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Volume 15
Issue 12
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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 12 (June-2 2025) – 180 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This study focuses on the potential of paper materials to enhance spatial quality and support capacity expansion in urban renewal. Taking its sensory plasticity, visual aesthetics, cultural bearing, and ecological and environmental protection as entry points, we constructed an innovative model for applying paper materials in contemporary art and spatial design. We verified the feasibility of using paper materials for capacity expansion in urban public space design through course design, artist interviews, and questionnaire analysis. Future research will aim to promote the transformation of paper art from decorative use to an intelligent space and cultural narrative design paradigm, deepen its value as an ecological, cultural, and technological medium, and open up new paths for spatial design theory and practice. View this paper
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25 pages, 1588 KiB  
Article
Reducing the Environmental Footprint of Urban Housing in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study of Cameroon
by Modeste Kameni Nematchoua and Mbani Menguissa Andre Marie
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122141 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 357
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the NENGOUE residence, a multi-occupancy building located in Yaoundé, Cameroon, over an 80-year lifespan. The analysis encompasses four life cycle phases—construction, use, renovation, and deconstruction—and evaluates twelve environmental impact categories. The results reveal [...] Read more.
This study presents a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the NENGOUE residence, a multi-occupancy building located in Yaoundé, Cameroon, over an 80-year lifespan. The analysis encompasses four life cycle phases—construction, use, renovation, and deconstruction—and evaluates twelve environmental impact categories. The results reveal that the use phase contributes overwhelmingly to environmental burdens, accounting for over 96% of total impacts. To mitigate this dominance, two alternative scenarios were assessed: a sustainable transport model and the integration of a photovoltaic system. In the first scenario, environmentally friendly commuting strategies, such as increased walking, cycling, and public transport, led to a 17.10% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In the second, rooftop photovoltaics offset 69.29% of the building’s electricity needs, resulting in a 26.72% GHG reduction. A third, combined scenario demonstrated the highest environmental gains, achieving a 42.97% reduction in GHG emissions, alongside substantial improvements across other impact categories, including acidification (−38.4%), cumulative energy demand (−28.3%), and photochemical ozone formation (−40.18%). In addition to the environmental benefits, the study highlights the importance of considering social acceptance, behavioral change, and economic feasibility for real-world implementation. The willingness of residents to adopt sustainable mobility practices, cultural preferences, safety concerns, and the initial cost barriers associated with photovoltaic technology are identified as critical factors. These findings underscore the need for integrated strategies that combine technological innovation with inclusive urban planning and stakeholder engagement. The proposed approach demonstrates that aligning environmental measures with local socio-economic realities can significantly enhance the sustainability of residential buildings, contributing meaningfully to climate change mitigation in Sub-Saharan African cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Building Materials and Designs for Sustainable Built Environment)
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23 pages, 3858 KiB  
Article
Research on the Flexural Behavior of Profiled Steel Sheet–Hollow Concrete Composite Floor Slab
by Guangshan Zhu, Xiang Wang, Weinan Wang, Jinshan Wang and Ye Yang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2140; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122140 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 377
Abstract
In order to reduce the self-weight of steel sheet–concrete composite slabs and fully apply the superior performance of the composite slabs, this paper proposes a kind of open-profiled steel sheet–hollow concrete composite floor slab. Flexural behavior tests are conducted to five pieces of [...] Read more.
In order to reduce the self-weight of steel sheet–concrete composite slabs and fully apply the superior performance of the composite slabs, this paper proposes a kind of open-profiled steel sheet–hollow concrete composite floor slab. Flexural behavior tests are conducted to five pieces of composite floor slabs with different parameters, and numerical simulation methods were applied to perform finite element analysis on the composite slabs with different hollow rates, reinforcement ratios, and steel sheet thicknesses. At the same time, the calculation methods were discussed for the flexural bearing capacities under different anchorage conditions. The results indicate that, when the profiled steel sheet is in a low anchorage degree, end debonding is one of the important failure modes for the composite floor slabs, and the flexural bearing capacity of the composite floor slabs is significantly reduced. The reinforcement arrangement in the tensile zone has a significant impact on the bearing capacity, deflection, and ductility coefficient of the composite floor slabs. When the reinforcement ratio increases from 0% to 0.6%, the ultimate bearing capacity is increased by 182.5%, and the ductility coefficient is increased by 246.0%. The ultimate deflection of specimens with a reinforcement ratio of 0.6% is 22.4 times of that of the specimens without reinforcement arrangement. When the hollow rate is less than 20%, the influence of the concrete hollow radius on the flexural bearing capacity, ductility coefficient, and maximum crack width is relatively small. As the thickness of the steel sheet increases, the increasing range in ultimate bearing capacity gradually decreases, the deflection gradually decreases, and the ductility coefficient gradually increases; increasing the thickness of composite floor slabs can help reduce deformation. The theoretical calculation values obtained by applying the flexural bearing capacity calculation method proposed in the paper match with the test results, and the method has a certain reference value for the engineering practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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25 pages, 8853 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Finite Element Study on Wooden Joints Strengthened by Detachable Steel Sleeves
by Jiajun Gao, Jianhua Shao, Yong Wang, Anxiang Feng, Zhanguang Wang, Hongxuan Xu, Yangfa Zhu and Boshi Ma
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2139; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122139 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 272
Abstract
We designed detachable steel sleeves to reinforce wooden joints and improve their integrity under earthquake action and investigated their mechanical properties. Monotonic bending tests were performed on a half-tenon pure wooden joint and a joint strengthened by a detachable steel sleeve. More obvious [...] Read more.
We designed detachable steel sleeves to reinforce wooden joints and improve their integrity under earthquake action and investigated their mechanical properties. Monotonic bending tests were performed on a half-tenon pure wooden joint and a joint strengthened by a detachable steel sleeve. More obvious tenon pulling-out failure was observed in the pure wood joint; in comparison, only slight extrusion fracture of wooden beams and extrusion deformation of steel sleeves occurred in the wood joint reinforced by a detachable steel sleeve. Our test results showed that the initial rotational stiffness of the strengthened joint, JG1, was increased by 495.4% compared with that of the unstrengthened joint, JG0. The yield bending moment increased by 425.9%, and the ultimate bending moment increased by 627.5%, which indicated that the mechanical performance was significantly improved when the joint was reinforced by a detachable steel sleeve. Numerical simulations of different components were performed with finite element analysis software to analyze the mechanical performance of the reinforced joint. It was found that the stiffness and ultimate flexural performance of the joint could be increased by setting stiffeners on the steel sleeve and connecting the wooden column with self-tapping screws. The results of the tests were compared with those obtained through finite element analysis, and a high degree of accuracy was achieved, which could provide a theoretical basis for the reinforcement of timber structural buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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18 pages, 8863 KiB  
Article
Thickness Uniformity Assessment of Epoxy Asphalt Pavement Layer on Steel Bridge Decks Using Three-Dimensional Ground-Penetrating Radar
by Lei Huang, Zhijian Jin, Zhian Yao, Bo Chen, Weixiong Li, Xuetang Xiong and Huayang Yu
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2138; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122138 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 199
Abstract
To address the challenge of assessing the thickness uniformity of epoxy asphalt layers on steel bridge decks, three-dimensional ground-penetrating radar (3D-GPR) was employed for non-destructive, full cross-sectional detection of the pavement layer’s thickness. The antenna array spacing was optimized using the common midpoint [...] Read more.
To address the challenge of assessing the thickness uniformity of epoxy asphalt layers on steel bridge decks, three-dimensional ground-penetrating radar (3D-GPR) was employed for non-destructive, full cross-sectional detection of the pavement layer’s thickness. The antenna array spacing was optimized using the common midpoint (CMP) method, enabling precise measurement of the relative permittivity of epoxy asphalt mixtures. A significant correlation between relative permittivity and the void ratio was established, providing a novel approach to identifying areas prone to coarse segregation and early-stage water damage. Grayscale maps of the thickness distribution enabled precise detection of regions with acceptable, under-thickness and over-thickness values. The uniformity of construction thickness was quantitatively evaluated using standard deviations and coefficients of variation. Results indicated that when the coefficient exceeds 12%, improvements in the pavement construction process are necessary. This research demonstrates the capability of 3D-GPR to effectively detect thickness variations, offering a valuable tool for enhancing pavement paving and compaction practices on steel bridge decks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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27 pages, 3020 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Review of Ecosystem Services of Community Gardens in English- and Chinese-Language Literature
by Xiaoying Ding, Haotian Zhang, Xiaoxiao Fan, Xiaoyu Zhang, Xiaopeng Yue and Ping Shu
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2137; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122137 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Community gardens are regarded as important green spaces that promote sustainable cities. Some studies have explored the ecosystem services of community gardens in different areas. However, existing studies lack a systematic review of research on community garden ecosystem services, and there is no [...] Read more.
Community gardens are regarded as important green spaces that promote sustainable cities. Some studies have explored the ecosystem services of community gardens in different areas. However, existing studies lack a systematic review of research on community garden ecosystem services, and there is no comparative study of English- and Chinese-language literature. This paper comprehensively reviewed key English- and Chinese-language literature on the ecosystem services of community gardens from the Web of Science and CNKI and analyzed publication years, numbers, research locations, and research topics. The results showed that the number of studies in English and Chinese has increased significantly since 2015, with a consistent upward trend. Research locations are concentrated in urban areas of Europe, America, and eastern China. Both English- and Chinese-language literature focuses on “food supply (quantity)” in the provisioning services, as well as “learning and education” and “social cohesion and integration” in cultural services. The above results are related to the governance frameworks, the management systems, the climatic conditions, and the sustainable development needs of local cities and planning strategies. Given that most of the existing research focuses on the classification and mechanisms of community garden ecosystem services, it is proposed that future research deeply explore the design factors affecting community garden ecosystem services and pay attention to the links between different ecosystem services. The main findings of this review emphasize the correlation between community garden ecosystem services and contextual factors, and point out future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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23 pages, 8436 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Printing Experiments and Particle-Based Meshless Numerical Investigations on the Failure Modes of Tunnel-Lining Structures Containing Fissures
by Shuyang Yu, Zhongqing Chen, Yifei Li, Wei Li and Bufan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2136; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122136 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 262
Abstract
The presence of fissures poses significant threats to tunnel-lining structures, and the interaction between tunnels and linings under complex stress conditions remains poorly understood. This study investigated the failure modes of tunnel-lining structures with prefabricated fissures via 3D-printed samples, uniaxial compression experiments using [...] Read more.
The presence of fissures poses significant threats to tunnel-lining structures, and the interaction between tunnels and linings under complex stress conditions remains poorly understood. This study investigated the failure modes of tunnel-lining structures with prefabricated fissures via 3D-printed samples, uniaxial compression experiments using DIC technology for full-field strain monitoring, and a particle-based meshless (SPH) numerical method to simulate tunnel–fissure interactions. The results show that under uniaxial compression, three crack types (main, upper/lower side cracks) initiate from the tunnel, while only wing cracks form at pre-existing fissures; wing crack initiation suppresses upper-side cracks, whereas more lining cracks (upper, middle, lower, corner, bottom) emerge without fissure-induced propagation. Fissure orientation (β) and inclination (α) significantly affect crack distributions: β = 90° induces maximum stress concentration and asymmetric deformation, while α ≥ 45° promotes wing crack initiation and reduces lining crack density. Along with our findings, we offer design recommendations to prioritize fissure orientation in tunnel engineering and expand SPH applications for predicting crack propagation in underground structures with complex fissures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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16 pages, 1997 KiB  
Article
A Closed-Form Solution for Harvesting Energy from the High-Order Sandwich Beam Subjected to Dynamic Loading
by Sy-Dan Dao, Dang-Diem Nguyen, Ngoc-Lam Nguyen and Duc-Kien Thai
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2135; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122135 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 226
Abstract
This study presents a closed-form solution for the dynamic response of a sandwich beam subjected to arbitrary impact loading, with a particular focus on energy harvesting from an attached piezoelectric layer. A thin piezoelectric patch is bonded to the bottom surface of the [...] Read more.
This study presents a closed-form solution for the dynamic response of a sandwich beam subjected to arbitrary impact loading, with a particular focus on energy harvesting from an attached piezoelectric layer. A thin piezoelectric patch is bonded to the bottom surface of the beam to convert mechanical vibrations into electrical energy. The governing equations of motion are derived using Hamilton’s principle, considering a non-symmetric sandwich cross-section and incorporating higher-order shear deformation effects. The state–space method is employed to obtain the exact dynamic response of the beam under impact excitation. The differential equations governing the output voltage and harvested power are solved analytically based on the derived response. The natural frequencies and dynamic responses are validated against classical beam theory, highlighting the significance of shear deformation. Numerical examples are provided to evaluate the generated voltage and energy harvesting efficiency. The results demonstrate the strong potential for energy harvesting from sandwich beam vibrations and elucidate the influence of impact loading conditions, distributed load amplitude, and the geometric dimensions of the beam on the harvested output. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Latest Research on Building Materials and Structures)
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21 pages, 20435 KiB  
Article
Examining the Hashim Chalbi House’s Spatial Aspects in Erbil Citadel: Understanding the Museum’s Configuration Potential via Depthmap Analysis
by Wafaa Anwar Sulaiman Goriel, Tamás Molnár and Erzsébet Szeréna Zoltán
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122134 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 380
Abstract
The Hashim Chalbi house, a historic private residence with notable architectural features located within Erbil Citadel—a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2014—was turned into a museum. This study utilizes space syntax analysis (depth maps) to explore the spatial configuration of the Hashim Chalbi [...] Read more.
The Hashim Chalbi house, a historic private residence with notable architectural features located within Erbil Citadel—a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2014—was turned into a museum. This study utilizes space syntax analysis (depth maps) to explore the spatial configuration of the Hashim Chalbi house, aiming to evaluate its potential and provide guidance for conservation strategies that maintain its architectural and cultural integrity as a museum. Space syntax offers both a theoretical and analytical tool to map and interpret the spatial formation of heritage buildings. A commonly recognized limitation has been the lack of broader-scale spatial analyses of houses that can shed light on social and cultural interaction. This approach aims to provide a better analysis to inform conservation and restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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22 pages, 3490 KiB  
Article
Integrating Modular Construction, Interlocking Blocks, and Robotic Technology with Lean Principles to Improve Masonry Construction Efficiency
by Karl Keyrouz, Yuxiang Chen and Farook Hamzeh
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2133; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122133 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 264
Abstract
Current construction site conditions and practices often lead to various forms of waste, which in turn decreases productivity and value generation. Lean principles aim to minimize waste while maximizing value. However, optimizing construction flow, especially in masonry construction, remains challenging due to skilled [...] Read more.
Current construction site conditions and practices often lead to various forms of waste, which in turn decreases productivity and value generation. Lean principles aim to minimize waste while maximizing value. However, optimizing construction flow, especially in masonry construction, remains challenging due to skilled labour shortages and rising material costs. This study developed a framework to identify and mitigate inefficiencies and reduced productivity in current construction practices. Utilizing simulation modelling, various interventions and lean scenarios were evaluated to test their effectiveness. Among the interventions evaluated, the combination of modular construction, interlocking blocks, and robotic technology yielded the most significant improvement. The results validate the potential of integrating lean practices and robotic technology to enhance productivity and efficiency in masonry construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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17 pages, 658 KiB  
Article
Feasibility of Using New Technologies and Artificial Intelligence in Preventive Measures in Building Works
by Mercedes del Río Merino, María Segarra Cañamares, Miriam Zamora Calleja, Antonio Ros Serrano and Rafael Alberto Heredia Morante
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122132 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 465
Abstract
The construction sector represents approximately 13% of global gross domestic product (GDP) and over 5% in Spain, employing more than one million workers. Despite its economic importance, the sector exhibits low digitalization levels and persistently high accident rates, contrasting with other industries that [...] Read more.
The construction sector represents approximately 13% of global gross domestic product (GDP) and over 5% in Spain, employing more than one million workers. Despite its economic importance, the sector exhibits low digitalization levels and persistently high accident rates, contrasting with other industries that have successfully integrated digital technologies for safety improvement. Objective: This study evaluates the technical, operational, and regulatory feasibility of implementing digital tools and artificial intelligence (AI) in occupational risk prevention (ORP) within the Spanish construction sector. It focuses on identifying applicable technologies, assessing professionals’ perceptions of their practical utility, and analyzing key implementation barriers. Methodology: A mixed-method approach was employed in four stages: (1) a systematic literature review of digital safety tools; (2) a survey of 97 construction professionals using purposive sampling and validated through pretesting (Cronbach’s α = 0.82); (3) an analysis of official accident statistics; and (4) expert consensus using the Delphi method (three rounds, 75% consensus threshold). Results: Virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) applications were identified as highly beneficial for training and awareness, with 78.2% of professionals supporting their use for safety training. Building Information Modeling (BIM) and drones were highlighted as the most valued tools for risk management and site supervision. Main implementation barriers include a lack of digital skills (35%), insufficient budget (30%), and high tool costs (25%). Contribution: This study proposes a mixed-method methodological framework—quantitative and qualitative—adapted to national contexts and validated through a Delphi consensus process. The framework prioritizes key technologies and identifies targeted strategies to overcome critical implementation barriers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation in the Building Design and Construction Industry: Smart Technologies, Sustainable Practices, and Artificial Intelligence Applications)
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16 pages, 10517 KiB  
Article
Beyond the Light Meter: A Case-Study on HDR-Derived Illuminance Calculations Using a Proxy-Lambertian Surface
by Jackson Hanus, Arpan Guha and Abdourahim Barry
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2131; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122131 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
Accurate illuminance measurements are critical in assessing lighting quality during post-occupancy evaluations, and traditional methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming. This pilot study demonstrates an alternative that combines high dynamic range (HDR) imaging with a low-cost proxy-Lambertian surface to transform image luminance into spatial [...] Read more.
Accurate illuminance measurements are critical in assessing lighting quality during post-occupancy evaluations, and traditional methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming. This pilot study demonstrates an alternative that combines high dynamic range (HDR) imaging with a low-cost proxy-Lambertian surface to transform image luminance into spatial illuminance. Seven readily available materials were screened for luminance uniformity; the specimen with minimal deviation from Lambertian behavior (≈2%) was adopted as the pseudo-Lambertian surface. Calibrated HDR images of a fluorescent-lit university classroom were acquired with a digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera and processed in Photosphere, after which pixel luminance was converted to illuminance via Lambertian approximation. Predicted illuminance values were benchmarked against spectral illuminance meter readings at 42 locations on horizontal work planes, vertical presentation surfaces, and the circulation floor. The average errors were 5.20% for desks and 6.40% for the whiteboard—well below the 10% acceptance threshold for design validation—while the projector-screen and floor measurements exhibited slightly higher discrepancies of 9.90% and 14.40%, respectively. The proposed workflow significantly reduces the cost, complexity, and duration of lighting assessments, presenting a promising tool for streamlined, accurate post-occupancy evaluations. Future work may focus on refining this approach for diverse lighting conditions and complex material interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lighting in Buildings—2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 3885 KiB  
Article
A Point Cloud Registration Method for Steel Tubular Arch Rib Segments of CFST Arch Bridges Based on Local Geometric Constraints
by Yiquan Lv, Chuanli Kang, Junli Liu and Hongjian Zhou
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2130; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122130 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 304
Abstract
The multi-station registration of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch rib segments poses significant challenges due to structural complexity and environmental constraints during terrestrial laser scanning, requiring multi-angle acquisition for comprehensive coverage. This study introduces a cascaded registration framework comprising: (1) a coarse registration [...] Read more.
The multi-station registration of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch rib segments poses significant challenges due to structural complexity and environmental constraints during terrestrial laser scanning, requiring multi-angle acquisition for comprehensive coverage. This study introduces a cascaded registration framework comprising: (1) a coarse registration method utilizing local geometric features of segmented tubular joints, where equidistant cross-section partitioning extracts inherent circularity constraints from cylindrical segments, and (2) a refined registration stage employing the Coherent Point Drift (CPD) algorithm with k-d tree acceleration for computational efficiency. Experimental results demonstrate that the coarse registration achieves 31 mm RMSE with R2= 0.889, eliminating 88.9% of initial misalignment. The CPD refinement reduces RMSE to 4 mm (87% precision improvement), reaching sub-centimeter accuracy with exceptional congruence (R2 = 0.995, residual error = 0.5%). Notably, k-d tree acceleration decreases computational time by 34.2% (13.30 s vs. 20.21 s) compared to conventional CPD. Validated on 2.2 m CFST specimens, this method provides an efficient solution for multi-station point cloud registration of complex steel structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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17 pages, 3126 KiB  
Article
Study on the Effects of Wind Direction on the Characteristics of Vortex-Induced Vibration for a Square Cylinder
by Yurong Gu, Junou Xing, Xiaobin Zhang, Fei Wang, Qiaochu Zhao and Wenyong Ma
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122129 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
Due to its complex mechanism of action, the wind-resistant design of square cross-section structures against vortex-induced vibration (VIV) still presents significant challenges. The angle of the wind direction is an important factor affecting the VIV characteristics of square cylinders. A series of stationary [...] Read more.
Due to its complex mechanism of action, the wind-resistant design of square cross-section structures against vortex-induced vibration (VIV) still presents significant challenges. The angle of the wind direction is an important factor affecting the VIV characteristics of square cylinders. A series of stationary model pressure tests were performed and an elastic supporting model was used in the present study. The effects of the wind direction angle on parameters corresponding to fluid–structure interaction were analyzed with reference to the Strouhal number, range of “lock-in”, amplitude, and aerodynamic forces. The Strouhal number of the square cylinder was greatest at a 16° wind direction angle. When the wind direction angle was 10°, the wind speed range of vortex-induced vibration (VIV) of the square cylinder was the greatest, and the corresponding value was the smallest when the wind direction angle ranged from 20° to 45°. Within the vibration interval, the extreme value of the amplitude was smallest when the wind direction angle was 10°, and the extreme value of the amplitude was greatest when the wind direction angle was 30°. The vibration state had a minimal influence on the mean lift coefficient and a relatively large influence on the mean drag coefficient. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Technology and Properties of Composite Materials)
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26 pages, 6934 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Urban Visual Identity: Eye-Tracking Insights for Outdoor Advertising Management
by Ke Jin, Yuyuan Zhang and Junming Chen
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2128; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122128 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 405
Abstract
In addition to architecture and infrastructure, urban outdoor advertising also shapes urban visual identity, serving as a prominent carrier of public information and visual stimuli. However, excessive or poorly designed advertisements disrupt the cityscape and contribute to visual pollution and cognitive overload. Leveraging [...] Read more.
In addition to architecture and infrastructure, urban outdoor advertising also shapes urban visual identity, serving as a prominent carrier of public information and visual stimuli. However, excessive or poorly designed advertisements disrupt the cityscape and contribute to visual pollution and cognitive overload. Leveraging computer-based eye tracking, this study examines the visual and cognitive effects of outdoor advertising designs within urban contexts. Key eye-tracking metrics, including total fixation duration, fixation count, time to first fixation, and first fixation duration, are measured to analyze the influence of various variables on visual attention and user experience, such as color contrast, text complexity, information hierarchy, and spatial layout. The findings reveal that high-contrast, text-heavy designs hinder visual flow and increase mental effort, while visually balanced layouts improve legibility and reduce cognitive burden. These results offer actionable insights for optimizing urban visual identity and enhancing the clarity, comfort, and coherence of outdoor advertising. By integrating perceptual data into urban design strategies, this research provides a data-driven approach to smarter, more human-centered advertising management and urban aesthetic governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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26 pages, 2245 KiB  
Review
Life Cycle Assessment with Carbon Footprint Analysis in Glulam Buildings: A Review
by Ruijing Liu, Lihong Yao, Yingchun Gong and Zhen Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2127; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122127 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 553
Abstract
This study provides a bibliometric analysis of life cycle assessments (LCAs) to explore the sustainability potential of mass timber buildings, focusing on glulam. The analysis highlights regional differences in carbon footprint performance within the ISO 14040 and EN 15978 frameworks. LCA results from [...] Read more.
This study provides a bibliometric analysis of life cycle assessments (LCAs) to explore the sustainability potential of mass timber buildings, focusing on glulam. The analysis highlights regional differences in carbon footprint performance within the ISO 14040 and EN 15978 frameworks. LCA results from representative countries across six continents show that wood buildings, compared to traditional materials, have a reduced carbon footprint. The geographical distribution of forest resources significantly influences the carbon footprint of glulam production. Europe and North America demonstrate optimal performance metrics (e.g., carbon sequestration), attributable to advanced technology and investment in long-term sustainable forest management. Our review research shows the lowest glulam carbon footprints (28–70% lower than traditional materials) due to clean energy and sustainable practices. In contrast, Asia and Africa exhibit systemic deficits, driven by resource scarcity, climatic stressors, and land-use pressures. South America and Oceania display transitional dynamics, with heterogeneous outcomes influenced by localized deforestation trends and conservation efficacy. Glulam buildings outperformed concrete and steel across 11–18 environmental categories, with carbon storage offsetting 30–47% of emissions and energy mixes cutting operational impacts by up to 67%. Circular strategies like recycling and prefabrication reduced end-of-life emissions by 12–29% and cut construction time and costs. Social benefits included job creation (e.g., 1 million in the EU) and improved well-being in wooden interiors. To further reduce carbon footprint disparities, this study emphasizes sustainable forest management, longer building lifespans, optimized energy mixes, shorter transport distances, advanced production technologies, and improved recycling systems. Additionally, the circular economy and social benefits of glulam buildings, such as reduced construction costs, value recovery, and job creation, are highlighted. In the future, prioritizing equitable partnerships and enhancing international exchanges of technical expertise will facilitate the adoption of sustainable practices in glulam buildings and advance decarbonization goals in the global building sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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19 pages, 2000 KiB  
Article
Window Frame Design Optimization Analysis Based on Hygrothermal Performance and the Level(s) Framework
by Konstantin Verichev, Carmen Díaz-López, Andrés García-Ruíz and Francisca Valdenegro
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122126 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 333
Abstract
This study investigates the hygrothermal performance of window frames to assess their capacity to prevent surface condensation—a critical factor for indoor air quality and building durability, particularly in humid climates. Driven by the practical need to replace existing aluminum frames with more sustainable [...] Read more.
This study investigates the hygrothermal performance of window frames to assess their capacity to prevent surface condensation—a critical factor for indoor air quality and building durability, particularly in humid climates. Driven by the practical need to replace existing aluminum frames with more sustainable alternatives, the research evaluates standard aluminum frames against modified timber frames designed to replicate the aluminum geometry. Using daily temperature and humidity data from Valdivia, Chile (2023)—a city with a temperate oceanic and humid climate—interior surface temperatures were simulated with HTflux software and compared against dew point values over a relative humidity (RH) range from 40% to 80%. A novel methodology is proposed for verifying the hygrothermal behavior of window frames based on annual performance analysis and highlighting the need to optimize window design according to specific local climate conditions. The results indicate that modified timber frames exhibited consistently lower average interior surface temperatures (by 1.2 °C) and a significantly higher risk of surface condensation compared to aluminum frames, particularly at typical comfort-level indoor humidity conditions (e.g., 167 vs. 100 condensation days at 50% RH). While both materials presented a high risk of condensation under extreme humidity conditions (80% RH), timber frames showed potentially greater severity of condensation. These findings underscore that the proposed timber frame modification is not hygrothermally adequate without strict control of indoor humidity. Anchored in the Level(s) framework, the study emphasizes the critical influence of geometric design on material performance and advocates for holistic, sustainable construction practices that balance energy efficiency, environmental impact, and occupant comfort. It highlights the need for integrated design solutions and effective moisture management to ensure building resilience in humid environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Indoor Environment of Buildings)
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34 pages, 2086 KiB  
Review
Local Scour Around Marine Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Influencing Factors, Prediction Methods, and Future Directions
by Bingchuan Duan, Duoyin Wang, Chenxi Qin and Lunliang Duan
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2125; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122125 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 505
Abstract
Local scour is a phenomenon of sediment erosion and transport caused by the dynamic interaction between water flow and seabed sediment, posing a serious threat to the safety of marine engineering structures such as cross-sea bridges and offshore wind turbines. To improve scour [...] Read more.
Local scour is a phenomenon of sediment erosion and transport caused by the dynamic interaction between water flow and seabed sediment, posing a serious threat to the safety of marine engineering structures such as cross-sea bridges and offshore wind turbines. To improve scour prediction and prevention capabilities, this review systematically analyzes the influence mechanisms of factors such as hydrodynamic conditions, sediment characteristics, and structural geometry, and discusses scour protection measures. Based on this, a comprehensive evaluation of the applicability of different prediction methods, including traditional empirical formulas, numerical simulations, probabilistic prediction models, and machine learning (ML) methods, was conducted. The study focuses on analyzing the limitations of existing methods: empirical formulas lack adaptability under complex field conditions, numerical simulation still faces challenges in validating real marine environments, and data-driven models suffer from “black box” issues and insufficient generalization capabilities. Based on the current research progress, this review presents prospects for future development, emphasizing the need to deepen the study of scouring mechanisms in complex real marine environments, develop efficient numerical models for engineering applications, and explore intelligent prediction methods that integrate data-driven approaches with physical mechanisms. This aims to provide more reliable theoretical support for the safe design, risk prevention, and scouring mitigation measures in marine engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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19 pages, 1195 KiB  
Systematic Review
The Effects of BIM Maturity Levels on Modularization and Standardization in the Construction Industry: A Systematic Literature Review and Case Studies
by Elham Bayzidi, Nazanin Kordestani Ghalenoei and Mostafa Babaeian Jelodar
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2124; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122124 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 359
Abstract
The increasing demand for efficient, sustainable, and coordinated construction practices has intensified interest in the integration of digital tools such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) with modularization and standardization strategies. This study aims to examine the relationship among BIM maturity levels, modularization grades, [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for efficient, sustainable, and coordinated construction practices has intensified interest in the integration of digital tools such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) with modularization and standardization strategies. This study aims to examine the relationship among BIM maturity levels, modularization grades, and standardization levels, and to assess their combined impact on construction project outcomes. A mixed-methods approach, including a systematic literature review and New Zealand-based case studies, is used to develop and validate an evaluative framework. The SLR identifies key themes and determinants, while the case studies provide empirical evidence on the interactions between BIM maturity levels, modularization grades, and standardization levels. The study identifies that higher BIM maturity levels significantly enhance modularization and standardization practices. Advanced BIM capabilities foster improved design coordination, collaboration, and data management, leading to more efficient construction processes. A guideline for mapping BIM maturity against standardization levels is proposed to assist stakeholders in evaluating and optimizing project outcomes. This research offers a novel perspective on integrating BIM maturity with modularization and standardization practices. While it is applied in the New Zealand context, the proposed framework and methodology are designed to be transferable to international settings. It provides actionable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders seeking to refine standards, promote BIM adoption, and enhance construction project efficiency worldwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Construction Management – Future Innovations, Methods, Techniques and Technologies)
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18 pages, 2919 KiB  
Article
Stability of Non-Uniform Soils Slope with Tension Cracks Under Unsaturated Flow Conditions
by Jing Zhang, Jinyu Dong, Ying Zhao, Yukai Wang and Yang Cheng
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2123; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122123 - 18 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 392
Abstract
The soil slopes in nature are normally unsaturated, heterogeneous, and even carry cracks. In order to assess the stability of slope with crack under steady unsaturated flow and non-uniform conditions, this work proposes a novel discretization-based method to generate the rotational failure mechanism [...] Read more.
The soil slopes in nature are normally unsaturated, heterogeneous, and even carry cracks. In order to assess the stability of slope with crack under steady unsaturated flow and non-uniform conditions, this work proposes a novel discretization-based method to generate the rotational failure mechanism in the context of the kinematic limit analysis. A point-to-point strategy is used to generate the potential failure surface of the failure mechanism. The failure surface consists of a series of log-spiral segments instead of linear segments employed in previous studies. Two kinds of cracks—open cracks and formation cracks—are considered in the stability analysis. The maximum depth of the vertical crack is modified by considering the effect of the unsaturated properties of soils. According to the work–energy balance equation, the explicit expression about the slope factor safety for different crack types is obtained, which is formulated as a multivariate nonlinear optimization problem optimized by an intelligent optimization algorithm. Numerical results for different unsaturated parameters and non-uniform distribution of soil strength are calculated and presented in the form of graphs for potential use in practical engineering. Then, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to find more insights into the effect of unsaturation and heterogeneity on the crack slopes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Mechanics as Applied to Civil Engineering)
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18 pages, 3526 KiB  
Article
Smart Data-Enabled Conservation and Knowledge Generation for Architectural Heritage System
by Ziyuan Rao and Guoguang Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2122; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122122 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 273
Abstract
In architectural heritage conservation, fragmented data practices and heterogeneous formats hinder knowledge extraction, limiting the translation of raw data into actionable conservation insights. This study proposes a knowledge-centric framework integrating smart data methodologies to bridge this gap. The framework synergizes Heritage Building Information [...] Read more.
In architectural heritage conservation, fragmented data practices and heterogeneous formats hinder knowledge extraction, limiting the translation of raw data into actionable conservation insights. This study proposes a knowledge-centric framework integrating smart data methodologies to bridge this gap. The framework synergizes Heritage Building Information Modeling (HBIM), semantic knowledge graphs, and knowledge bases, prioritizing three interconnected dimensions: geometric digitization through 3D laser scanning and parametric HBIM reconstruction, semantic enrichment of historical texts via NLP and rule-based entity extraction, and knowledge graph-driven discovery of spatiotemporal patterns using Neo4j and ontology mapping. Validated through dual case studies—the Historical Educational Sites in South China (humanistic narratives) and the Dong ethnic drum towers (structural logic)—the framework demonstrates its capacity to automate knowledge generation, converting 20.5 GB of multi-source data into 2652 RDF triples that interconnect 1701 nodes across HBIM models and archival records. By enabling real-time visualization of semantic relationships (e.g., educator networks, mortise-and-tenon typologies) through graph queries, the system enhances interdisciplinary collaboration. Furthermore, the proposed smart data framework facilitated the generation of domain-specific knowledge through systematic data valorization, yielding actionable insights for architectural conservation practice. This research redefines conservation as a knowledge-to-action paradigm, where smart data methodologies unify tangible and intangible heritage values, fostering data-driven stewardship across cultural, historical, and technical domains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Cultural Heritage)
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23 pages, 5213 KiB  
Article
Fire Test on Insulated Steel Beams with Fire-Protection Coating and Fiber Cement Board
by Weihua Wang, Tao Zhu, Xian Gao, Jingjie Yang, Xilong Chen and Weiyong Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122121 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 230
Abstract
Fire safety design for steel beams is crucial in the construction of steel structures. However, there remains a significant gap in the fire resistance testing of insulated steel beams. This study focuses on full-scale experimental research examining the fire resistance performance of steel [...] Read more.
Fire safety design for steel beams is crucial in the construction of steel structures. However, there remains a significant gap in the fire resistance testing of insulated steel beams. This study focuses on full-scale experimental research examining the fire resistance performance of steel beams with varying fire protection methods, cross-sectional dimensions, and heating curves. During the tests, the furnace temperature, specimen temperature, and deflection at mid-span were measured. The test results indicated that specimens mainly failed in lateral–torsional buckling. Additionally, a markedly non-uniform temperature distribution was observed across the cross-section, and the predictions made by GB 51249-2017 were found to be unsafe. The use of fiber cement board for fire protection may be ineffective, as it tends to become brittle at elevated temperatures, making it susceptible to breakage and detachment when the beams begin to bend. Furthermore, due to potential creep deformation, specimens subjected to longer heating durations exhibited lower critical temperatures compared to those with shorter heating durations. Finally, the design method outlined in BS EN 1993-1-2 and ANSI/AISC 360-22 was evaluated against the test results, indicating an accurate prediction of these methods for specimens with shorter heating durations, but an unconservative prediction for specimens with longer heating durations due to ignorance of creep deformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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29 pages, 3052 KiB  
Systematic Review
The Social Life of Residential Architecture: A Systematic Review on Identifying the Hidden Patterns Within the Spatial Configuration of Historic Houses
by Seyedeh Maryam Moosavi, Còssima Cornadó, Reza Askarizad and Chiara Garau
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2120; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122120 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 543
Abstract
Traditional residential architecture is more than a historical form; it is a repository of lived experiences, cultural identity, and socio-spatial organisation. However, scholarly understanding of its social life and spatial logic remains disjointed. This study aims to identify existing research gaps in the [...] Read more.
Traditional residential architecture is more than a historical form; it is a repository of lived experiences, cultural identity, and socio-spatial organisation. However, scholarly understanding of its social life and spatial logic remains disjointed. This study aims to identify existing research gaps in the spatial configuration of historic houses by systematically reviewing the social life of residential architecture. Using the PRISMA framework, 534 peer-reviewed articles were retrieved through a rigorous screening process from the Scopus database. A combination of bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer term mapping and SankeyMATIC visualisations was employed to categorise thematic concentrations and reveal methodological and regional distributed trends. The findings identified ten dominant thematic clusters: sustainability, restoration and conservation, gender role, vernacular architecture, space syntax, semantic values, spatial characteristics, cultural studies, environmental psychology, and adaptive reuse. The strong quantitative presence in spatial metrics and qualitative dominance in cultural and gendered perspectives suggested a rich yet segmented field ripe for future mixed-method development. The findings expose pervasive research gaps in traditional residential architecture, from a lack of real-time empirical data and fragmented interdisciplinary knowledge to underutilised innovative methodologies and insufficient representation of diverse user groups, collectively highlighting the urgent need for integrated approaches to understand evolving socio-spatial dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Preservation of Buildings and Infrastructure)
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19 pages, 2327 KiB  
Article
Analytical Investigation of Dynamic Response in Cracked Structure Subjected to Moving Load
by Shuirong Gui, Hongwei Zeng, Zhisheng Gui, Mingjun Tan, Zhongzhao Guo, Kai Zhong, Yongming Xiong and Wangwang Fang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2119; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122119 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 271
Abstract
Under cyclic moving load action, tensile-dominant structures are prone to crack initiation due to cumulative damage effects. The presence of cracks leads to structural stiffness degradation and nonlinear redistribution of dynamic characteristics, thereby compromising str18uctural integrity and service performance. The current research on [...] Read more.
Under cyclic moving load action, tensile-dominant structures are prone to crack initiation due to cumulative damage effects. The presence of cracks leads to structural stiffness degradation and nonlinear redistribution of dynamic characteristics, thereby compromising str18uctural integrity and service performance. The current research on the dynamic behavior of cracked structures predominantly focuses on transient analysis through high-fidelity finite element models. However, the existing methodologies encounter two critical limitations: computational inefficiency and a trade-off between model fidelity and practicality. Thus, this study presents an innovative analytical framework to investigate the dynamic response of cracked simply supported beams subjected to moving loads. The proposed methodology conceptualizes the cracked beam as a system composed of multiple interconnected sub-beams, each governed by the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory. At crack locations, massless rotational springs are employed to accurately capture the local flexibility induced by these defects. The transfer matrix method is utilized to derive explicit eigenfunctions for the cracked beam system, thereby facilitating the formulation of coupled vehicle–bridge vibration equations through modal superposition. Subsequently, dynamic response analysis is conducted using the Runge–Kutta numerical integration scheme. Extensive numerical simulations reveal the influence of critical parameters—particularly crack depth and location—on the coupled dynamic behavior of the structure subjected to moving loads. The results indicate that at a constant speed, neither crack depth nor position alters the shape of the beam’s vibration curve. The maximum deflection of beams with a 30% crack in the middle span increases by 14.96% compared to those without cracks. Furthermore, crack migration toward the mid-span results in increased mid-span displacement without changing vibration curve topology. For a constant crack depth ratio (γi = 0.3), the progressive migration of the crack position from 0.05 L to 0.5 L leads to a 26.4% increase in the mid-span displacement (from 5.3 mm to 6.7 mm). These findings highlight the efficacy of the proposed method in capturing the complex interactions between moving loads and cracked concrete structures, offering valuable insights for structural health monitoring and assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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29 pages, 13152 KiB  
Article
Day–Night Synergy Between Built Environment and Thermal Comfort and Its Impact on Pedestrian Street Vitality: Beijing–Chengdu Comparison
by Jinjiang Zhang, Xuan Li, Haitao Lian, Haozhe Li and Junhan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2118; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122118 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 437
Abstract
With the acceleration of urbanization, existing studies have primarily focused on the influence of either built environment factors or thermal comfort on street vitality, while their synergistic effects remain underexplored. This study selects four pedestrian commercial streets in Beijing and Chengdu for dual [...] Read more.
With the acceleration of urbanization, existing studies have primarily focused on the influence of either built environment factors or thermal comfort on street vitality, while their synergistic effects remain underexplored. This study selects four pedestrian commercial streets in Beijing and Chengdu for dual validation to reveal the varying impacts of built environment elements on street vitality under different climatic conditions and to uncover the diurnal dynamic effects. The key findings include the following: (1) the shop width (optimal between 8 and 14 m) and the number of items of street furniture are the core drivers of vitality across time and space; (2) although the visibility of greenery is often recommended to boost vitality, its influence is nonlinear and closely tied to thermal comfort; (3) thermal comfort and street width dynamically affect the spatiotemporal variations in vitality; and (4) daytime vitality is mainly driven by spatial comfort related to commercial density, furniture, and thermal comfort, while nighttime vitality relies more on the synergy between street width and shop transparency. This study aims to support differentiated street design across climates, enhancing both economic vitality and sustainable urban development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Built Environment, 2nd Volume)
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28 pages, 4284 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Evaluation of Community Smart Health Spaces: A Hybrid Model Based on a SWOT Analysis, the Four Orders of Design, AHP, and TOPSIS
by Qichao Song and Huiling Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2117; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122117 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
The current design of community smart health spaces lacks a systematic theoretical framework. This study innovatively proposes a hybrid model combining a SWOT analysis, the “four orders of design”, AHP, and TOPSIS to optimize the design of community smart health spaces systematically. First, [...] Read more.
The current design of community smart health spaces lacks a systematic theoretical framework. This study innovatively proposes a hybrid model combining a SWOT analysis, the “four orders of design”, AHP, and TOPSIS to optimize the design of community smart health spaces systematically. First, a SWOT analysis is employed to assess the current state of community smart health spaces, and strategies are proposed based on this study. Subsequently, the “four orders of design” framework is integrated to clarify the design priorities for symbols, tangible objects, action events, and system environments. The AHP hierarchical analysis method is then used to quantify the weights of 16 design indicators, ensuring the objectivity and scientific rigor of decision-making. Finally, the TOPSIS method is introduced to validate the feasibility of the proposed solutions. The study found that (1) among the four categories of needs—behavioral experience, perceptual experience, hardware facilities, and software facilities—behavioral experience (weight 0.470) is the core indicator, with telemedicine (0.197) and autonomous driving (0.121) being the key functions. (2) The overall alignment of this design scheme is 0.844, with user satisfaction significantly superior to traditional schemes, proving the feasibility of the hybrid model. The research findings support decision-making in constructing smart health spaces in communities, thereby helping to upgrade smart health space services in communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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12 pages, 1613 KiB  
Article
Mix Design-Driven Control of Carbonation and Hydration in CO2-Mixed Cement Pastes: Effects of Water, Slag, and Surfactant
by Jingliang Xia, Chunjin Li, Haoyuan Ma and Qiang Ren
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2116; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122116 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
This study systematically investigates the influence of mix proportion on and the early-age properties and CO2 uptake of CO2-mixed cement paste, focusing on variations in the water-to-binder (w/b) ratio, slag content, and air-entraining agent (AEA) dosage. Mineralogical characteristics were analyzed [...] Read more.
This study systematically investigates the influence of mix proportion on and the early-age properties and CO2 uptake of CO2-mixed cement paste, focusing on variations in the water-to-binder (w/b) ratio, slag content, and air-entraining agent (AEA) dosage. Mineralogical characteristics were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), while pore structures were assessed via nitrogen adsorption. CO2 uptake was quantified immediately after mixing. Results indicate that a low w/b ratio limits CO2 dissolution and transport, favors hydration over carbonation, and leads to a coarser pore structure. At moderate w/b ratios, excess free water facilitates concurrent carbonation and hydration; however, thinner water films ultimately hinder CaCO3 precipitation and C-S-H nucleation. Slag contents up to 30% slightly suppress early carbonation and hydration, while higher dosages significantly delay both reactions and increase capillary porosity. An increasing AEA dosage stabilizes CO2 bubbles, suppressing immediate CO2 dissolution and reducing the early formation of carbonation and hydration products; excessive AEAs promotes bubble coalescence and results in an interconnected pore network. An optimized mix design, moderate water content, slag below 30%, and limited AEA dosage enhance the synergy between carbonation and hydration, improving early pore refinement and reaction kinetics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Cement-Based Materials and Low-Carbon Construction Technologies)
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21 pages, 8041 KiB  
Article
Visual Quality Evaluation of Historic and Cultural City Landscapes: A Case Study of the Tai’erzhuang Ancient City
by Pengfei Du, Xinbei Man, Yanbo Wang, Yanfen Wang, Hanyue Li, Chenghan Yin, Zimin Lin and Junxi Fan
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2115; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122115 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 388
Abstract
As a World Cultural Heritage site, the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal is lined with historic and cultural cities that bear abundant historical and cultural connotations. It is of vital importance to address the issues of landscape homogenization, the disconnect between conservation measures and public [...] Read more.
As a World Cultural Heritage site, the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal is lined with historic and cultural cities that bear abundant historical and cultural connotations. It is of vital importance to address the issues of landscape homogenization, the disconnect between conservation measures and public needs, and other related challenges in the development of these cities. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative research. By integrating subjective landscape evaluation with eye tracking analysis, the ancient city of Taierzhuang along the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal was selected as the research subject to conduct an in-depth investigation into the visual experience and preferences for different types of landscapes in this area. The study yielded the following findings: There are significant differences in visual experiences among various types of landscapes in Taierzhuang Ancient City. Among them, participants exhibited the highest level of attention toward canal landscapes and the lowest toward heritage site landscapes. In terms of visual distribution differences, eye tracking heatmaps revealed that attention was primarily concentrated on architectural structures and water surface reflections. In the subjective evaluation analysis, canal cultural landscapes received the highest comprehensive score (4.39 points), followed by historical architectural landscapes (4.02 points), historical street landscapes (3.93 points), modern commemorative landscapes (3.72 points), and heritage site landscapes (3.69 points). Additionally, a significant correlation was found between eye tracking data and subjective evaluation results, validating the scientifically effective relationship between subjective assessments of historical cultural landscapes and eye tracking analysis. The findings of this study not only provide a scientific basis for landscape improvement and optimization in other canal-related historical and cultural cities but also offer new research methods and perspectives for the protection and development of other heritage landscapes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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27 pages, 8178 KiB  
Article
Experiment and Finite Element Research on Mechanical Performance of Thin-Walled Steel–Wood Composite Columns Under Eccentric Compression
by Yangfa Zhu, Jianhua Shao, Anxiang Feng, Xianglan Li, Zhanguang Wang, Hongxuan Xu, Jiajun Gao and Boshi Ma
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2114; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122114 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
In order to conduct an in-depth and exhaustive investigation into the mechanical properties of steel tubes filled with wood, a thin-walled steel–wood composite column was elaborately designed. The damage progression, failure mode, and mechanical performance of this column under eccentric compression were systematically [...] Read more.
In order to conduct an in-depth and exhaustive investigation into the mechanical properties of steel tubes filled with wood, a thin-walled steel–wood composite column was elaborately designed. The damage progression, failure mode, and mechanical performance of this column under eccentric compression were systematically investigated through both experimental research and finite element simulations. The impacts of different numbers of bolts on the mechanical properties of the composite column were minutely analyzed, and the test results of composite columns were compared with the pure steel pipe column under the same experimental conditions. It was clearly observed that the pure thin-walled steel pipe specimen was highly susceptible to elastic instability under eccentric compression, and the high-strength and high-ductility potential of structural steel was not fully developed. However, after filling with wood and applying bolt restraints, the greater the number of bolts in the specimen of thin-walled steel–wood composite column under the identical eccentricity condition, the higher the ultimate load-bearing capacity. Specifically, the ultimate load-bearing capacity of the columns filled with wood increased by 77.78–114% in comparison with that of the pure steel pipe column. Through a meticulous comparison between the test and finite element analysis results, the error was ascertained to be in the range of 4.9–11.1%. In addition, filling the thin-walled steel tube with wood and restraining it with bolts can effectively enhance the lateral deformation resistance of the specimens, and the reduction rate of lateral deflection exceeded 50%. Moreover, the greater the number of filling bolts, the smaller the strain of components subjected to the eccentric compression occurred, and the better the mechanical properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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46 pages, 5055 KiB  
Review
Innovations and Applications in Lightweight Concrete: Review of Current Practices and Future Directions
by Diptikar Behera, Kuang-Yen Liu, Firmansyah Rachman and Aman Mola Worku
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2113; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122113 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1032
Abstract
Lightweight concrete (LWC) has emerged as a transformative material in sustainable and high-performance construction, driven by innovations in engineered lightweight aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), fiber reinforcements, and geopolymer binders. These advancements have enabled LWC to achieve compressive strengths surpassing 100 MPa while [...] Read more.
Lightweight concrete (LWC) has emerged as a transformative material in sustainable and high-performance construction, driven by innovations in engineered lightweight aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), fiber reinforcements, and geopolymer binders. These advancements have enabled LWC to achieve compressive strengths surpassing 100 MPa while reducing density by up to 30% compared to conventional concrete. Fiber incorporation enhances flexural strength and fracture toughness by 20–40%, concurrently mitigating brittleness and improving ductility. The synergistic interaction between SCMs and lightweight aggregates optimizes matrix densification and interfacial transition zones, curtailing shrinkage and bolstering durability against chemical and environmental aggressors. Integration of recycled and bio-based aggregates substantially diminishes the embodied carbon footprint by approximately 40%—aligning LWC with circular economy principles. Nanomaterials such as nano-silica and carbon nanotubes augment early-age strength development by 25% and refine microstructural integrity. Thermal performance is markedly enhanced through advanced lightweight fillers, including expanded polystyrene and aerogels, achieving up to a 50% reduction in thermal conductivity, thereby facilitating energy-efficient building envelopes. Although challenges persist in cost and workability, the convergence of hybrid fiber systems, optimized mix designs, and sophisticated multi-scale modeling is expanding the applicability of LWC across demanding structural, marine, and prefabricated contexts. In essence, LWC’s holistic development embodies a paradigm shift toward resilient, low-carbon infrastructure, cementing its role as a pivotal material in the evolution of next-generation sustainable construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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11 pages, 3736 KiB  
Article
Shear Force–Displacement Curve of a Steel Shear Wall Considering Compression
by Yi Liu, Yan He and Yang Lv
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2112; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122112 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 299
Abstract
The shear strength of a steel shear wall (SSW) is typically governed by the yield strength of the steel. However, changes in mechanical properties beyond yielding—particularly those related to steel hardening and the effects of gravity loads—are not yet fully understood. These factors [...] Read more.
The shear strength of a steel shear wall (SSW) is typically governed by the yield strength of the steel. However, changes in mechanical properties beyond yielding—particularly those related to steel hardening and the effects of gravity loads—are not yet fully understood. These factors are critical for accurately assessing the shear capacity of SSWs during seismic events. In the current study, a method to calculate the shear force–displacement curve of a steel shear wall while considering the compression effect is presented, which incorporates both steel hardening and gravity effects. The analysis derives strains in tensile strips undergoing shear deformation using a strip model. Corresponding stresses are then determined using the stress–strain relationships obtained from tensile tests of the steel. Furthermore, the vertical stress induced by gravity loads is modeled using a three-segment distribution proposed before. For each tensile strip, the tension field stress is calculated by accounting for reductions due to vertical stress and the influence of steel hardening through the von Mises yield criterion. This approach enables the development of a shear force–displacement curve, which is subsequently validated against results from an experimentally verified finite element model. The findings demonstrate that the pushover curves predicted by this method closely align with those obtained from finite element analysis. Notably, the results indicate that the shear strength provided by the CAN/CSA-S16-01 equation may be overestimated by approximately 4%, 9%, and 18% when the vertical compression stresses are 50, 100, and 150 MPa for a wall with a slenderness of 150, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Steel and Composite Structures)
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