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Volume 15
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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 11 (June-1 2025) – 141 articles

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27 pages, 5756 KiB  
Article
Development and Performance of Coconut Fibre Gypsum Composites for Sustainable Building Materials
by María Fernanda Rodríguez-Robalino, Daniel Ferrández, Amparo Verdú-Vázquez and Alicia Zaragoza-Benzal
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1899; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111899 (registering DOI) - 30 May 2025
Abstract
In 2022, the building sector accounted for 30% of global energy demand and 27% of CO2 emissions, of which approximately 9% came from building material production. To mitigate this impact, it is critical to develop sustainable alternatives that reduce the environmental footprint [...] Read more.
In 2022, the building sector accounted for 30% of global energy demand and 27% of CO2 emissions, of which approximately 9% came from building material production. To mitigate this impact, it is critical to develop sustainable alternatives that reduce the environmental footprint of construction materials. This paper presents an original study where the effect of coconut fibre as a reinforcing material in gypsum composites is analysed. These plant-based fibres reduce the composite’s density, improve thermal behaviour, and integrate circular economy criteria in construction. In this way, a physico-mechanical characterisation of these novel gypsum-based composites is addressed, and their potential application for developing prefabricated slabs is innovatively explored. Composites were prepared with coconut fibre incorporation in volume up to 17.5%, and mechanical and thermal properties and their behaviour under water action were evaluated. The results indicate that the fibre addition reduced density by about 10.0%, improved flexural strength by 20.5% and compressive strength by 28.4%, and decreased thermal conductivity by 56.3%, which increased the energy efficiency of the building facade by 7.8%. In addition, hydrophobic properties improved, reducing capillary absorption by 15.9% and open porosity by 3.3%. These findings confirm the technical feasibility of coconut fibre-reinforced plaster for application in prefabricated wall and ceiling elements, promoting the efficient use of natural resources and driving the development of sustainable building materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable and Green Construction Materials)
27 pages, 9039 KiB  
Article
Effect of Charge Eccentric Position on the Response of Reinforced Concrete Columns Under Blast Loading
by Sihao Shen, Rongyue Zheng, Wei Wang and Chenzhen Ye
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1898; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111898 (registering DOI) - 30 May 2025
Abstract
This study investigates the failure modes and damage extent of reinforced concrete (RC) columns under the combined action of eccentric blast loading and axial compressive loading through experimental tests and numerical simulations. Field blast tests were performed using half-scaled-down models for close-in airburst [...] Read more.
This study investigates the failure modes and damage extent of reinforced concrete (RC) columns under the combined action of eccentric blast loading and axial compressive loading through experimental tests and numerical simulations. Field blast tests were performed using half-scaled-down models for close-in airburst tests. The effects of charge mass, explosive position, and axial load on the failure modes and damage levels of RC columns under close-range blast loading were investigated. Eight experimental datasets of blast overpressure were obtained, and curve fitting was performed on these data to establish an empirical formula, thereby enhancing the predictive accuracy of blast effect assessment in practical engineering scenarios. The test results indicated that when the explosive position is closer to the column base, the structural failure mode becomes closer to shear failure. To further interpret the experimental data, a detailed finite element model of RC columns was developed. Numerical simulations of RC columns were conducted using the RHT model. The rationality of the model was validated through comparison with experimental data and the SDOF method, with dynamic response analyses performed on cross-sectional dimensions, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, the scaled distance, the explosion location, and axial compression. An empirical formula was ultimately established to predict the maximum support rotation of RC columns. Studies have shown that when the explosive position is closer to the column base, the structural failure mode approaches shear failure, and axial compression significantly increases the propensity for shear failure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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18 pages, 5526 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Tensile Response of Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC) in Saturated State: Experimental and Numerical Simulation Study
by Rui Li, Chaomin Mu, Yulin Qin, Hui Zhou and Quanmin Xie
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1897; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111897 (registering DOI) - 30 May 2025
Abstract
Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC), made using coral aggregates from marine environments, is gaining attention as a promising material for marine and coastal engineering applications. This study investigates the dynamic tensile behavior of SCAC under both dry and saturated conditions, with an emphasis [...] Read more.
Seawater Coral Aggregate Concrete (SCAC), made using coral aggregates from marine environments, is gaining attention as a promising material for marine and coastal engineering applications. This study investigates the dynamic tensile behavior of SCAC under both dry and saturated conditions, with an emphasis on the effects of free water on its mechanical properties. The dynamic Brazilian splitting (DBS) tests were conducted to evaluate the dynamic tensile strength, strain rate sensitivity, failure modes, and fracture morphology of SCAC specimens. The results show that saturated SCAC specimens exhibit a reduction in dynamic tensile strength compared to dry specimens, with this difference becoming more pronounced at higher strain rates. The maximum reduction can be observed to be 17.87%. Additionally, saturated SCAC specimens demonstrate greater strain rate sensitivity than dry specimens, which highlights the significant influence of moisture on the material’s mechanical behavior. The failure modes of SCAC were found to be less severe under saturated conditions, suggesting that moisture suppresses crack propagation to some extent, thereby reducing brittleness. Numerical simulations based on the finite element analysis were conducted to simulate the dynamic tensile response; the comparison of numerical and experimental data indicates that adjusting material model parameters effectively simulates the behavior of saturated SCAC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Cementitious Material)
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25 pages, 4756 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on Frost Durability of Sprayed Glass Fibre Epoxy Mortar (GFEM)-Reinforced Concrete Specimens
by Jianhui Si, Yuanhao Li, Wenshuo Sun, Xiaoyu Niu, Junpeng Ju, Lizhe He and Junlin Xiang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1896; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111896 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
Addressing the shortcomings of currently available concrete reinforcement techniques, a new method using sprayed Glass Fibre Epoxy Mortar (GFEM) reinforcement is proposed. To investigate the effect of this method on the frost durability of concrete, a total of 156 specimens in four groups [...] Read more.
Addressing the shortcomings of currently available concrete reinforcement techniques, a new method using sprayed Glass Fibre Epoxy Mortar (GFEM) reinforcement is proposed. To investigate the effect of this method on the frost durability of concrete, a total of 156 specimens in four groups were designed, and related freezing and thawing cycle tests were conducted. The apparent morphology, mass loss rate, ultrasonic velocity, freeze–thaw damage, and strength loss rate of each group of specimens after different freeze–thaw cycles were analysed comparatively. The test results show that the concrete specimens reinforced with GFEM have a better mass loss rate after freeze–thaw cycles and ultrasonic wave velocity than the unreinforced concrete specimens. The compressive strength of specimens in group A is 24.04 MPa, and the compressive strengths of specimens in groups B, C, and D are 35.28 MPa, 35.73 MPa, and 36.37 MPa, respectively, which is higher than that of group A by 46.76%, 48.63%, and 51.29%, respectively, and 46.76%, 48.63%, and 51.29% higher than group A, respectively. It can be seen that the concrete specimens reinforced with sprayed Glass Fibre Epoxy Mortar can effectively improve the frost durability of concrete; the reinforcing effect is obvious, and in a certain range of fibre mixing, the larger the better the frost resistance. The integration of GFEM is cost-effective and improves viscosity, and the best glass fibre mix percentage is about 0.8%. A freeze–thaw damage model for GFEM-reinforced concrete was developed using the Weibull distribution theory, and an improved strength attenuation model under freeze–thaw cycles was established. By correlating the strength attenuation model with the freeze–thaw damage model, a damage evolution equation for the reinforced specimens was formulated, allowing for the prediction of freeze–thaw damage based on the number of cycles and the relative compressive strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
31 pages, 3470 KiB  
Article
Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches
by Lucelia Rodrigues, Benjamin Abraham Cherian and Serik Tokbolat
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1895; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111895 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
In Saudi Arabia’s hot and arid climate, residential buildings account for over half of national electricity consumption, with cooling demands alone responsible for more than 70% of this use. This paper explores the hypothesis that contemporary villa designs are inherently inefficient and that [...] Read more.
In Saudi Arabia’s hot and arid climate, residential buildings account for over half of national electricity consumption, with cooling demands alone responsible for more than 70% of this use. This paper explores the hypothesis that contemporary villa designs are inherently inefficient and that current building regulations fall short of enabling adequate thermal performance. This issue is expected to become increasingly significant in the near future as external temperatures continue to rise. The study aims to assess whether passive design strategies rooted in both engineering and architectural principles can offer substantial reductions in cooling energy demand under current and future climatic conditions. A typical detached villa was simulated using IES-VE to test a range of passive measures, including optimized window-to-wall ratios, enhanced glazing configurations, varied envelope constructions, solar shading devices, and wind-tower-based natural ventilation. Parametric simulations were conducted under current climate data and extended to future weather scenarios. Unlike many prior studies, this work integrates these strategies holistically and evaluates their combined impact, rather than in isolation while assessing the impact of future weather in the region. The findings revealed that individual measures such as insulated ceilings and reduced window-to-wall ratios significantly lowered cooling loads. When applied in combination, these strategies achieved a 68% reduction in cooling energy use compared to the base-case villa. While full passive performance year-round remains unfeasible in such extreme conditions, the study demonstrates a clear pathway toward energy-efficient housing in the Gulf region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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26 pages, 2797 KiB  
Article
A Life Cycle Carbon Assessment and Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Framework for Building Renovation Within the Circular Economy Context: A Case Study
by Mohammed Seddiki and Amar Bennadji
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1894; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111894 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
Applying circular economy principles to the renovation of existing buildings is increasingly recognized as essential to achieving Europe’s climate and energy goals. However, current decision-making frameworks rarely integrate life cycle carbon assessment with multi-criteria evaluation to support circular renovation strategies. This paper introduces [...] Read more.
Applying circular economy principles to the renovation of existing buildings is increasingly recognized as essential to achieving Europe’s climate and energy goals. However, current decision-making frameworks rarely integrate life cycle carbon assessment with multi-criteria evaluation to support circular renovation strategies. This paper introduces an innovative framework that combines life cycle carbon assessment with multi-criteria decision analysis to identify and sequence circular renovation measures. The framework was applied to a residential case study in the Netherlands, using IES VE for operational carbon assessment and One Click LCA for embodied carbon assessment, with results evaluated using PROMETHEE multi-criteria analysis. Renovation measures were assessed based on operational and embodied carbon (including Module D), energy use intensity, cost, payback period, and disruption. The evaluation also introduced the embodied-to-operational carbon ratio (EOCR), a novel metric representing the proportion of embodied carbon, including Module D, relative to operational carbon savings over the building’s lifecycle. The homeowner’s preferences regarding these criteria were considered in determining the final ranking. The findings show that circular insulation options involving reused materials and designed for disassembly achieved the lowest embodied carbon emissions and lowest EOCR scores, with reused PIR achieving a 94% reduction compared to new PIR boards. The impact of including Module D on the ranking of renovation options varies based on the end-of-life scenario. The framework demonstrates how circular renovation benefits can be made more visible to decision-makers, promoting broader adoption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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14 pages, 1378 KiB  
Article
The Validation and Performance Analysis of a UV Air-Cleaning System for the Indoor Air Quality of Populated Indoor Spaces
by Hao-Yuan Chou, Hsiu-Ju Cheng, Ling-Hang Hsu and Chen-Kang Huang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1893; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111893 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is crucial for occupant health and sustainable urban living. Given the significant time spent indoors in urban areas, maintaining IAQ mitigates health risks and enhances quality of life. This study evaluates the effectiveness of installing a UV air-cleaning device [...] Read more.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is crucial for occupant health and sustainable urban living. Given the significant time spent indoors in urban areas, maintaining IAQ mitigates health risks and enhances quality of life. This study evaluates the effectiveness of installing a UV air-cleaning device at the outlet of an existing air-conditioning system. The experiments involved measuring the colony-forming units (CFUs) of airborne microorganisms before and after the installation of the UV device. Results demonstrated a significant reduction in CFUs, confirming the device’s efficacy in improving IAQ. Using the UV air-cleaning device for 30 min could reduce bacterial concentration by more than 70.7%. Furthermore, using a model from the literature, the time required to achieve a 90% reduction in pollutant concentration was calculated, providing a quantitative measure of the device’s performance. Using the energy recovery ventilators only requires 25.3 to 49.6 min to achieve a 90% reduction, whereas configurations incorporating UV lamps can reach 90% reduction in 7.1 min. Based on these findings, recommendations for the optimal use of UV air-cleaning devices are proposed, offering valuable insights for future designs of air purification systems. Full article
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21 pages, 4503 KiB  
Article
Influence of Fast Freeze-Thaw Cycles on the Behavior of Segmental Bridge Shear Key Joints Using Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis
by Bara’a R. Alnemrawi and Rajai Al-Rousan
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1892; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111892 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
The structural behavior of precast concrete segmental bridges is very important to investigate, and the necessity is increased under the effect of being exposed to severe environmental conditions, such as freezing and thawing cycles. In this study, nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) was [...] Read more.
The structural behavior of precast concrete segmental bridges is very important to investigate, and the necessity is increased under the effect of being exposed to severe environmental conditions, such as freezing and thawing cycles. In this study, nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) was adopted to address the behavior of reinforced shear keys where they were very small and distributed within the overall depth of the connection region. The effect of the amount of lateral confinement was investigated using six values (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 MPa), along with the effect of different freezing-thawing cycles (0 (undamaged), 100, 200, 300, and 400). Simulation was accomplished using the direct static shear method, where vertical loading was applied. The simulated models were first validated using experimental data from the literature, where the overall structural behavior was captured well. Thirty NLFEA models were simulated, and results were reported in terms of the load-deflection characteristics and the detailed cracking propagation process. It was found that increasing the lateral confinement will increase the shear strength capacity of the confined joint, in addition to increasing the ultimate deflection and initial stiffness values. Furthermore, a new formula was introduced for calculating the shear capacity compared with experimental data, NLFEA results, literature models, and AASHTO predictions, where good matching was observed, with a minor margin error. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Nanotechnology for FRP Concrete Retrofitting and Cementitious Materials: Enhancing Bonding, Durability, and Sustainability)
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19 pages, 3964 KiB  
Article
Modified Aggregates for Mitigating Anodic Acidification in Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems Toward Infrastructure Modernization
by Yuxin Xing, Zhangmin Zhang, Qiang You and Jie Hu
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1891; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111891 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
In the context of infrastructure modernization, enhancing the durability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is crucial for achieving sustainable and resilient development. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) is a popular technique to improve corrosion resistance of RC structures exposed to chloride-rich environments but [...] Read more.
In the context of infrastructure modernization, enhancing the durability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is crucial for achieving sustainable and resilient development. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) is a popular technique to improve corrosion resistance of RC structures exposed to chloride-rich environments but may also induce localized acidification in the external anode mortar due to continuous OH− consumption and H+ generation. This phenomenon leads to the dissolution of calcium hydroxide and acidification erosion damage on the anode metal and mortar, undermining the long-term performance of the protection system. This study uses modified aggregates that are incorporated with Ca(OH)2 to improve the corrosion resistance of anode metal and mortar. Results from electrochemical measurements, pH monitoring, and XRD analysis show that the Ca(OH)2-loaded aggregates extended the stable alkaline buffer time of simulated pore solution during ICCP by 1.5 to 2 times longer and exhibited good resistance to the mortar acidification. These findings offer a promising pathway for safeguarding RC structures and advancing infrastructure modernization by integrating protective functionalities at the material level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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19 pages, 3806 KiB  
Article
NLFEA Behavior of Heat-Damaged Key Joints in Precast Concrete Segmental Bridge
by Bara’a R. Alnemrawi and Rajai Al-Rousan
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1890; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111890 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
The provided shear key joints are practically unreinforced due to their small size, and their performance directly affects the structural behavior of the segmental concrete bridge. In addition, these joints are usually dry and distributed over the contact region between the two connected [...] Read more.
The provided shear key joints are practically unreinforced due to their small size, and their performance directly affects the structural behavior of the segmental concrete bridge. In addition, these joints are usually dry and distributed over the contact region between the two connected bridge parts. The current research examines the effect of the lateral confinement pressure (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) MPa and the elevated temperature values (23, 200, 400, and 600) °C on the behavior of single dried shear key joints structural behavior tested under concentrated static loading using the Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis (NLFEA) procedure. The simulation models were first validated using experimental data from the literature and compared using the ultimate deflection, ultimate load, cracking propagation, and failure modes using ABAQUS software, where the available Concrete Damage Plasticity model was utilized. Twenty-four models were simulated using different combinations of the parameters included in the parametric study. Results were reported in terms of their load-deflection behavior, structural characteristics, cracking propagation within the shear key zone, and the final failure modes. It has been found that the initial stiffness, ultimate deflection, and ultimate strength values were all increased under increasing confinement pressure. Moreover, the situation is totally different when the exposure temperature exceeds 400 °C. Finally, a new formula was introduced for predicting the shear key capacity after being validated against numerical and experimental data sets, along with different design codes and standards. A very good agreement was reached for the new proposed mathematical equations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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33 pages, 3778 KiB  
Article
Technical System for Urban Stormwater Carrying Capacity Assessment and Optimization
by Kun Mao, Junqi Li, Di Liu, Xiaojing Li, Miansong Huang and Lulu Xiang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111889 - 30 May 2025
Abstract
The combined effects of rapid urbanization and climate change are increasingly exacerbating the risk of urban flooding. This study develops a data-efficient framework for estimating a city’s Urban Stormwater Carrying Capacity (USCC)—the maximum stormwater volume that can be safely infiltrated, stored, and conveyed. [...] Read more.
The combined effects of rapid urbanization and climate change are increasingly exacerbating the risk of urban flooding. This study develops a data-efficient framework for estimating a city’s Urban Stormwater Carrying Capacity (USCC)—the maximum stormwater volume that can be safely infiltrated, stored, and conveyed. The framework couples three rainfall scenarios—frequent, heavy, and extreme—with nine widely adopted drainage and storage measures, ranging from green spaces and permeable pavements to pipes and underground emergency reservoirs, and expresses USCC through a streamlined water-balance equation. Applied to the 24 km2 Zhangmian River district in Weifang, China, the framework yields capacities of 4.84, 5.86, and 9.80 × 106 m3 for the three scenarios, respectively; underground reservoirs supply ≈ 40% of the extreme-event capacity. Sensitivity analysis shows that increasing the imperviousness coefficient from 0.65 to 0.85 raises peak drainage demand by 30.8%, whereas halving reservoir depth lowers total capacity by 27.8%. Because the method requires only rainfall depth, land-cover data, and basic facility dimensions, it enables rapid, transparent scenario testing and helps planners prioritize cost-effective upgrades. The approach is transferable to other cities and can be extended to incorporate water quality or digital-twin modules in future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Building and Green Stormwater Infrastructure)
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22 pages, 5015 KiB  
Article
Study on Dynamic Response and Progressive Collapse Resistance of Space Steel Frame Under Impact Load
by Junling Jiang, Zhishuang Zhang and Changren Ke
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111888 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The dynamic response of multi-story steel frames under impact loading exhibits a complex nonlinear behavior. This study develops a three-story, multi-scale spatial steel frame finite element model using ABAQUS 2023 software, and the contact algorithm and material parameters were validated through published drop-weight [...] Read more.
The dynamic response of multi-story steel frames under impact loading exhibits a complex nonlinear behavior. This study develops a three-story, multi-scale spatial steel frame finite element model using ABAQUS 2023 software, and the contact algorithm and material parameters were validated through published drop-weight impact beam tests. A total of 48 impact parameter combinations were defined, covering rational mass–velocity ranges while accounting for column position variations at the first story. Systematic comparisons were conducted on the influence of varying impact parameters on structural dynamic responses. This study investigates deformation damage and progressive collapse mechanisms in spatial steel frames under impact loading. Structural dynamic responses show significant enhancement with increasing impact mass and velocity. As impact kinetic energy increases, the steel frame transitions from localized denting at impact zones to global bending deformation, inducing structural tilting. The steel frame exhibits potential collapse risk under severe impact conditions. Under identical impact energy, corner column impact displacements differ by <1% from edge-middle column displacements, with vertical displacement variations ranging 0–17.6%. The displacement of the first-floor joints of the structure with three spans in the impact direction was reduced by about 50% compared to that with two spans. When designing the structure, it is necessary to increase the number of frame spans in the impact direction to improve the overall stability of the structure. Based on the development of the rotation angle of the beam members during the impact process, the steel frame collapse process was divided into three stages, the elastic stage, the plastic and catenary stage, and the column member failure stage; the steel frame finally collapsed due to an excessive beam rotation angle and column failure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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20 pages, 2634 KiB  
Article
Detection of Internal Defects in Concrete Using Delay Multiply and Sum-Enhanced Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique
by Feng Li, Sheng-Kui Di, Jing Zhang, Dong Yang, Yao Pei and Xiao-Ying Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111887 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Traditional techniques for detecting internal defects in concrete are limited by the weak directivity of ultrasonic waves, significant signal attenuation, and low imaging contrast. This paper presents an improved synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT) enhanced by the Delay Multiply and Sum (DMAS) algorithm [...] Read more.
Traditional techniques for detecting internal defects in concrete are limited by the weak directivity of ultrasonic waves, significant signal attenuation, and low imaging contrast. This paper presents an improved synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT) enhanced by the Delay Multiply and Sum (DMAS) algorithm to address these limitations and improve both the resolution and signal-to-noise ratio. The proposed method sequentially transmits and receives ultrasonic waves through an array of transducers, and applies DMAS-based nonlinear beam-forming to enhance image sharpness and contrast. Its effectiveness was validated through finite element simulations and experimental tests using three precast concrete specimens with artificial defects (specimen size: 240 mm × 300 mm × 100 mm). Compared with the conventional SAFT, the proposed method improves image contrast by approximately 40%, with clearer defect boundaries and a vertical positioning error of less than ±5 mm. This demonstrates the method’s promising potential for practical applications in internal defect visualization of concrete structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue UHPC Materials: Structural and Mechanical Analysis in Buildings)
30 pages, 3023 KiB  
Article
Integrated Design as a Strategy for Innovating Native Timber Products and Promoting Sustainable Forest Management
by Alejandra Schueftan, Marjorie Martin, Carlos Buchner, Sol García, Mariela Reyes and Michael Arnett
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1886; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111886 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
This study explores how integrating design processes into the native timber industry of southern Chile, specifically in the Araucanía and Los Ríos regions, can improve the value chain and promote sustainability. Chile’s native wood sector is constrained by fragmented value chains, underutilised small-diameter [...] Read more.
This study explores how integrating design processes into the native timber industry of southern Chile, specifically in the Araucanía and Los Ríos regions, can improve the value chain and promote sustainability. Chile’s native wood sector is constrained by fragmented value chains, underutilised small-diameter logs and limited market confidence. These challenges jeopardise forest sustainability and rural livelihoods, underscoring the imperative to find innovative solutions to reinvigorate the sector. A market gap analysis revealed critical limitations in the current industry, including low supply, limited demand, and weak technological development, especially in producing value-added wood products. The research identified over 417,000 hectares of second-growth roble (Nothofagus obliqua)-raulí (Nothofagus alpina)-coigüe (Nothofagus dombeyi) forests suitable for sustainable management. Interviews with woodworking SMEs showed that 66% already use native timber, yet 46% of the projected volume remains underutilised due to the prevalence of short and thin logs. In response to these challenges, the study developed innovative prototypes such as interior claddings and lattices made from smaller, underutilised logs. These designs were evaluated and validated for use in residential and public buildings, demonstrating their potential to meet new market demands while promoting resource efficiency. The results show that, whilst there is a clear need for better infrastructure, workforce training, and commercial planning to support product adoption, design-driven innovation offers a promising path forward enhancing the industry’s competitiveness. Demonstrating how design-led integration can transform under-used native timber into high-value products, simultaneously driving sustainable forest stewardship and local economic growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Timber and Timber–Concrete Buildings)
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24 pages, 3131 KiB  
Article
Impact Analysis of BIM on Power Substation Project Costs: Techno-Economic Data Evidence from China
by Ding Liu, Lizhong Qi, Yi Sun, Jingguo Rong, Su Zhang and Guangze Yu
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111885 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Due to the difficulty in measuring intangible effects and the reliance on experts for benefit evaluation, actual project data evidence of the impact of BIM is insufficient. To this end, this study collected total project cost data from 164 power substation projects and [...] Read more.
Due to the difficulty in measuring intangible effects and the reliance on experts for benefit evaluation, actual project data evidence of the impact of BIM is insufficient. To this end, this study collected total project cost data from 164 power substation projects and techno-economic statements from 34 power substation projects from SGCC to capture data evidence of the impact of BIM on project costs and explore its patterns. Algorithms such as hierarchical clustering based on improved DTW and feature selection based on QDA were designed for data mining. The findings demonstrate that the distribution of the CV% of total project costs and the CV% of some specific cost items became more concentrated after the application of BIM, which indicates that BIM enhanced the ability to predict and control project costs. Moreover, five cost items and five shape patterns of cost items were identified as key to the impact of BIM. It is therefore recommended that the related cost items should be controlled with focus during the application of BIM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Information Modelling (BIM) Applications in Construction Management: 2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 1631 KiB  
Article
Is Erzincan, Located on the North Anatolian Fault Zone, Which Produced the Biggest Earthquake in Turkey and the World, Ready for the Next Severe Earthquake?
by İsmet Ulusu
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111884 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The main causes of damage include poor site selection, such as building on fault lines or on fill soil, as well as deficiencies in design, materials, and workmanship. Damage levels are also linked to the economic conditions of the region. In the 1939 [...] Read more.
The main causes of damage include poor site selection, such as building on fault lines or on fill soil, as well as deficiencies in design, materials, and workmanship. Damage levels are also linked to the economic conditions of the region. In the 1939 earthquake, there were high casualties due to the magnitude of the earthquake, lack of engineering design in traditional structures and unsuitable soil conditions. Similarly, in the 1992 earthquake, unexpected damage occurred due to faulty designs created by inexperienced engineers who lacked sufficient knowledge of the seismic behavior of structures, errors in craftsmanship and workmanship, and unsuitable residential area selection for construction. These problems continue today and put most of the building stock at risk in case of a major earthquake. Seismic steel isolators are used in two new buildings in the city; if they are effective, they should be made mandatory in new construction. Otherwise, consideration should be given to relocating the city to the more stable southern rocky areas, which were unaffected in both 1939 and 1992. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings and Infrastructures Performance in Seismic Events: Understanding the Impact of Earthquakes)
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19 pages, 540 KiB  
Article
RE-HAK: A Novel Refurbish-to-Host Solution Using AI-Driven Blockchain to Advance Circular Economy and Revitalize Japan’s Akiyas
by Manuel Herrador, Wil de Jong, Kiyokazu Nasu and Lorenz Granrath
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1883; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111883 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
In recent decades, Japan has faced rural depopulation due to urban migration, resulting in widespread property abandonment, the “Akiyas”. This paper presents RE-HAK (Refurbish to Host in Akiyas), a blockchain-based framework promoting a circular economy (CE). RE-HAK enables occupants to live rent-free in [...] Read more.
In recent decades, Japan has faced rural depopulation due to urban migration, resulting in widespread property abandonment, the “Akiyas”. This paper presents RE-HAK (Refurbish to Host in Akiyas), a blockchain-based framework promoting a circular economy (CE). RE-HAK enables occupants to live rent-free in Akiyas by completing AI-managed refurbishment milestones via smart contracts. Each milestone—waste removal, structural repairs, or energy upgrades—is verified and recorded on the blockchain. Benefits include: (1) rural economic revival through restoration incentives; (2) sustainable CE adoption; (3) preserving property values by halting deterioration; (4) safeguarding cultural heritage via traditional architecture restoration; and (5) transparent management through automated contracts, minimizing disputes. Findings from three case studies demonstrate RE-HAK’s adaptability across skill levels and project scales, though limitations such as rural digital literacy gaps and reliance on government support for scalability are noted. The framework advances Japan’s revitalization goals while offering a replicable model for nations facing depopulation and property abandonment, contingent on addressing technological and policy barriers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Implementation of Circular Economy in Buildings)
18 pages, 3034 KiB  
Article
Safety Evaluation of the Influence of Mountain Blasting on Piles Under Construction
by Wengang Cai, Lin Liu, Jiuhuan Cheng, Qiankun Yang, Xiaolei Zhao, Yong Wu and Yu Tian
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1882; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111882 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Blasting excavation can pose significant risks to adjacent structures, particularly during concrete pouring. Therefore, evaluating their safety is crucial. In addition, the influence of blasting vibration on the vibration of the foundation and the superstructure is different. Currently, there are only allowable vibration [...] Read more.
Blasting excavation can pose significant risks to adjacent structures, particularly during concrete pouring. Therefore, evaluating their safety is crucial. In addition, the influence of blasting vibration on the vibration of the foundation and the superstructure is different. Currently, there are only allowable vibration values in the time domain range affected by blasting construction on the foundation structure at vibration frequencies of 1–10 Hz and 50 Hz. There is a lack of allowable vibration values in the range of 10–50 Hz. Based on a liquefied natural gas (LNG) project in Zhejiang, China, this paper studies the safety evaluation index for the vibration of piles under the storage tank through in situ blasting tests and numerical simulations. The vibration velocity attenuation curve of the site, which can accurately predict the pile vibration velocity induced by blasting, is obtained by fitting the experimental results using Sodev’s formula. It is found that the vibration velocity gradually increases from the pile toe to the pile top. As the distance to the blasting source increases, the maximum vibration velocity of the pile top gradually decreases. The peak vibration velocity at the pile top is different from that at the ground surface around the pile. Their ratio, which can reach up to 1.33, gradually increases with the decreasing distance to the blasting source and the increasing concrete strength. The predominant frequency is greater than 10 Hz. For the pile whose concrete strength is lower than 50% of the design strength, blasting has little impact when the vibration velocity is less than 10.16 mm/s. The experimental results supplement the relevant experimental data within the range of 10–50 Hz. This study can provide references for similar projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil-Structure Interaction for Building Structures)
17 pages, 4579 KiB  
Article
Multiple Regression-Based Dynamic Amplification Factor Investigation of Monorail Tourism Transit Systems
by Hong Zhang, Changxing Wu, Wenlong Liu, Shiqi Wei and Yonggang Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1881; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111881 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The monorail tourism transit system (MTTS) is a large-scale amusement facility. Currently, there is limited theoretical research on the vehicle–bridge coupling vibration and dynamic amplification factor (DAFs) of this system. The values specified in relevant standards are not entirely reasonable; for instance, the [...] Read more.
The monorail tourism transit system (MTTS) is a large-scale amusement facility. Currently, there is limited theoretical research on the vehicle–bridge coupling vibration and dynamic amplification factor (DAFs) of this system. The values specified in relevant standards are not entirely reasonable; for instance, the calculated value of the DAFs in the “Large-scale amusement device safety code (GB 8408-2018)” only takes speed into account and is set at 0.44 when the speed is between 20 and 40 km/h. This is overly simplistic and obviously too large. This paper aims to establish a reasonable expression of the DAFs for the MTTS and improve the design code of the industry. Firstly, using on-site trials of the project and the dynamics numerical simulation method, the dynamic response characteristics of the MTTS and the influencing factors of the DAFs were systematically analyzed. The rationality and accuracy of the model were verified. Secondly, combined with the joint simulation model, the dynamic influence mechanism of multifactor coupling on the DAFs was revealed. On this basis, the key regression parameters were selected by using the Pearson correlation coefficient method and the random forest algorithm, and the DAFs prediction model was constructed based on the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression theory. Finally, through cross-comparison of simulation data and specification verification, a recommended calculation expression of the DAFs for the MTTS was proposed. The research results show that the established prediction model can predict 94.50% of the variation information of the DAFs of the MTTS and pass the 95% confidence level and 0.05 significance test. The accuracy is high and relatively reasonable and can provide a reference for the design of the MTTS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Testing and Computation Methods for Disaster Mitigation of Engineering Structures)
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21 pages, 6372 KiB  
Article
The Coupling Coordination Degree and Spatio-Temporal Divergence Between Land Urbanization and Energy Consumption Carbon Emissions of China’s Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration
by Zhengru Li, Yang Yu, Bo Liu, Xiaoyu Zhang, Tianyin Li, Nuo Shi and Yichen Ren
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111880 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The strategic coordinated development of land urbanization and carbon emission systems in urban agglomerations is crucial for achieving dual carbon goals and sustainable development. While existing studies emphasize population and economic urbanization, the spatiotemporal coupling mechanisms between land urbanization (encompassing size, input, and [...] Read more.
The strategic coordinated development of land urbanization and carbon emission systems in urban agglomerations is crucial for achieving dual carbon goals and sustainable development. While existing studies emphasize population and economic urbanization, the spatiotemporal coupling mechanisms between land urbanization (encompassing size, input, and output dimensions) and carbon emissions remain underexplored. This study collects data on land urbanization and carbon emissions from 27 cities in China’s Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration between 2010 and 2019. By establishing evaluation systems for land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emission subsystems, by and employing coupling coordination degree models with spatial autocorrelation analysis methods, this paper analyzes the spatiotemporal dynamic evolution characteristics of the coupled coordination relationship between land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emissions in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration. The results indicate the following: (1) From 2010 to 2019, the comprehensive level of the land urbanization subsystem in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration continued to rise, with higher comprehensive indices in the southern and northern peripheral regions and lower values in central urban areas. The carbon emission subsystem showed sustained stable decline, with a gradual reduction in the number of cities maintaining low carbon emission levels. (2) Temporally, the overall coupling coordination degree of the urban agglomeration system demonstrated an upward trend, progressing from severe imbalance to the primary coordination stage. (3) Spatially, significant regional differences in coupling coordination degree were observed, showing higher values in the southeastern areas compared to the northwestern regions. (4) Most areas exhibited no significant clustering characteristics in the coupling coordination degree between land urbanization and energy consumption carbon emissions, while the local spatial clustering patterns demonstrated temporal variations. These findings systematically reveal the transition mechanisms of land–carbon coordination in urban agglomerations, providing empirical evidence to resolve the theoretical debate on urbanization’s dual role in emission promotion and reduction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings' Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for a Sustainable Construction)
26 pages, 1005 KiB  
Article
The Synergy and Accumulation Model for Analysis (SAMA): A Novel Approach to Transforming Risk Analysis in Construction with a Focus on the Deepwater Horizon Disaster Case
by Elias Medaa, Ali Akbar Shirzadi Javid, Hassan Malekitabar and Saeed Banihashemi
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1879; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111879 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Risk analysis is critical for preventing catastrophic failures in complex systems, as exemplified by the Deepwater Horizon disaster, a stark reminder of systemic vulnerabilities in offshore drilling operations, where inadequate appraisal of overlapping failures led to severe environmental and human losses. This study [...] Read more.
Risk analysis is critical for preventing catastrophic failures in complex systems, as exemplified by the Deepwater Horizon disaster, a stark reminder of systemic vulnerabilities in offshore drilling operations, where inadequate appraisal of overlapping failures led to severe environmental and human losses. This study addresses the absence of a predictive framework capable of capturing cumulative risk interactions across both time stages and defensive layers. To fill this gap, and by drawing on prior frameworks such as the Swiss Cheese Model (SCM) and the Risk Matrix (RM), as well as critiques of their limitations, we introduce the Synergy and Accumulation Model for Analysis (SAMA). This model defines project life-cycle stages and risk recipients, characterizes each risk by four parameters (the focus of impact, suddenness, frequency, and effectiveness), and calculates horizontal (RFh) and vertical (RFv) risk factors. We applied SAMA to fifteen identified failure modes of the Macondo well, categorizing them across two time stages (operational and construction) and four defensive layers. Horizontal analysis revealed that the regulatory-laws layer accumulated the highest risk factors, RFh1laws = 129.25 during the operational stage and RFh2laws = 95.98 during the construction stage. Vertical analysis showed that the safety objective experienced the greatest systemic vulnerability, with RFvsafety = 135.8 across ten overlapping risks, followed by the quality objective at RFvquality = 128.39. These findings demonstrate SAMA’s enhanced capability to identify critical collapse paths often overlooked by conventional models. For researchers, SAMA offers a transparent, parameter-driven methodology applicable across engineering and construction domains. For industry stakeholders, regulators, project managers, and safety engineers, this model provides actionable insights to prioritize resource allocation and strengthen specific defensive layers, thereby enhancing both preventive planning and resilience against future disasters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Testing and Computation Methods for Disaster Mitigation of Engineering Structures)
27 pages, 2658 KiB  
Article
Towards a Regenerative and Climate-Resilient Built Environment: Greening Lessons from European Cities
by Francesco Sommese, Lorenzo Diana, Simona Colajanni, Marco Bellomo, Gaetano Sciuto and Grazia Lombardo
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1878; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111878 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Nature-Based Solutions offer a concrete opportunity to integrate nature into cities and strengthen their resilience, in response to global challenges related to climate change, biodiversity loss, and water management, which are exacerbated by urban expansion and its impacts on the built environment. This [...] Read more.
Nature-Based Solutions offer a concrete opportunity to integrate nature into cities and strengthen their resilience, in response to global challenges related to climate change, biodiversity loss, and water management, which are exacerbated by urban expansion and its impacts on the built environment. This study aims to analyze various European policies and urban greening practices, considering not only some European Union member states but also other cities geographically located in Europe. The main goal is to explore how these solutions are used in various European cities to address environmental challenges and improve urban quality of life. The study highlights the growing role of greening strategies in EU urban policies as key tools to tackle global challenges. It finds that green interventions—such as green roofs, façades, and green urban spaces—offer multifunctional benefits, but their effectiveness relies on integrated planning, strong public–private cooperation, and active community involvement. Key challenges include the limited scalability of these solutions in dense or economically constrained areas and the need for long-term financial and institutional support. Overall, the study highlights that greening is not merely aesthetic but central to building regenerative and climate-resilient cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches to Climate-Responsive Building Design: Advancing Resilience and Sustainability in the Built Environment)
22 pages, 9155 KiB  
Article
Study on the Wind Pressure Distribution in Complicated Spatial Structure Based on k-ε Turbulence Models
by Jing Wang, Shixiong Zhou, Hui Liu, Shixing Zhao, Fei He and Lei Zhao
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1877; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111877 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Understanding wind pressure distribution on structures is crucial for evaluating design wind loads, especially for complex designs. This study investigated the wind pressure distribution on a windmill shape building with intricate geometries, i.e., the Chengdu Future Science and Technology City Exhibition Centre. Both [...] Read more.
Understanding wind pressure distribution on structures is crucial for evaluating design wind loads, especially for complex designs. This study investigated the wind pressure distribution on a windmill shape building with intricate geometries, i.e., the Chengdu Future Science and Technology City Exhibition Centre. Both wind tunnel test and CFD simulations are conducted to analyze the wind pressure distribution on building surface. Since the research object has intricate geometries, featuring sharp corners, curved surfaces, and ridges, the Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes (RANS) method adopting k-ε turbulence models is employed in the CFD simulations. Furthermore, scalable wall functions and non-structured grids with appropriate refinement on both turbulent regions and structural surfaces are also adopted in the RANS method. A comparison between the simulation results and wind tunnel tests demonstrated that the numerical simulations based on RANS method effectively capture surface wind pressure distribution on complex structures. This study reveals the occurrence of complicated flow phenomena that lead to a very complex wind pressure distribution on the surface of the structure, and drastic variance of the wind pressure coefficient is observed. Moreover, it is found that wind pressure distribution on the surface of the structure is highly sensitive to wind angle, exhibiting extreme negative pressure coefficients of −1.1, −1.0, and −1.8 at angles of 0°, 30°, and 60°, respectively. The analysis of the flow field around the structure at various wind angles reveals that its complex shape significantly alters the flow dynamics, creating distinct vortices and wake patterns at different angles. Consequently, CFD simulations help to understand wind loads on structures and improve wind resistance design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring and Intelligent Safety Assessment in Civil Engineering)
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24 pages, 8517 KiB  
Article
Two-Scale Physics-Informed Neural Networks for Structural Dynamics Parameter Inversion: Numerical and Experimental Validation on T-Shaped Tower Health Monitoring
by Xinpeng Liu, Xuemei Zhang, Yongli Zhong, Zhitao Yan and Yu Hong
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111876 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
We present a two-scale physics-informed neural network (TSPINN) algorithm to address structural parameter inversion problems involving small parameters. The algorithm’s core mechanism directly embeds small parameters into the neural network architecture. By constructing a two-scale neural network architecture, this approach enables the simultaneous [...] Read more.
We present a two-scale physics-informed neural network (TSPINN) algorithm to address structural parameter inversion problems involving small parameters. The algorithm’s core mechanism directly embeds small parameters into the neural network architecture. By constructing a two-scale neural network architecture, this approach enables the simultaneous analysis of structural dynamic responses and local parameter perturbation effects, which effectively addresses challenges posed by high-frequency oscillations and parameter sensitivity. Numerical experiments demonstrate that TSPINNs significantly improve prediction accuracy and convergence speed compared to conventional physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) and maintain robustness in high-stiffness scenarios. The T-shaped tower shaking table test results confirm that the model’s identification errors for stiffness reduction coefficients and mass parameters remain below 10% under lower noisy conditions, demonstrating high precision and strong generalization capability for multi-damage scenarios and random load excitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Structural Techniques for Seismic and Wind Resilience: Innovations in Safety and Performance)
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17 pages, 519 KiB  
Article
Influencing Factors of BIM Application Benefits in Construction Projects Based on SEM
by Chi Zhang, Wanqiang Dong, Wei Shen and You Du
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1875; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111875 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Facing the challenges of high complexity in Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology application and insufficient realization of its benefits, this study identifies key influencing factors of BIM effectiveness through the literature analysis and multi-case research. A comprehensive evaluation system is constructed, covering six [...] Read more.
Facing the challenges of high complexity in Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology application and insufficient realization of its benefits, this study identifies key influencing factors of BIM effectiveness through the literature analysis and multi-case research. A comprehensive evaluation system is constructed, covering six dimensions—technical level and application capability, organizational and management, human capability, economic and market factors, project factors, and external environment—with 30 specific indicators. Based on 257 valid questionnaire responses, a Structural Equation Model is developed, and reliability/validity tests as well as model fit verification are conducted using SPSS and AMOS. The findings reveal that human capability factors (weight: 0.182) serve as the core driver for realizing BIM value. Technical conditions, project characteristics, and external environment exhibit balanced influences (each with a weight of 0.164), while economic market (weight: 0.167) and organizational management (weight: 0.159) require collaborative optimization to enhance synergy. A four-dimensional coordination system—”technology support-organizational collaboration-human capability-policy guidance”—is proposed based on these conclusions. Practical application demonstrates that this system improves BIM implementation efficiency by 23% and reduces project rework rates by 40%, providing quantifiable implementation pathways for construction enterprises to optimize resource allocation and advance digital transformation. The research aims to offer theoretical guidance and technical support for promoting the digital evolution of the construction industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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16 pages, 8562 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Dynamic Response of Composite Reinforcement Concrete Square Piles Under Multi-Directional Seismic Excitation
by Chenxi Fu, Gang Gan, Kepeng Chen and Kai Fan
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111874 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Composite reinforcement concrete square piles exhibit excellent bending resistance and deformation capacity, along with construction advantages such as ease of transportation. In recent years, they have been widely adopted in building pile foundation applications. However, their seismic behavior, particularly under multi-directional excitation, remains [...] Read more.
Composite reinforcement concrete square piles exhibit excellent bending resistance and deformation capacity, along with construction advantages such as ease of transportation. In recent years, they have been widely adopted in building pile foundation applications. However, their seismic behavior, particularly under multi-directional excitation, remains inadequately explored. This study employs large-scale shaking table tests to evaluate the seismic response of a single composite reinforcement square pile embedded in a soft clay foundation under different horizontal excitations (0° and 45°) and two distinct ground motions (Wenchuan Songpan and Chi-Chi) to assess directional anisotropy and resonance effects, with explicit consideration of soil–structure interaction (SSI). The key findings include the following: the dynamic earth pressure along the pile exhibits a distribution pattern of “large at the top, small at the middle and bottom”. And SSI reduced pile–soil compression by 20–30% under 45° excitation compared to 0°. The dynamic strain in outer longitudinal reinforcement in pile corners increased by 30–60% under 45° excitation compared to 0°. Under seismic excitation considering SSI, the bending moment along the pile exhibited an “upper-middle maximum” pattern, peaking at depths of 3–5 times the pile diameter. Axial forces peaked at the pile head and decreased with depth. While bending moment responses were consistent between 0° and 45° excitations, axial forces under 45° loading were marginally greater than those under 0°. The Chi-Chi motion induced a bending moment about four times greater than the Songpan motion, highlighting the resonance risks when the ground motion frequencies align with the pile–soil system’s fundamental frequency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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14 pages, 2105 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Simulations of Phase-Change Emulsions in Cooling Systems
by Yuting Wang, Jingjing Shao, Jo Darkwa and Georgios Kokogiannakis
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111873 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The application of phase change material emulsions (PCMEs) in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is considered to be a potential way of saving energy due to their relatively higher energy storage capacity compared with water. They are now widely used as [...] Read more.
The application of phase change material emulsions (PCMEs) in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is considered to be a potential way of saving energy due to their relatively higher energy storage capacity compared with water. They are now widely used as a heat transfer media, so they are able to reduce the flow rate whilst delivering the same amount of cooling energy. In order to evaluate the energy-saving potential of the integrated PCME air conditioning system, whole-building energy simulation was carried out with the building simulation code TRNSYS. Before simulating the whole system, a mathematical model for a PCME-integrated fan coil unit was first developed and validated. A phase change material emulsion called PCE-10 was used, and the TRNSYS simulation showed that the required volumetric flow rate of phase change material emulsions was 50% less than that of water when providing the same cooling effect, which could contribute to a 7% reduction in total energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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21 pages, 5499 KiB  
Article
CrackdiffNet: A Novel Diffusion Model for Crack Segmentation and Scale-Based Analysis
by Yunlong Song, Yumeng Su, Shiying Zhang, Ruilin Wang, Youling Yu, Weiping Zhang and Qi Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1872; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111872 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Deep learning has made remarkable progress in the field of crack segmentation, particularly in handling large-scale datasets and complex images, owing to the substantial computational power currently available. However, existing methods still face significant challenges when processing images with low contrast, fine cracks, [...] Read more.
Deep learning has made remarkable progress in the field of crack segmentation, particularly in handling large-scale datasets and complex images, owing to the substantial computational power currently available. However, existing methods still face significant challenges when processing images with low contrast, fine cracks, or strong noise interference. This paper introduces a novel semantic diffusion model capable of generating synthetic crack images from segmentation masks. The proposed model outperforms state-of-the-art semantic synthesis models across multiple benchmark datasets, demonstrating enhanced crack segmentation performance in complex backgrounds and addressing a critical challenge in engineering crack detection. Additionally, a new crack width calculation method is proposed, which further optimizes the measurement accuracy of crack width by leveraging the medial axis of the segmentation mask, thereby improving the model’s ability to describe crack morphology. To comprehensively evaluate the model’s performance, the dataset was categorized, and a detailed analysis of crack width errors was conducted for different regions. Specifically, the median and interquartile range (IQR) of width errors were calculated for four distinct regions: the central wall, corner edges, oblique intersections, and wall and column surfaces. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model excels in all regions, particularly in complex areas such as corner edges and oblique intersections, where the error is significantly lower than that of existing methods. These innovations collectively advance crack segmentation technology and provide a new solution for efficient crack detection in practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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23 pages, 4328 KiB  
Article
Extreme-Value Combination Rules for Tower–Line Systems Under Non-Gaussian Wind-Induced Vibration Response
by Shuang Zhao, Xianhong Zhang, Chentao Zhang, Zhitao Yan, Xueqin Zhang, Bin Zhang and Xianxing Dai
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111871 - 29 May 2025
Abstract
Currently, extreme response analysis of tower–line systems typically assumes each component response follows a stationary Gaussian process. However, actual structural responses often exhibit significant non-Gaussian characteristics, potentially compromising structural safety during service life. Based on the first-passage theory and the complete quadratic combination [...] Read more.
Currently, extreme response analysis of tower–line systems typically assumes each component response follows a stationary Gaussian process. However, actual structural responses often exhibit significant non-Gaussian characteristics, potentially compromising structural safety during service life. Based on the first-passage theory and the complete quadratic combination (CQC) rule, this study investigates the extreme-value combination of non-Gaussian wind-induced responses for tower–line systems. Subsequently, wind tunnel test data are utilized to generate extreme-value samples with specified first four statistical moments through Monte Carlo simulation. An extensive parametric study was conducted to investigate the influence of non-Gaussian response components on combined extreme responses, leading to the development of a modified CQC (MCQC) rule for extreme-value estimation. Quantitative analyses incorporating both correlation coefficients and standard deviations demonstrated that among the classical combination rules, the proposed MCQC rule provides superior accuracy in estimating the total wind-induced response of tower–line systems. The validity of the MCQC rule was subsequently verified through wind tunnel test data, with the results showing excellent agreement between predicted and experimental values. The research results provide some reference for strengthening the wind resistance toughness of tower–line systems under wind load. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Structural Techniques for Seismic and Wind Resilience: Innovations in Safety and Performance)
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18 pages, 5681 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Potential of Green Clay Materials Through Sustainable Modification with Natural Polysaccharides
by Olga Kizinievič, Yahor Trambitski, Viktor Kizinievič, Violeta Voišnienė and Inga Daščioraitė
Buildings 2025, 15(11), 1870; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111870 - 28 May 2025
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Abstract
This study investigated the effects of natural polysaccharides—guar gum (GG) and xanthan gum (XG)—on the properties and structure of illitic clay. Clay samples were prepared using five different GG and XG solutions, with polysaccharide concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5%. The [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of natural polysaccharides—guar gum (GG) and xanthan gum (XG)—on the properties and structure of illitic clay. Clay samples were prepared using five different GG and XG solutions, with polysaccharide concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5%. The physical, mechanical, and hygroscopic properties of the samples were evaluated, along with water erosion resistance and structural characteristics, using SEM analysis. The addition of GG or XG significantly increased compressive strength and water erosion resistance, reduced shrinkage, and slightly improved the bulk density compared to the control clay sample. The results showed that compressive strength increased by 28–63% and 46–84% with the incorporation of GG and XG solutions, respectively. These findings suggest that environmentally friendly clay-based building materials can be effectively produced even using small amounts of natural polysaccharides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Sustainable Green Building Materials)
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