Plants

18 pages, 2808 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Influence of the Antioxidant System in Eucalyptus Seedlings in the Face of Adequate Water Availability

by Ricardo Gava, Dthenifer Cordeiro Santana, Cid Naudi Silva Campos, Ana Carina da Silva Cândido Seron, Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro, Mayara Fávero Cotrim, Regimar Garcia dos Santos, Renato de Mello Prado, Rafael Felippe Ratke, Marcia Leticia Monteiro Gomes and Paulo Eduardo Teodoro

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3405; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213405 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 451

Abstract

The study of the relationship between water availability, photosynthetic behavior, flavonoid accumulation, and antioxidant response offers new perspectives for enhancing nursery practices, resulting in more vigorous eucalyptus seedlings that are tolerant and have greater potential for field establishment. Under the hypothesis that different [...] Read more.

The study of the relationship between water availability, photosynthetic behavior, flavonoid accumulation, and antioxidant response offers new perspectives for enhancing nursery practices, resulting in more vigorous eucalyptus seedlings that are tolerant and have greater potential for field establishment. Under the hypothesis that different eucalyptus genetic materials show contrasting responses to water availability in the soil–plant–atmosphere system, this study aims to evaluate the physiological behavior of clones subjected to different irrigation intervals, with an emphasis on the role of flavonoids as antioxidants in mitigating the effects of water stress. The experimental design was structured in strips containing five eucalyptus clones and irrigation with different watering intervals: 1, 2, 4, and 8 days. Evaluations of net photosynthesis, transpiration, and instantaneous water use efficiency were performed. In addition to the physiological assessments, the flavonoids daidzein, genistein, and genistin were determined. Clones C1, C2, and C3 excelled in photosynthesis and transpiration at 2- and 4-day intervals, while C1 and C2 maintained superior performance even at an 8-day interval. WUE was highest in C5 and increased with water stress, showing a quadratic fit in all clones. Regarding flavonoid production, C1 and C3 showed greater daidzein accumulation, with a quadratic response to the withdrawal interval. Genistein showed a linear reduction only in C2, while genistein increased in C1, peaking around 11 days. Eucalyptus clones exhibit distinct physiological and biochemical responses to variations in irrigation intervals. More frequent irrigation favors photosynthetic activity and transpiration, particularly in clones C1, C2, and C3, whereas longer irrigation intervals reduce these processes but enhance water use efficiency, especially in C5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Progress in Plant Nutrition Research and Plant Physiology: 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 1472 KB

Open AccessArticle

24-Epibrassinolide-Succinic Acid Conjugate Is Involved in the Acclimation of Rape Plants to Salt Stress

by Liliya V. Kolomeichuk, Vladimir A. Khripach, Raisa P. Litvinovskaya, Aleh P. Savachka, Mingxiang Liang, Li Xu, Vladimir V. Kuznetsov and Marina V. Efimova

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3404; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213404 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 444

Abstract

The influence of the conjugate of 24-epibrassinolide with succinic acid (tetrahydrosuccinate of 24-epibrassinolide, EBL THS) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on the acclimation of rapeseed plants (Brassica napus L.) to chloride salinity (150 mM NaCl) was investigated. After two weeks of growth in Hoagland–Snyder [...] Read more.

The influence of the conjugate of 24-epibrassinolide with succinic acid (tetrahydrosuccinate of 24-epibrassinolide, EBL THS) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on the acclimation of rapeseed plants (Brassica napus L.) to chloride salinity (150 mM NaCl) was investigated. After two weeks of growth in Hoagland–Snyder medium, the rapeseed seedlings were transferred to the same medium supplemented with EBL or EBL THS (10 nM) for 4 h, after which NaCl (150 mM) was added; parameters were taken on the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th days. It was established that salt stress inhibited growth processes (by 19–45%), reduced the chlorophyll and carotenoid contents (by 19–50%), photosystem II efficiency (by 13–19%), tissue hydration (by 3.54%), and osmotic potential (by three times), increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) (by 1.5–2 times), and proline accumulation (by 1.4–18 times), and altered ion status, increasing the concentrations of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions while decreasing the levels of K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, S²⁺, Fe²⁺, Al³⁺, and P³⁺. The short-term pretreatment of plants with EBL THS, similar to EBL, reduced the inhibitory effects of NaCl on growth processes, pigment content (to a greater extent with EBL THS), the efficiency of photochemical processes in photosystem II, the accumulation of Na⁺ ions, and in the case of EBL THS, the accumulation of Cl⁻ ions. Both regulators (especially EBL THS) reduced LPO, and stimulated the accumulation of NaCl-induced proline, which was organ-specific and dependent on the duration of stress. EBL THS stimulated the activity of superoxide dismutase and peroxidase, whereas EBL primarily stimulated peroxidase. Thus, it was demonstrated for the first time that EBL THS, like EBL, increased the salt tolerance of rapeseed plants, but had a more pronounced stress-protective effect, primarily at the level of antioxidant system components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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21 pages, 2639 KB

Open AccessArticle

Defense and Adaptive Strategies of Crithmum maritimum L. Against Insect Herbivory: Evidence of Phenotypic Plasticity

by Liliya Naui, Yassine M’rabet, Bilel Halouani, Najet Chaabene, Faten Mezni, Abdelhamid Khaldi and Karim Hosni

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3403; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213403 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 537

Abstract

Insect herbivory exerts strong selective pressure on plants, yet no study has documented its effects on the halophytic Apiaceae Crithmum maritimum L. (sea fennel). Here, we present the first evidence of natural insect attack on this species, based on five Tunisian coastal populations [...] Read more.

Insect herbivory exerts strong selective pressure on plants, yet no study has documented its effects on the halophytic Apiaceae Crithmum maritimum L. (sea fennel). Here, we present the first evidence of natural insect attack on this species, based on five Tunisian coastal populations distributed along a transparent bioclimatic gradient—from sub-humid to semi-arid—and exposed to different levels of herbivory. We implemented an integrative, multi-trait analytical design encompassing morphological, biochemical, mineral, and lipophilic datasets. Each dataset was explored through a suite of complementary multivariate analyses, including ANOVA coupled with Tukey’s HSD, principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) with variable-importance-in-projection (VIP) scores, correlation matrices, hierarchical clustering, and distance-based redundancy analysis (dbRDA). This integrative strategy provided a robust framework for disentangling the complex trait associations underlying two distinct defense syndromes. Populations from low-herbivory, sub-humid sites (Tabarka, Bizerte, Tunisia) showed higher levels of phenolics, tannins, antioxidants, sterols, PUFA, and structural robustness, indicating a tolerance strategy. Conversely, high-herbivory, semi-arid sites (Haouaria, Monastir, Tunisia) were marked by elevated apiol and terpene levels, sodium and phosphorus accumulation, and reproductive adjustments, reflecting a resistance strategy. The site Cap Negro exhibited a transitional expression, revealing intermediate phenotypic plasticity. These findings show that herbivory intensity and bioclimatic conditions jointly influence the defense syndromes of C. maritimum, emphasizing its remarkable phenotypic plasticity and providing the first ecological evidence of insect herbivory in sea fennel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

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18 pages, 821 KB

Open AccessReview

Plant Growth Regulators Use in the In Vitro Culture of Agave Species

by Estefany Alejandra Sánchez-Mendoza, Eugenio Pérez-Molphe-Balch, Rafael Guzmán-Mendoza, Graciela Ruiz-Aguilar, Alberto M. García-Munguía, Rogelio Costilla-Salazar and Héctor Gordon Núñez-Palenius

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3402; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213402 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 717

Abstract

Agave species possess substantial cultural, ecological, and economic significance, particularly in Mexico, where they are traditionally utilized for food, fiber, and beverages. Their industrial relevance has expanded to include bioenergy, nutraceuticals, and sustainable agriculture. However, conventional propagation methods are constrained by long life [...] Read more.

Agave species possess substantial cultural, ecological, and economic significance, particularly in Mexico, where they are traditionally utilized for food, fiber, and beverages. Their industrial relevance has expanded to include bioenergy, nutraceuticals, and sustainable agriculture. However, conventional propagation methods are constrained by long life cycles, low seed germination rates, and susceptibility to phytopathogens. In vitro culture has emerged as a pivotal biotechnological strategy for clonal propagation, germplasm conservation, and physiological enhancement. This review presents a critical synthesis of plant growth regulators (PGRs) employed in agave micropropagation, emphasizing their roles in organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis, shoot proliferation, and rooting. Classical PGRs such as 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), benzyladenine (BA), 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) are widely utilized, with BA + 2,4-D and BA + IAA combinations demonstrating high efficiency in embryogenic callus induction and shoot multiplication. Additionally, non-traditional regulators such as abscisic acid (ABA) and putrescine (Put) have been shown to affect embryo maturation. This review synthesizes recent studies on agave in vitro culture protocols, identifies trends in PGR use, and highlights key research gaps. These insights reveal opportunities for innovation and underscore the need for species-specific optimization and molecular validation to improve reproducibility and scalability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture for Regeneration and Propagation)

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19 pages, 2893 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mass and Nutrient Content of Beans and Husks of Coffea racemosa and Coffea zanguebariae Grown in Mozambique

by Niquisse José Alberto, Larícia Olária Emerick Silva, Rafael Nunes de Almeida, Weverton Pereira Rodrigues, Augusto Jossias Zandamela, José Cochicho Ramalho and Fábio Luiz Partelli

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3401; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213401 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 438

Abstract

Coffea racemosa and C. zanguebariae show promising characteristics for cultivation under stress conditions. However, their potential for breeding programs requires further characterization, especially regarding fruit attributes. This study aimed to characterize the bean/husk ratio and the nutrient content in bean and husks from [...] Read more.

Coffea racemosa and C. zanguebariae show promising characteristics for cultivation under stress conditions. However, their potential for breeding programs requires further characterization, especially regarding fruit attributes. This study aimed to characterize the bean/husk ratio and the nutrient content in bean and husks from 22 accessions of Coffea racemosa and another 22 of C. zanguebariae cultivated in Mozambique. Ripe fruits were collected, dried, and manually peeled to evaluate the percentage of bean and husk. The nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, and B) was quantified separately by standard methodology. The data were summarized in scatter plots, and differences among accessions were analyzed using Euclidean distance and grouped following the Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean. On average, beans accounted for 54.4% (ranging from 34.5% to 66.5%) of the fruit mass in C. racemosa and 60.4% (38.8% to 81.4%) in C. zanguebariae. Macronutrient content in beans followed the order N > K > Mg > P > S > Ca (average N = 19.98 kg ton⁻¹ of beans) in C. racemosa and N > K > Ca > Mg > S > P (average N = 25.42 kg ton⁻¹ of beans) in C. zanguebariae. Micronutrient content in beans followed the order Fe > B > Mn > Cu > Zn in both species, with average Fe content of 325.8 and 473.72 g ton⁻¹ of beans for C. racemosa and C. zanguebariae, respectively. No correspondence occurred between the bean and husk nutrient content. Coffea racemosa and C. zanguebariae exhibit bean proportions and nutritional profiles comparable to those of commercial species, highlighting their high potential for coffee diversification and genetic breeding. These results provide new evidence supporting the inclusion of C. racemosa and C. zanguebariae in breeding programs aimed at climate-resilient and nutritionally distinct coffee varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Biology and Health Aspects of Plants of the Coffea Genus)

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13 pages, 3391 KB

Open AccessArticle

CaPHOT1 Negatively Regulates the Pepper Resistance to Phytophthora capsici Infection

by Ying Luo, Hongyan Liu, Huiling Zhu, Feng Yang, Yanli Tu, Ting Yu, Yong Zhou and Youxin Yang

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3400; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213400 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 420

Abstract

Phototropins (PHOTs) are plant blue-light receptors that mediate crucial physiological processes such as phototropism, chloroplast movement, stomatal opening, and flowering. However, the PHOT family genes remain poorly characterized in pepper. Here, we identified and molecularly cloned two PHOT genes (CaPHOT1 and CaPHOT2 [...] Read more.

Phototropins (PHOTs) are plant blue-light receptors that mediate crucial physiological processes such as phototropism, chloroplast movement, stomatal opening, and flowering. However, the PHOT family genes remain poorly characterized in pepper. Here, we identified and molecularly cloned two PHOT genes (CaPHOT1 and CaPHOT2) in pepper, which were phylogenetically classified into distinct groups with their homologs from rice, maize, tomato, and Arabidopsis. These genes exhibit conserved gene structures, implying functional conservation during evolution. Subcellular localization analysis confirmed that both CaPHOT1 and CaPHOT2 are localized to the plasma membrane. Expression profiling revealed that both CaPHOT1 and CaPHOT2 were expressed in all tissues, with the highest transcripts in leaves and the lowest in roots. Notably, RNA-seq data revealed that the expression of CaPHOT1 was up-regulated by JA and SA, whereas CaPHOT2 showed no significant changes. Furthermore, CaPHOT1 and CaPHOT2 displayed divergent expression patterns upon Phytophthora capsici infection (PCI). Furthermore, transient overexpression of CaPHOT1 in pepper enhanced susceptibility to PCI, indicating its negative role in disease resistance. Our findings identified the CaPHOT gene family in pepper and functionally demonstrated that CaPHOT1 negatively regulates resistance to PCI, thereby providing insights for future research on PHOTs in other plant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Light on Plant Growth and Development)

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16 pages, 7447 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the OPT Gene Family and Screening of Sb-Responsive Genes in Brassica juncea

by Xianjun Liu, Mingzhe Chen, Yuhui Yuan, Jialin Sheng, Pintian Zhong, Sha Gong, Zhongsong Liu, Guohong Xiang, Junhe Hu, Mingli Yan, Yong Chen and Liang You

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3399; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213399 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 398

Abstract

Antimony (Sb), a toxic metalloid, inhibits plant growth and threatens human health. Yellow Stripe-Like (YSL) proteins play crucial roles in metal ion transport and cellular homeostasis. While the OPT gene family has been characterized in some species, its genome-wide organization and functional involvement [...] Read more.

Antimony (Sb), a toxic metalloid, inhibits plant growth and threatens human health. Yellow Stripe-Like (YSL) proteins play crucial roles in metal ion transport and cellular homeostasis. While the OPT gene family has been characterized in some species, its genome-wide organization and functional involvement in Sb stress response remain unexplored in Brassica juncea. Here, we identified 47 high-confidence BjOPT genes and combined transcriptomic approaches to elucidate their regulatory roles under Sb stress. Phylogenetic tree, conserved motifs, and gene structure analyses consistently distinguished the BjOPT and BjYSL subfamilies. Comparative and collinearity analyses indicated that OPT genes in Brassica species (including B. rapa, B. nigra, and B. juncea) expanded independently of whole-genome triplication events. Transcriptomic profiling revealed significant enrichment of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to key biological processes (oxidative and toxic stress response, metal ion transport, and auxin efflux) and pathways (glutathione metabolism, MAPK signaling, and phytohormone transduction), highlighting their roles in Sb detoxification and tolerance. Notably, three BjYSL3 (BjA10.YSL3, BjB02.YSL3, and BjB05.YSL3) genes exhibited strong up-regulation under Sb stress. Heterologous expression in yeast demonstrated that both BjA10.YSL3 and BjB02.YSL3 enhance Sb tolerance, suggesting their potential role in transporting Sb–nicotianamine (NA) or phytosiderophore (PS) complexes. These findings advance our understanding of Sb tolerance mechanisms and provide a basis for developing metal-resistant crops and phytoremediation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Improvement of Oilseed Crops)

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16 pages, 1066 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explicit Preston’s Equation Describes the Geometries of Egg-Shaped Tomato Cultivars and Its Potential for Estimating the Volume and Surface Area

by Weiwei Huang and Jiaxin Tan

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3398; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213398 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 336

Abstract

In nature, some tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) shapes appear to be ellipsoidal. This study aims to fit the ellipsoid tomato profile using explicit Preston’s equation (EPE), and calculate its volume (V_pred) and surface area (S) based on [...] Read more.

In nature, some tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) shapes appear to be ellipsoidal. This study aims to fit the ellipsoid tomato profile using explicit Preston’s equation (EPE), and calculate its volume (V_pred) and surface area (S) based on the estimated EPE’s parameters. This method offers low-cost and non-destructive advantages compared to three-dimensional (3D) scanning. A total of 917 tomatoes from three cultivars were photographed, and the two-dimensional (2D) boundary coordinates of each fruit profile were digitized and then fitted using EPE. The results demonstrated that the EPE effectively fitted the tomato 2D-profile, with truss tomato ranking highest, followed by cherry, and then Qianxi. A significant relationship was found between V_pred and observed volume (V_obs) at the cultivar level. The 95% confidence intervals for the slopes for cherry tomatoes include 1.0, and for Qianxi were close to 1.0, which confirmed that these two cultivars were solids of revolution. Additionally, for cherry and Qianxi tomato, S is proportional to the V_obs (i.e., S∝V_obs^0.62~0.63), V_pred is proportional to (LW²)^0.73~0.74, and S is proportional to (LW²)^0.49 (L is the length and W is the maximum width). For any isometrically scaling solid of revolution, the theoretical exponent of surface area to volume is exactly 2/3. The observed exponent of 0.62–0.63 is a biological reality, which reveals that evolution has shaped organisms not for geometric similarity, but for functional optimization. This study can be extended to a geometry study on other egg-shaped fruits and provides a potentially simple method for calculating volume and surface area based on photographed 2D fruit profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

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22 pages, 1069 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Fertilizer Gradient on High Nature Value Mountain Grassland

by Costel Samuil, Adrian Ilie Nazare, Culiță Sîrbu, Bogdan Grigoraş and Vasile Vîntu

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3397; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213397 - 6 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 428

Abstract

High nature value (HNV) grasslands in mountain areas are important ecosystems for biodiversity maintenance and offer a multitude of ecosystem services, but they are constantly threatened by abandonment or intensive fertilization. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of organic [...] Read more.

High nature value (HNV) grasslands in mountain areas are important ecosystems for biodiversity maintenance and offer a multitude of ecosystem services, but they are constantly threatened by abandonment or intensive fertilization. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of organic and mineral fertilization, under mulching and abandonment scenarios, on the floristic composition and diversity of Nardus stricta-dominated grasslands located in the North-Eastern Carpathians (Romania). The field experiment included 11 variants (control, low, moderate, and high inputs), analyzed as communities with cluster, ordinations, indicator species, and α indices. The results showed a clear separation of communities along the input gradient, from the oligotrophic grassland dominated by Nardus stricta (control variant) to mesotrophic/eutrophic communities dominated by Dactylis glomerata, Festuca pratensis, and Trifolium pratense at moderate and high inputs. Moderate fertilization (10–20 t ha⁻¹ manure; N₅₀P₅₀K₅₀–N₁₀₀P₁₀₀K₁₀₀) maximized species richness (37–38 species), Shannon diversity (H′ = 2.5–2.6), and evenness (E = 0.70–0.75). High inputs reduced diversity and favored competitive grasses. Indicator species analysis highlighted a multitude of species that show the plant communities’ response to adaptive management. Moderate fertilization provides a viable trade-off between productivity and biodiversity, while abandonment or overfertilization accelerates biodiversity loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant Nutrition and Novel Fertilizers—Second Edition)

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25 pages, 859 KB

Open AccessReview

Flowering and Fruiting of Coffea arabica L.: A Comprehensive Perspective from Phenology

by Carlos Andres Unigarro, Daniel Gerardo Cayón Salinas, Andrés Felipe León-Burgos and Claudia Patricia Flórez-Ramos

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3396; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213396 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1205

Abstract

In Coffea arabica L., the processes of flowering and fruiting unfold over time as a series of phenological events influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. This sequence governs the plant’s reproductive cycle, directly affecting vegetative growth, crop productivity, and beverage quality. This [...] Read more.

In Coffea arabica L., the processes of flowering and fruiting unfold over time as a series of phenological events influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. This sequence governs the plant’s reproductive cycle, directly affecting vegetative growth, crop productivity, and beverage quality. This review comprehensively addresses the developmental phases and provides descriptions of flower and fruit morphology, factors influencing flowering and fruiting, and competition for resource allocation, all of which are approached from a phenological perspective informed by the extended Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemical industry (BBCH) scale. The structural and emerging challenges that affect the sustainability of coffee cultivation should be effectively addressed to provide a foundation that supports the design of integrated strategies for the optimization of agronomic practices, increased yield, and genetic improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management, Development, and Breeding of Coffea sp. Crop)

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13 pages, 7543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Phytoplankton Communities to Hydrological Pulses and Nutrient Changes Induced by Heavy Summer Rainfall in a Shallow Eutrophic Lake

by Yiqi Li, Shihao Tang, Zilong Nie, Jianqiang Zhu, Zhangyong Liu and Jun R. Yang

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3395; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213395 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 448

Abstract

In the context of global climate change, frequent summer heavy rainfall events act as significant disturbances to the ecosystem functions of shallow lakes. This study examined the response of phytoplankton community structure and dynamics to heavy rainfall in Lake Changhu, a shallow eutrophic [...] Read more.

In the context of global climate change, frequent summer heavy rainfall events act as significant disturbances to the ecosystem functions of shallow lakes. This study examined the response of phytoplankton community structure and dynamics to heavy rainfall in Lake Changhu, a shallow eutrophic lake, through monthly monitoring during the summer months (June–August) of 2020–2022. The results revealed that heavy rainfall induced substantial water level fluctuations and shifts in key environmental parameters. Marked interannual variations were observed in the phytoplankton community, with the highest species richness in summer 2021 and lowest in 2022. While Chlorophyta dominated in species composition, Cyanobacteria overwhelmingly dominated in abundance, with key taxa including Dolichospermum flos-aquae L., Pseudanabaena limnetica L., Oscillatoria princeps V., Microcystis wesenbergii K., and Merismopedia minima B. Both phytoplankton abundance and biomass peaked in summer 2021. Community diversity indices were consistently lower in June compared to July–August, indicating higher environmental stress and a more simplified community structure during the initial rainfall period. A comprehensive water quality evaluation suggested that Lake Changhu was in a lightly to moderately polluted state. Correlation and redundancy analyses (RDA) identified rainfall, water temperature, and nutrient concentrations as the primary environmental drivers shaping phytoplankton community succession. These findings systematically elucidate the mechanistic responses of phytoplankton to heavy rainfall disturbances, offering a scientific foundation for ecological resilience assessment and adaptive management of shallow lakes under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytoplankton Community Structure and Succession)

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22 pages, 7609 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Long-Term Vegetation Dynamics in the Hulun Lake Basin of Northeastern China Through Greening and Browning Speeds from 1982 to 2015

by Nan Shan, Tie Wang, Qian Zhang, Jinqi Gong, Mingzhu He, Xiaokang Zhang, Xuehe Lu and Feng Qiu

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3394; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213394 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 365

Abstract

Vegetation dynamics in the Hulun Lake Basin (HLB), a vulnerable grassland–wetland–forest transition zone in Northeastern Inner Mongolia, North China, are sensitive to climate change, but traditional greenness metrics like the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) lack process-level insights. Using the GIMMS NDVI3g dataset [...] Read more.

Vegetation dynamics in the Hulun Lake Basin (HLB), a vulnerable grassland–wetland–forest transition zone in Northeastern Inner Mongolia, North China, are sensitive to climate change, but traditional greenness metrics like the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) lack process-level insights. Using the GIMMS NDVI3g dataset (1982–2015) and meteorological data, this study analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of the NDVI and vegetation NDVI change rate (VNDVI)—a metric quantifying greening and browning speeds via NDVI temporal variation—employing linear regression and partial correlation analyses. The NDVI exhibited an overall significant upward trend of +0.0028 yr⁻¹ (p < 0.05) across more than 70% of the basin, indicating a persistent greening tendency. The VNDVI revealed an accelerated spring greening rate of +0.8% yr⁻¹ (p < 0.05) and a slowed autumn browning rate of −0.6% yr⁻¹ (p < 0.05), reflecting an extended growing season. Spatial correlation analysis showed that the temperature dominated spring greening (r = 0.52), precipitation governed summer growth (r = 0.64), and solar radiation modulated autumn senescence (r = 0.38). Compared with the NDVI, the VNDVI was more sensitive to both climatic fluctuations and anthropogenic disturbances, highlighting its utility in capturing process-level vegetation dynamics. These findings provide quantitative insights into the mechanisms of vegetation change in the HLB and offer scientific support for ecological conservation in North China’s grassland–forest ecotone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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17 pages, 3078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Long-Term Nutrient Input on Progeny Seed Nutrient Contents, Germination and Early Growth Characteristics of Typical Coastal Wetland Plants

by Rong Hu, Sifan Peng, Bo Guan, Hongxiang Zhang, Fanzhu Qu, Xuehong Wang, Zhikang Wang, Jisong Yang, Feilong Huang, Guangmei Wang and Guangxuan Han

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3393; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213393 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 332

Abstract

Seed reproduction is a vital stage in the life cycle of plants. In coastal wetlands, where nutrient regimes are increasingly altered by climate change and anthropogenic inputs, understanding how long-term nutrient enrichment affects progeny seed germination and early seedling establishment is essential for [...] Read more.

Seed reproduction is a vital stage in the life cycle of plants. In coastal wetlands, where nutrient regimes are increasingly altered by climate change and anthropogenic inputs, understanding how long-term nutrient enrichment affects progeny seed germination and early seedling establishment is essential for predicting vegetation shifts. In this study, we conducted a long-term nutrient addition experiment (2015–2024) in the Yellow River Delta with three nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) supply levels (Low, Medium, and High) and three N:P ratios (5:1, 15:1, and 45:1) to examine the effects of nutrient enrichment on seed nutrient contents, germination, and early seedling growth characteristics of Suaeda salsa and Phragmites australis measured in late 2024. Results showed that long-term fertilization increased the P content in S. salsa seeds by 17.1% to 146.0%, whereas N content was less influenced. In contrast, both N and P contents of P. australis seeds remained relatively stable across treatments. The seed germination and early seedling growth of the two species responded differently to various fertilization treatments. S. salsa seeds showed higher sensitivity to long-term fertilization, with improved behaviors under high nutrient level or 5:1 supply ratio. In contrast, P. australis performed better under medium nutrient level or higher N:P ratios (15:1 or 45:1). Correlation analysis indicated that P content in S. salsa seeds was significantly positively correlated with germination percentage, germination rate, germination index, and early seedling biomass, while N content was significantly correlated only with biomass. No significant correlations were observed between seed nutrients and germination or early seedling growth in P. australis. These findings underscore species-specific strategies in response to long-term nutrient enrichment and may ultimately influence species coexistence, community succession, and the resilience of coastal wetlands under ongoing global change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seed Dormancy and Germination for Plant Adaptation to Climate Change)

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17 pages, 1817 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microminutinin, a Fused Bis-Furan Coumarin from Murraya euchrestifolia, Exhibits Strong Broad-Spectrum Antifungal Activity by Disrupting Cell Membranes and Walls

by Duan-Tao Cao, Ying-Juan Yao, Xiao-Xiang Fu, Wen-Wu Song, Xin-Yuan Liu, Peng Zhang, Qing-Hong Zhou, Bao-Tong Li and Wen-Wen Peng

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3392; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213392 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 392

Abstract

Plant fungal diseases pose a serious threat to crop production and safety, and natural products are one of the important directions for the development of new green fungicides. This study found that the extract of Murraya euchristifolia had significant antifungal activity, and a [...] Read more.

Plant fungal diseases pose a serious threat to crop production and safety, and natural products are one of the important directions for the development of new green fungicides. This study found that the extract of Murraya euchristifolia had significant antifungal activity, and a main antifungal coumarin (1) was isolated by bioassay-guided fractionation. The structure of 1 was identified by NMR and MS spectroscopic data as a fused bis-furan coumarin (microminutinin) which was first isolated from the Murraya genus and exhibited strong broad-spectrum antifungal activity against eight plant pathogenic fungi from different families and genera. The EC₅₀ value of 1 (11.33 μg/mL) against Pestalotiopsis theae (the most sensitive to 1) was slightly higher than that (7.03 μg/mL) of the positive drug (80% carbendazim WP), indicating that 1 has the potential to serve as a lead compound for botanical fungicides. The bioassay results against P. theae in vivo indicated that 1 also has the potential for field application. Scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy revealed that 1 disrupted the morphological structure of mycelium, causing hyphae to twist, shrink, and even crack and severely reducing hyphal branching. Furthermore, propidium iodide staining proved that microminutinin destroyed the integrity of the cell membrane, causing leakage of cellular components. In addition, calcofluor white staining and chitin content changes illustrated that microminutinin disrupted the cell wall structure. This research provides compound sources and a theoretical basis for the development of botanical fungicides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

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17 pages, 1186 KB

Open AccessArticle

Facultative Endosymbiont Serratia symbiotica Provides Fitness Benefits for Celery Aphid Semiaphis heraclei Collected from Plant Cnidium monnieri

by Chunyan Chang, Yingshuo Han, Kun Yang, Xin Jiang, Xinrui Zhang, Zhuo Li and Feng Ge

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3391; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213391 - 5 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Semiaphis heraclei Takahashi (Hemiptera: Aphididae) serves as a vital resource for natural enemies from functional plant Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson (Apiaceae), playing a crucial role in ecological dynamics. Endosymbionts influence the performance of their hosts. Here, we determined the communities of facultative endosymbionts [...] Read more.

Semiaphis heraclei Takahashi (Hemiptera: Aphididae) serves as a vital resource for natural enemies from functional plant Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson (Apiaceae), playing a crucial role in ecological dynamics. Endosymbionts influence the performance of their hosts. Here, we determined the communities of facultative endosymbionts in aphids from Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Caprifoliaceae), Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae), and C. monnieri and assessed the performance of four aphid clones. The infection rates of Serratia symbiotica Moran (Gammaproteobacteria: Enterobacteriaceae) and Regiella insecticola Moran (Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae) reached 100%. Notably, the infection rates of Spiroplasma and Rickettsia varied across host plants. Fitness assessment revealed that aphids performed better on their natal hosts, exhibiting shorter nymphal development times and higher fecundity. S. symbiotica had contrasting effects on aphids based on their origin. It prolonged the development duration and decreased the intrinsic rate of increase (r_m), net reproductive rate (R₀), and finite rate of increase (λ) in aphids collected from plant A. graveolens. However, for aphids collected from plant C. monnieri, it shortened the doubling time (DT) and improved r_m, R₀, and λ, while prolonging the mean generation time. Our studies are the first to investigate the infection status and role of facultative endosymbionts in aphid S. heraclei, extending the documented effects of plant diversity to fluctuations in the infection rate, with potentially far-reaching consequences for related endosymbionts’ ecosystem processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Plants for Ecological Control of Agricultural Pests)

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53 pages, 1287 KB

Open AccessReview

Climate Change Impacts on Greenhouse Horticulture in the Mediterranean Basin: Challenges and Adaptation Strategies

by Dimitrios Fanourakis, Georgios Tsaniklidis, Theodora Makraki, Nikolaos Nikoloudakis, Thomas Bartzanas, Leo Sabatino, Hicham Fatnassi and Georgia Ntatsi

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3390; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213390 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1735

Abstract

Greenhouse horticulture is a cornerstone of year-round vegetable production. However, escalating climate change is intensifying abiotic stressors (i.e., elevated temperatures, increased vapor pressure deficits, water shortage, and modified solar radiation), threatening both crop productivity and postharvest performance. This review synthesizes current knowledge on [...] Read more.

Greenhouse horticulture is a cornerstone of year-round vegetable production. However, escalating climate change is intensifying abiotic stressors (i.e., elevated temperatures, increased vapor pressure deficits, water shortage, and modified solar radiation), threatening both crop productivity and postharvest performance. This review synthesizes current knowledge on how these climatic shifts impact greenhouse microclimate, pest and disease patterns, energy and water requirements, as well as crop development in the Mediterranean region. This study focuses on three major crops (tomato, cucumber, and sweet pepper), which prevail in the regional protected cultivation sector. Among the climate-induced stressors examined, elevated temperature emerges as the primary environmental constraint on greenhouse productivity. In reality, however, a combination of climate-induced stressors is at play, acting simultaneously and often synergistically. Among crops, cucumber generally displays the highest sensitivity to climate-induced shifts, whereas sweet pepper tends to be the most resilient. Next, adaptive strategies are explored, including precision irrigation, structural retrofitting measures, renewable energy integration, Decision Support Systems, and climate-resilient cultivars. Regional case studies revealed diverse country-specific counteractive innovations. As key elements of inclusive climate adaptation, supportive policy frameworks and a practical agenda of targeted research priorities are outlined. In conclusion, the sustainability of greenhouse horticulture under a changing climate demands integrated, technology-driven, and region-focused approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Vegetable Production in the Era of Climate Change)

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18 pages, 2927 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bioinformatics Analysis of the Tomato SlPR5 Gene Family and the Thaumatin-like Protein SlPR5-3 Positively Regulates Tomato Resistance to Pst DC3000

by Xinyue Pang, Yue Wang, Binyu Jiang, Dalong Li, He Zhang, Dong Liu, Xiangyang Xu and Tingting Zhao

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3389; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213389 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 416

Abstract

Studies on how SlPR5 genes are involved in Pst DC3000 disease resistance response are lacking. Here, 27 members of the tomato SlPR5 gene family were identified and analyzed. Analysis of conserved structural domains and promoter structure revealed that SlPR5 family members are structurally [...] Read more.

Studies on how SlPR5 genes are involved in Pst DC3000 disease resistance response are lacking. Here, 27 members of the tomato SlPR5 gene family were identified and analyzed. Analysis of conserved structural domains and promoter structure revealed that SlPR5 family members are structurally conserved and contain a variety of antidisease and antistress response elements. We screened out SlPR5-3, which was significantly upregulated, through an analysis of the expression pattern of Pst DC3000 in tomato after inoculation. We generated SlPR5-3 mutants via CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and SlPR5-3-overexpressing tomato plants to elucidate the function of this gene. The results showed that the SlPR5-3 overexpression lines had reduced lesions, significantly lower pathogen counts, and significantly higher activity indexes of defense-related enzymes, while the mutant lines showed the opposite, indicating that the SlPR5-3 gene positively regulates the immune response against Pst DC3000 in tomato. In this study, we systematically mined and analyzed the tomato SlPR5 family genes, screened out the important genes in this family for the regulation of Pst DC3000 disease resistance, and verified the disease resistance regulatory function of SlPR5-3, laying the foundation for the theoretical study of tomato Pst DC3000 disease resistance and providing a new molecular target for the future breeding of tomato disease resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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26 pages, 1398 KB

Open AccessReview

Gibberellic Acid Improves Photosynthetic Electron Transport and Stomatal Function in Crops That Are Adversely Affected by Salinity Exposure

by Jyoti Mani Tripathi, Bibi Rafeiza Khan, Rajarshi Gaur, Dinesh Yadav, Krishan K. Verma and Ramwant Gupta

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3388; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213388 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1368

Abstract

Soil salinity poses a critical threat to global agricultural productivity, exacerbating food security challenges in arid and semi-arid regions. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological and biochemical impacts of salinity stress in plants, with a focus on the role of gibberellic [...] Read more.

Soil salinity poses a critical threat to global agricultural productivity, exacerbating food security challenges in arid and semi-arid regions. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological and biochemical impacts of salinity stress in plants, with a focus on the role of gibberellic acid (GA₃) in mitigating these effects. Salinity disrupts ion homeostasis, induces osmotic stress, and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to reduced chlorophyll content, impaired photosynthesis, and stunted growth across all developmental stages, i.e., from seed germination to flowering. Excess sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) accumulation disrupts nutrient uptake, destabilizes membranes, and inhibits enzymes critical for carbon fixation, such as Rubisco. GA₃ emerges as a key regulator of salinity resilience, enhancing stress tolerance through various mechanisms like scavenging ROS, stabilizing photosynthetic machinery, modulating stomatal conductance, and promoting osmotic adjustment via osmolyte accumulation (e.g., proline). Plant hormone’s interaction with DELLA proteins and cross-talk with abscisic acid, ethylene, and calcium signaling pathways further fine-tune stress responses. However, gaps persist in understanding GA₃-mediated floral induction under salinity and its precise role in restoring photosynthetic efficiency. While exogenous GA₃ application improves growth parameters, its efficacy depends on the concentration- and species-dependent, with lower doses often proving beneficial and optimum doses potentially inhibitory. Field validation of lab-based findings is critical, given variations in soil chemistry and irrigation practices. Future research must integrate biotechnological tools (CRISPR, transcriptomics) to unravel GA₃ signaling networks, optimize delivery methods, and develop climate-resilient crops. This review underscores the urgency of interdisciplinary approaches to harness GA₃’s potential in sustainable salinity management, ensuring food security and safety in the rapidly salinizing world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Plant–Climate Nexus: Bioremediation and Management Strategies for a Sustainable Future)

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13 pages, 1448 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vegetative Propagation of Dictyota kunthii (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) Through Thallus Fragmentation and Ligulae: Potential Alternatives for Cultivation

by Cristian Bulboa, Loretto Contreras-Porcia, Jean Pierre Remonsellez, Camila Mora, Kathya Gomez, Natalia Godoy, Cristian Agurto and Cristian Rogel

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3387; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213387 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 413

Abstract

The growing interest in the commercial exploitation of the bioactive components of Dictyota species, including Dictyota kunthii due to its antifungal activity and use in the development of innovative bioproducts, depends on the availability of biomass. In this context, the cultivation of this [...] Read more.

The growing interest in the commercial exploitation of the bioactive components of Dictyota species, including Dictyota kunthii due to its antifungal activity and use in the development of innovative bioproducts, depends on the availability of biomass. In this context, the cultivation of this species emerges as a promising alternative. This study examined thallus fragmentation and ligulae development as methods to produce D. kunthii. Accordingly, thalli were divided into apical, middle, and basal sections to generate the respective tissue fragments, which were cultured under controlled conditions. On the other hand, ligulae development was studied under different conditions of photon flux density (10, 35 and 65 µmol m⁻²s⁻¹); temperature (10, 17 °C); photoperiod (8:16, 12:12, 16:08 h [Light:Dark]), and seawater enrichment:Basfoliar^®, Compo Expert, Krefeld, Germany and von Stosch solutions. The results show that fragmented thalli were non-viable, exhibiting neither wound healing nor regeneration at the cut sites. Furthermore, no buds or new branches were formed. In contrast, ligulae developed under all tested conditions, with nutrients, light, temperature, and photon flux enhancing apical cell formation and branching. We conclude that ligulae can effectively be used as propagules to cultivate fast-growing, branched D. kunthii plantlets. Accordingly, we recommend using a suspended culture system at 17 °C with a 12:12 (Light:Dark) photoperiod and 65 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ light intensity, as well as adding nutrients (Basfoliar^® at 0.1 mL L⁻¹). Under these conditions, growth rates equal to or exceeding 10% d⁻¹ can be achieved, supporting the feasibility of scaling up to larger volumes for biomass production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Growth and Biochemical Responses to Environmental Stress)

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20 pages, 2983 KB

Open AccessArticle

Underlying Mechanisms of Increased Precipitation and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Fungi on Plant Community by Mediating Soil Microbes in Desert Ecosystems

by Wan Duan, Hui Wang, Zhanquan Ji, Qianqian Dong, Wenshuo Li, Wenli Cao, Fangwei Zhang and Yangyang Jia

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3386; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213386 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 404

Abstract

The increasing frequency of global extreme climate events has heightened the need to understand the mechanisms through which desert ecosystems respond to altered precipitation patterns. This includes elucidating how arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) drive these responses by regulating key soil processes and shaping [...] Read more.

The increasing frequency of global extreme climate events has heightened the need to understand the mechanisms through which desert ecosystems respond to altered precipitation patterns. This includes elucidating how arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) drive these responses by regulating key soil processes and shaping microbial community dynamics. We therefore conducted an in situ experiment involving increased precipitation and AMF suppression, and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) was employed to reveal the changes in soil microbial community. Results showed that increased precipitation significantly promoted the growth of soil AMF and Actinobacteria (Act). Increased precipitation significantly changed soil microbial community structure and promoted soil microbial community diversity, but it posed neutral effects on soil microbial community biomass. AMF suppression clearly inhibited AM fungal growth but increased the growth of Act and Gram-positive bacteria (G⁺) and posed limited effects on Gram-negative bacteria (G⁻), leading to an increased G⁺/G⁻ ratio. Notably, AMF suppression posed slight effects on the biomass, diversity, and structure of soil microbial community. Random forest analysis revealed that soil ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), and soil organic carbon (SOC) were the main factors influencing different soil microbes, and soil Act and G⁺ were the main factors influencing plant community diversity, but AMF were the primary factor influencing plant community biomass. More importantly, structural equation modeling (SEM) results further confirmed that increased precipitation and AMF significantly altered plant community diversity by influencing soil AM fungi and increased plant community biomass by promoting soil AM fungal growth. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that increased precipitation enhances plant community productivity and diversity in desert ecosystems primarily by stimulating the growth of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which function as a key biological pathway mediating the ecosystem’s response to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

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14 pages, 679 KB

Open AccessArticle

Living Mulches, Rolled Cover Crops, and Plastic Mulch: Effects on Soil Properties, Weed Suppression, and Yield in Organic Strawberry Systems

by Arianna Bozzolo, Jacob Pecenka and Andrew Smith

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3385; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213385 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 442

Abstract

Plastic mulch is widely used in organic strawberry production but raises sustainability concerns due to its persistence, disposal challenges, and contribution to microplastic pollution. This study evaluated the potential of high-residue cover crops and living mulches as alternatives to plastic mulch in coastal [...] Read more.

Plastic mulch is widely used in organic strawberry production but raises sustainability concerns due to its persistence, disposal challenges, and contribution to microplastic pollution. This study evaluated the potential of high-residue cover crops and living mulches as alternatives to plastic mulch in coastal California. Over two seasons (2022–2024), we compared five mulching treatments: black polyethylene mulch (Plastic); a white clover (Trifolium repens) living mulch (Clover); two roller-crimped sorghum–sudangrass and field pea mixtures (Sorghum 1, Sorghum 2); and a roller-crimped buckwheat–pea mixture (Buckwheat). The objectives were to evaluate the effectiveness of these treatments on (i) soil properties and biological indicators, (ii) weed suppression, and (iii) strawberry yield in organic systems. A schematic timeline was developed to depict cover-crop growth, termination, and strawberry production across both years. Compost (10 t·ha⁻¹) and fish emulsion (5–1–1 NPK, 4 L·ha⁻¹ biweekly) were applied to all treatments during fruiting. Sorghum residues produced the highest biomass (up to 23 t·ha⁻¹) and supported yields comparable to plastic mulch in 2023. Under lower-yield conditions in 2024, sorghum-based treatments outperformed plastic. Soil responses were modest and time-point specific: Sorghum 1 showed higher organic C and organic N pre-harvest in 2023, and both sorghum treatments increased soil organic matter pre-harvest in 2024. Biological indicators such as CO₂–C and microbially active carbon declined seasonally across all treatments, indicating strong temporal control. Weed outcomes diverged by system—Clover suppressed weeds effectively but reduced yield by >50% due to competition, while Buckwheat decomposed rapidly and provided limited late-season suppression. These results demonstrate that rolled high-residue cover crops, particularly sorghum-based systems, can reduce dependence on plastic mulch while maintaining yields and enhancing soil cover. Living mulches and short-lived covers may complement residue systems when managed to minimize competition and extend ground cover. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developments in Sustainable Horticulture: Resilience, Resource Protection and Rewards)

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18 pages, 2041 KB

Open AccessReview

Driving Electron Transfer in Photosystem I Using Far-Red Light: Overall Perspectives

by Jimit Patel, Amen ElMasadef, Abraham Peele Karlapudi, Katayoun Etemadi, K. V. Lakshmi, Art van der Est and Divya Kaur

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3384; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213384 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 643

Abstract

Photosystem I (PSI) is a photosynthetic protein–pigment complex that, upon photoexcitation, transfers electrons to ferredoxin, facilitating the production of NADPH. Isolated PSI reaction centers (RCs) have also been used in hybrid systems to reduce protons and produce ‘biohydrogen’. This review article examines how [...] Read more.

Photosystem I (PSI) is a photosynthetic protein–pigment complex that, upon photoexcitation, transfers electrons to ferredoxin, facilitating the production of NADPH. Isolated PSI reaction centers (RCs) have also been used in hybrid systems to reduce protons and produce ‘biohydrogen’. This review article examines how various cyanobacteria with similar photosynthetic machinery utilize different wavelengths of light to execute photosynthetic electron transport through PSI. Key factors, such as, the structure of the electron transfer cofactors, the protein environment surrounding the primary donor pigments and hydrogen-bonding interactions with the surrounding protein matrix are analyzed to understand their roles in maintaining efficient electron transfer when it is driven using photons of different energies. We compare PSI complexes with known atomic structures from four species of cyanobacteria, Thermosynechococcus elongatus, Acaryochloris marina, Halomicronema hongdechloris, and Fischerella thermalis. T. elongatus is typical of most oxygenic photosynthetic organisms in that it requires visible light and uses only chlorophyll a (Chl a) in PSI. In contrast, H. hongdechloris and F. thermalis are photoacclimating species capable of producing Chl f and Chl d that use red light when little visible light is available. A. marina, on the other hand, is adapted to red light conditions and consistently utilizes Chl d as its primary photosynthetic pigment, maintaining a stable pigment composition. Here, we explore the structural and functional differences between the PSI RCs of these organisms and the impact of these differences on electron transport. The structural differences in the cofactors influence both the absorption wavelengths of the cofactors and the energy levels of the intermediate states of electron transfer. An analysis of the surrounding protein shows how it has been adapted and underscores the interplay between the pigment structure, protein environment, and hydrogen bonding networks in tuning the efficiency and adaptability of photosynthetic mechanisms across different species of cyanobacteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Photosynthesis: Integrating Experimental and Theoretical Approaches)

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17 pages, 1454 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Trait Variability of Salicornia europaea L. Across Inland Saline Habitats: Integrating Shoot and Root Morphometrics with Soil Salinity and Trophic Status

by Agnieszka Piernik, Nour Elhouda Gargouri, Piotr Hulisz, Ahmad Rajabi Dehnavi and Stefany Cárdenas Pérez

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3383; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213383 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 434

Abstract

Salicornia europaea is an extremely salt-tolerant annual halophyte. It occurs in coastal and inland saline habitats and is increasingly cultivated for food, nutraceuticals, and environmental remediation. This study examined whether inland populations from contrasting saline sites exhibit heritable differences in shoot and root [...] Read more.

Salicornia europaea is an extremely salt-tolerant annual halophyte. It occurs in coastal and inland saline habitats and is increasingly cultivated for food, nutraceuticals, and environmental remediation. This study examined whether inland populations from contrasting saline sites exhibit heritable differences in shoot and root morphology. Seeds from four isolated sites (Ciechocinek, Inowrocław, Salzgraben, and Soltauquelle) were grown at 0, 200, 400, and 1000 mM NaCl, and morphometric traits were quantified from digital images. Corresponding soil samples were also analyzed. A strong relationship was found between population origin and responses to salt stress. Optimal growth generally occurred at 200–400 mM NaCl. Shoot canopy area consistently best discriminated among populations. Inowrocław and Salzgraben performed best under extreme salinity (1000 mM), whereas Ciechocinek showed the weakest growth. Root analyses revealed a shift from radial expansion at moderate salinity to elongation at higher levels, with Salzgraben and Soltauquelle maintaining the longest roots. Soil analyses indicated substantial site differences: Ciechocinek had the highest salinity, resulting in the smallest trait development, Inowrocław was rich in Ca²⁺ and organic matter, while the German sites had lower salinity but higher pH and bicarbonates. These findings demonstrate population-specific adaptive strategies and soil-legacy effects, supporting targeted ecotype selection for saline agriculture and phytoremediation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Properties of Soils and its Impact on Plant Growth)

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14 pages, 884 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Organic Fertilizer Substitution for Chemical Fertilizer Nitrogen and Limited Irrigation on Soil Carbon Emissions in Spring Wheat Fields

by Jun Luo, Min Xie, Zhiwei Zhao, Xiuzhen Ren, Mengyuan Li and Yongping Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3382; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213382 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 405

Abstract

The Hetao Irrigation District in Inner Mongolia is a major spring wheat production region in China. To synergize high wheat yield, water conservation, and carbon emission reduction in this region, a 2023 and 2024 field experiment was conducted. This study systematically analyzed the [...] Read more.

The Hetao Irrigation District in Inner Mongolia is a major spring wheat production region in China. To synergize high wheat yield, water conservation, and carbon emission reduction in this region, a 2023 and 2024 field experiment was conducted. This study systematically analyzed the effects of organic fertilizer substitution for chemical nitrogen (T1:0%, T2:25%, T3:50%, T4:75%, T5:100%) on soil carbon emissions dynamics and carbon footprint of wheat fields, under two irrigation regimes: water-saving irrigation (twice at jointing and heading stages, 2W) and conventional irrigation (four times at tillering, jointing, heading, and grain-filling stages, 4W). The results showed that during the wheat-growing season, soil CO₂ emission rate exhibited a single-peak trend (peak at flowering stage), while cumulative soil CO₂ emission showed a “decrease-increase-decrease” pattern (peak at jointing to heading). At different growth stages, both CO₂ emission and its rate increased with higher organic fertilizer substitution ratios, and were higher under 4W than 2W. Irrigation and substitution treatments significantly affected the total carbon emissions, carbon sequestration, and carbon footprint: total emissions increased with substitution ratios, while sequestration and footprint first increased then decreased; all three indices were higher under 4W than 2W. Regression analysis revealed that maximum net carbon budget was achieved at 21.6–31.7% substitution (1402.3–1879.9 kg ha⁻¹) under 2W, and 31.0–33.8% substitution (2295.5–2822.0 kg ha⁻¹) under 4W. In conclusion, water-saving irrigation (900 m³ ha⁻¹ per application at jointing and heading stages) combined with an optimal organic-nitrogen ratio (1008.0 kg ha⁻¹ organic fertilizer, 193.1 kg ha⁻¹ chemical nitrogen) effectively coordinates water conservation and carbon emission reduction. This study provides a basis for synergizing these goals in Hetao’s wheat production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Soil Health and Crop Productivity Through Sustainable Agricultural Practices)

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26 pages, 6974 KB

Open AccessArticle

Population Dynamics and Potential Distribution of the Four Endangered Mangrove Species in Leizhou Peninsula China

by Jianjian Huang, Bing Yang, Jie Chen, Suqing Liu, Xueying Wen, Yingchun Zhu, Kangyi Deng, Hui Zhu, Yuzhong Zheng, Qinghan Wu, Yongqin Zheng, Jean Wan Hong Yong, Fengnian Wu and Xiaolong Lan

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3381; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213381 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 481

Abstract

Background: Mangrove plants are a core component of coastal ecosystems, directly influencing biodiversity and shoreline stability. However, in recent years, due to the combined pressures of human activities and climate change, nearly half of the mangrove species in China are endangered and [...] Read more.

Background: Mangrove plants are a core component of coastal ecosystems, directly influencing biodiversity and shoreline stability. However, in recent years, due to the combined pressures of human activities and climate change, nearly half of the mangrove species in China are endangered and require urgent conservation measures. This study analyzed the population dynamics and stress factors affecting four rare and endangered mangrove species—Lumnitzera racemosa, Ceriops tagal, Barringtonia racemosa, and Heritiera littoralis—on the Leizhou Peninsula, providing scientific evidence for their conservation. Methods: Field surveys and plot investigations were conducted, with population dynamics and structure quantified using static life tables, survival rates, mortality rates, and disappearance curves. Additionally, the MaxEnt species distribution model and GIS technology were applied to predict the potentially suitable distribution areas. Results: The findings revealed that the population of L. racemosa exhibits an atypical pyramid structure, with few seedlings and constraining population growth potential. The C. tagal population follows an irregular pyramid structure, with abundant seedlings but fewer mature individuals, suggesting a rapid decline followed by stability. The B. racemosa population also follows an irregular pyramid structure, with many seedlings and a greater proportion of middle-aged and older individuals, facing the risk of early mortality. The H. littoralis population is also in decline, with few seedlings and a severe risk of local extinction. MaxEnt model predictions indicated that temperature is the primary environmental factor, with Area Under the Curve (AUC) values for all species exceeding 0.8, indicating strong predictive ability. The predicted potential suitable areas showed an expanded distribution range compared to current distribution points, providing valuable references for species introduction and propagation. Conclusions: This study described the population structure of the four mangrove species on the Leizhou Peninsula and assessed their primary stress factors. The results provided a theoretical basis for the conservation and restoration of endangered mangrove species and offer important guidance for developing effective conservation strategies in southern China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mangrove Application, Ecology and Conservation)

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15 pages, 4793 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of DnaJ Gene Family and VIGS Analysis Reveal the Function of GhDnaJ316 in Floral Development for Upland Cotton

by Ting-Ting Zhang, Xue-Feng Guo, Dan-Dan Li, Yun Jia, Chen-Hui Wang, Yu-Nuo Fan, Cai-Xiang Wang and Jun-Ji Su

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3380; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213380 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 369

Abstract

DnaJ proteins are established regulators of multiple physiological processes in plants, but their systematic identification and functional characterization in cotton remains largely uncharacterized, particularly regarding their roles in floral developmental regulation. In this study, based on genome-wide analysis of Gossypium hirsutum L., 372 [...] Read more.

DnaJ proteins are established regulators of multiple physiological processes in plants, but their systematic identification and functional characterization in cotton remains largely uncharacterized, particularly regarding their roles in floral developmental regulation. In this study, based on genome-wide analysis of Gossypium hirsutum L., 372 DnaJ genes were systematically identified and phylogenetically classified into four distinct clades (I–IV). These genes exhibited non-uniform chromosomal distribution. Structural analysis revealed clade-specific variations in intron numbers and conserved motifs. Cis-acting element profiling indicated the roles of DnaJs in modulating biosynthetic and metabolic regulation during both vegetative and reproductive development in cotton. Transcriptomic analysis highlighted tissue-specific expression patterns, with GhDnaJ316 showing preferential expression in anthers and filaments. Functional validation via VIGS-mediated silencing confirmed GhDnaJ316 as a negative regulator of floral transition, accelerating budding by 7.7 days and flowering by 9.7 days in silenced plants. This study elucidates the genomic architecture of GhDnaJs, demonstrates GhDnaJ316’s critical role in floral development and provides insights for molecular breeding in early-maturing cotton. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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15 pages, 5927 KB

Open AccessArticle

Topographic Heterogeneity Outweighs Climate in Shaping Artemisia L. Species Richness and Endemism in the Hengduan Mountains, Southwest China

by Chang’an Guo, Ziwei Wang, Huifu Zhuang, Dandan Wei and Weikai Bao

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3379; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213379 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 417

Abstract

Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) is an important ecological pioneer genus and a widely used medicinal plant group. The Hengduan Mountains (HDMs), one of the most topographically complex regions in the world, support a high diversity of Artemisia species. Understanding the diversity patterns of Artemisia [...] Read more.

Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) is an important ecological pioneer genus and a widely used medicinal plant group. The Hengduan Mountains (HDMs), one of the most topographically complex regions in the world, support a high diversity of Artemisia species. Understanding the diversity patterns of Artemisia species in this region is essential for conserving plant resources and promoting their sustainable use. In this study, we identified the hotspots of Artemisia species richness and weighted endemism in the HDMs and examined how these patterns relate to topographic heterogeneity. We confirmed the distribution of 114 Artemisia species across the Hengduan Mountains. Our results show clear spatial variation in Artemisia species diversity. Distinct hotspots were found in areas such as the Minshan Mountains, Daba Mountains, Dadu River Valley, Daxue Mountains, and Mount Gongga. The top 5% richest grid cells showed high species richness and endemism, highlighting the ecological and conservation value of these regions. Environmental analysis indicates that topographic heterogeneity, especially elevation range and surface roughness, effectively predicts diversity patterns of Artemisia species. Regions with more complex terrain tend to support higher species richness and endemism. These findings underscore the key role of topography in shaping Artemisia species diversity in mountainous areas and provide a scientific basis for future ecological research and conservation planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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18 pages, 6244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Maturity Classification of Dense Small Lychees Using an Improved Kolmogorov–Arnold Network–Transformer

by Zhenpeng Zhang, Yi Wang, Shanglei Chai and Yibin Tian

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3378; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213378 - 4 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Lychee detection and maturity classification are crucial for yield estimation and harvesting. In densely packed lychee clusters with limited training samples, accurately determining ripeness is challenging. This paper proposes a new transformer model incorporating a Kolmogorov–Arnold Network (KAN), termed GhostResNet (GRN)–KAN–Transformer, for lychee [...] Read more.

Lychee detection and maturity classification are crucial for yield estimation and harvesting. In densely packed lychee clusters with limited training samples, accurately determining ripeness is challenging. This paper proposes a new transformer model incorporating a Kolmogorov–Arnold Network (KAN), termed GhostResNet (GRN)–KAN–Transformer, for lychee detection and ripeness classification in dense on-tree fruit clusters. First, within the backbone, we introduce a stackable multi-layer GhostResNet module to reduce redundancy in feature extraction and improve efficiency. Next, during feature fusion, we add a large-scale layer to enhance sensitivity to small objects and to increase polling of the small-scale feature map during querying. We further propose a multi-layer cross-fusion attention (MCFA) module to achieve deeper hierarchical feature integration. Finally, in the decoding stage, we employ an improved KAN for the classification and localization heads to strengthen nonlinear mapping, enabling a better fitting to the complex distributions of categories and positions. Experiments on a public dataset demonstrate the effectiveness of GRN-KANformer. Compared with the baseline, GFLOPs and parameters of the model are reduced by 8.84% and 11.24%, respectively, while mean Average Precision (mAP) metrics mAP50 and mAP50–95 reach 94.7% and 58.4%, respectively. Thus, it lowers computational complexity while maintaining high accuracy. Comparative results against popular deep learning models, including YOLOv8n, YOLOv12n, CenterNet, and EfficientNet, further validate the superior performance of GRN-KANformer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Non-Contact Detection and Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Estimate Quality and Longevity of Horticultural Plants)

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19 pages, 9219 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reproductive Constraints and Severe Pollinator Limitation in the Mexican Endemic Orchid Govenia capitata: Implications for Conservation

by Maythe López-Olvera, Gema Galindo-Flores, Ana Laura López-Escamilla and Carlos Lara

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3377; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213377 - 4 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Understanding the reproductive biology of orchids is essential for evaluating population viability and guiding conservation strategies, as their persistence often depends on complex interactions between ecological, physiological, and environmental factors. Govenia capitata, a threatened orchid endemic to the montane forests of central [...] Read more.

Understanding the reproductive biology of orchids is essential for evaluating population viability and guiding conservation strategies, as their persistence often depends on complex interactions between ecological, physiological, and environmental factors. Govenia capitata, a threatened orchid endemic to the montane forests of central Mexico, had not previously been studied in this regard. We examined flowering phenology, floral longevity, stigmatic receptivity, natural and experimental pollination success, seed viability, and asymbiotic germination in two wild populations. Flowering was synchronous, with inflorescences lasting up to 57 days and individual flowers persisting for an average of 20 days. Stigmatic receptivity was detectable from the first day of anthesis and remained evident for at least eight days. Natural fruit set was very low (16.6%), while assisted self- and cross-pollination reached 100% success, demonstrating self-compatibility despite the inability for autonomous selfing due to floral structure. Seed viability differed significantly among treatments, being lowest in selfed capsules (11%) and highest in cross-pollinated ones (32%), representing a 65% reduction and reflecting severe inbreeding depression that extended to germination performance. In vitro germination success also varied, with the L-arginine medium yielding the highest values (46% for cross-pollinated seeds and 44% for naturally pollinated seeds), though post-germination survival requires optimization for conservation applications. Despite the conspicuous floral display, floral visitation was extremely rare and the pollinator identity remains unknown, with only one potentially effective visitor observed during 144 h of monitoring, and most floral visitors were non-pollinating arthropods such as crab spiders, weevils, hymenopterans, and thrips. Population density varied dramatically (26-fold) between sites separated by less than 1 km, indicating pronounced sensitivity to local environmental conditions. These findings reveal that reproduction in G. capitata is constrained by both extrinsic (pollinator limitation) and intrinsic factors (reduced seed viability), which collectively jeopardize long-term population persistence. From a conservation perspective, protecting montane forest remnants and pollinator communities is essential, while the demonstrated potential of asymbiotic germination provides a complementary tool for ex situ propagation and management of this endemic orchid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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22 pages, 3683 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combining in vitro and Field Studies to Predict Drought Tolerance in Vicia sativa L. Genotypes

by Juan M. González, Yolanda Loarce, Noa Sánchez-Gordo, Lucía De la Rosa and Elena Ramírez-Parra

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3376; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213376 - 4 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Vetch (Vicia sativa L.), an important forage legume, faces increasing drought stress due to climate change. This study evaluated drought responses in 26 genotypes using both in vitro and field trials. In vitro experiments analysed seedlings grown on culture media either with [...] Read more.

Vetch (Vicia sativa L.), an important forage legume, faces increasing drought stress due to climate change. This study evaluated drought responses in 26 genotypes using both in vitro and field trials. In vitro experiments analysed seedlings grown on culture media either with 20% polyethylene glycol (PEG) to simulate drought (C20) or without PEG as a control (C0), measuring root and shoot dry weights as well as proline content. Field trials under rainfed and drought conditions assessed 100 seed weight and seed weight per plant. All traits studied exhibited high variability, with elevated coefficients of variation and broad-sense heritability. Seedling roots grown in C20 had higher dry weight than those in C0, while shoots showed the opposite trend. In C20 medium, proline content increased significantly—by 118.1% in roots and 131.1% in shoots. However, proline concentration did not correlate with field yield traits, limiting its utility as a drought tolerance marker. Principal component analysis grouped genotypes based on biomass production and drought response. Importantly, in vitro root and shoot dry weights were positively correlated with field yield traits, indicating their value as early predictors of agronomic performance and offering a useful tool for selection in vetch breeding programmes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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Plants, Volume 14, Issue 21 (November-1 2025) – 171 articles

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