieves a measurement accuracy with errors below 5% for insulation resistance. Furthermore, the system exhibits significant advantages in dynamic real-time monitoring capabilities and operational reliability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Electric Vehicle Technology, 2nd Volume)
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15 pages, 4298 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Cathode Material Li2FeTiO4 for Lithium-Ion Batteries by Sol–Gel Method
by Pengqing Hou, Qi Sun, Shengxue Yan, Guanglong Li, Yingdong Qu and Shaohua Luo
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040142 - 6 Apr 2025
Viewed by 417
Abstract
The development of a simple and reliable strategy to synthesize cathode materials is crucial for achieving the overall high performance of rechargeable lithium batteries, which has proved to be quite challenging. Herein, we report a simple sol–gel method for the synthesis of Li [...] Read more.
The development of a simple and reliable strategy to synthesize cathode materials is crucial for achieving the overall high performance of rechargeable lithium batteries, which has proved to be quite challenging. Herein, we report a simple sol–gel method for the synthesis of Li2FeTiO4 cathode materials. The reaction mechanism of Li2FeTiO4 crystals can be divided into five stages: including the breakage of the coordination bond; the thermal decomposition of citric acid; the thermal decomposition of metal salts and the reduction of trivalent iron and the formation of Li2FeTiO4 crystals. Finally, the optimum calcination temperature for the preparation of Li2FeTiO4 cathode materials was explored. The Li2FeTiO4 cathode material prepared at 700 °C provides a discharge-specific capacity of 121.3 mAh/g in the first cycle and capacity retention of 89.2%. Our results provide new insights into the application of Li2FeTiO4 cathode materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Electrode Materials for Sustainable Energy Storage Devices)
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27 pages, 15381 KiB  
Article
Design Optimization of Bionic Liquid Cooling Plate Based on PSO-BP Neural Network Surrogate Model and Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm
by Jiaming Liu, Wenlin Yuan, Yapeng Zhou and Hengyun Zhang
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040141 - 5 Apr 2025
Viewed by 371
Abstract
In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity [...] Read more.
In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity analysis is first conducted based on the numerical simulation approach, identifying three key factors as design variables for optimizing design objectives such as maximum temperature (Tmax), maximum temperature difference (ΔTmax), and pressure drop (ΔP). Subsequently, the PSO algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of the BPNN structure, thereby constructing the PSO-BPNN surrogate model. Next, the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) is employed to obtain the Pareto optimal set, and the TOPSIS with the entropy weight method is used to determine the optimal solution, eliminating subjective preferences in decision-making. The results show that the PSO-BPNN model outperforms the traditional BPNN in prediction accuracy for all three objectives. Compared to the initial structure, the Tmax and ΔTmax are reduced by 1.09 °C and 0.41 °C in the optimized structure, respectively, with an increase in ΔP by 21.24 Pa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)
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37 pages, 23423 KiB  
Review
Thermally Stable Carbon Materials from Polybenzoxazines: Structure, Properties, and Supercapacitor Potential
by Thirukumaran Periyasamy, Shakila Parveen Asrafali and Jaewoong Lee
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040140 - 4 Apr 2025
Viewed by 484
Abstract
This review explores the structural and electrochemical characteristics of carbon materials derived from polybenzoxazines, emphasizing their potential in supercapacitors. A detailed analysis of thermal degradation by-products during carbonization reveals distinct competing mechanisms, underscoring the exceptional thermal stability of benzoxazines. These materials exhibit significant [...] Read more.
This review explores the structural and electrochemical characteristics of carbon materials derived from polybenzoxazines, emphasizing their potential in supercapacitors. A detailed analysis of thermal degradation by-products during carbonization reveals distinct competing mechanisms, underscoring the exceptional thermal stability of benzoxazines. These materials exhibit significant pseudocapacitive behavior and excellent charge retention, making them strong candidates for energy storage applications. The versatility of polybenzoxazine-based carbons enables the formation of diverse morphologies—nanospheres, foams, films, nanofibers, and aerogels—each tailored for specific functionalities. Advanced synthesis techniques allow for precise control over porosity at the nanoscale, optimizing performance for supercapacitors and beyond. Their exceptional thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and tunable porosity extend their utility to gas adsorption, catalysis, and electromagnetic shielding. Additionally, their intumescent properties (unique ability to expand when exposed to high heat) make them promising candidates for flame-retardant coatings. The combination of customizable architecture, superior electrochemical performance, and high thermal resistance highlights their transformative potential in sustainable energy solutions and advanced protective applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Supercapacitors: Advancements & Challenges)
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18 pages, 3618 KiB  
Review
Strategies to Suppress Polysulfide Dissolution and Its Effects on Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
by Grace Cheung and Chun Huang
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040139 - 3 Apr 2025
Viewed by 658
Abstract
Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), with a high energy density (2600 Wh kg−1) and theoretical specific capacity (1672 mA h g−1), are considered the most promising next-generation rechargeable energy storage devices. However, polysulfide dissolution and the shuttle effect cause severe [...] Read more.
Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), with a high energy density (2600 Wh kg−1) and theoretical specific capacity (1672 mA h g−1), are considered the most promising next-generation rechargeable energy storage devices. However, polysulfide dissolution and the shuttle effect cause severe capacity fading and the rapid loss of the active material; hence, these must be addressed first. This review provides an overview of various strategies employed to immobilise polysulfides via polysulfide trapping and physical and chemical adsorption using porous cathode designs, heterostructures, functionalised separators, and polymer binders. The working mechanism of each strategy is reviewed and discussed, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, and they are analysed through comparisons of the battery performance and limitations in terms of practical applications. Finally, the future prospects for the design and synthesis of LSBs to limit polysulfide dissolution are discussed. Full article
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10 pages, 2095 KiB  
Article
One-Step Synthesis of Zirconium Sulfide Nanoparticles on Flexible Carbon Cloth for Supercapacitor Application
by Yu-Xuan Wang, Dung-Sheng Tsai, Chu-Jung Huang, Zi-Yu Chen and Chuan-Pei Lee
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040138 - 31 Mar 2025
Viewed by 326
Abstract
Zirconium sulfide nanoparticles (ZrxSy) are prepared on a flexible substrate of carbon cloth (CC) via a one-step synthesis approach using the low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image reveals that the particle sizes are [...] Read more.
Zirconium sulfide nanoparticles (ZrxSy) are prepared on a flexible substrate of carbon cloth (CC) via a one-step synthesis approach using the low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image reveals that the particle sizes are in the range of ca. 3~23 nm with an average value of ~13.02 nm. The synthesized ZrxSy nanoparticles are composed of ZrS3 and Zr9S2 phases, which is verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). By using the ZrxSy/CC as a supercapacitor flexible electrode, the capacitance extracted from the cyclic voltammetry measurement is 406 C g−1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s−1; the capacitance values obtained from GCD curves at a current density of 0.5 A g−1 and 1 A g−1 are 151 and 134 C g−1, respectively. These results highlight the promising potential of ZrxSy as a supercapacitor material for future energy-storage technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)
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25 pages, 7892 KiB  
Article
Study of the Operation of Lead–Acid Battery Electrodes Under Hybrid Battery–Electrolyzer Cycling Profiles
by Elisabeth Lemaire, Lionel Serra, Catherine Arnal, Florence Ardiaca, Daniel Monchal, Nicolas Guillet and Angel Kirchev
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040137 - 31 Mar 2025
Viewed by 278
Abstract
Flooded lead–acid batteries start producing oxygen and hydrogen during the final stages of charge and subsequent overcharge. The collection of the hydrogen produced allows for an increase in overall energy efficiency and transforms the system into a hybrid device typically referred to as [...] Read more.
Flooded lead–acid batteries start producing oxygen and hydrogen during the final stages of charge and subsequent overcharge. The collection of the hydrogen produced allows for an increase in overall energy efficiency and transforms the system into a hybrid device typically referred to as a “Battolyzer” (battery electrolyzer). The present work explores the feasibility of the above approach through a detailed study of the long-term ageing process of flooded tubular lead–acid cells subjected to various rates of discharge and overcharge, emulating four different scenarios of Battolyzer use, starting from 70% depth of discharge cycling to nearly continuous water electrolysis. The combined results from the electrochemical and corrosion studies showed that the Battolyzer cells’ degradation was driven by the corrosion of the positive current collectors. The progress of the corrosion process was strongly correlated with the amount of hydrogen produced. The increase in the depth of discharge resulted in minor decreases in the corrosion current, indicating that the battery functionality of the Battolyzer was more advantageous than the continuous water electrolysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemistry of Lead-Acid Batteries)
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