Journal Description
Diversity
Diversity
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on the science of biodiversity from molecules, genes, populations, and species, to ecosystems and is published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubAg, GEOBASE, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Biodiversity Conservation) / CiteScore - Q2 (Agricultural and Biological Sciences (miscellaneous))
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.3 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Diversity is a companion journal of Fossil Studies.
Impact Factor:
2.1 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.3 (2023)
Latest Articles
Integrative Description of Temnothorax siculus sp. n.: A New Ant Species from Sicily, Italy (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040294 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
Abstract
The mostly Holarctic genus Temnothorax (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) is the most diverse ant genus in temperate regions. The Mediterranean, a biodiversity hotspot of rare ant species, hosts over 150 Temnothorax taxa, including several short-range endemics. Over the last few years, phylogenomic reconstructions and integrative
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The mostly Holarctic genus Temnothorax (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) is the most diverse ant genus in temperate regions. The Mediterranean, a biodiversity hotspot of rare ant species, hosts over 150 Temnothorax taxa, including several short-range endemics. Over the last few years, phylogenomic reconstructions and integrative taxonomy have significantly improved the understanding of global Temnothorax diversity, but much taxonomic work is still needed in the Mediterranean region. Here, we present the integrative description of a new species of the genus, discovered in the central Mediterranean island of Sicily: Temnothorax siculus sp. n. is defined and compared to congeneric species integrating morphometrics and phylogenomics. It is a ground-nesting, lowland species, of which workers were regularly observed foraging on bushes and small trees. In the global phylogeny, covering all the main lineages of the region, it belongs to the Palearctic clade and is related to the tuberum and unifasciatus complexes. Morphological separation from other Sicilian Temnothorax species can generally be achieved on qualitative characters, but we also provide morphometric discriminant functions to separate it from T. apenninicus and especially T. unifasciatus. Temnothorax siculus has been rarely collected but appears to be widespread in Sicily, and may occur in neighboring regions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics, Evolution and Diversity in Ants)
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Biostratigraphy, Paleoenvironments, and Paleobiogeography of the Middle–Upper Eocene Ostracods from Northwestern and Northeastern Banks of the Nile Valley, Egypt
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Safaa Abu Bakr, Ibrahim M. Abd El-Gaied, Mostafa M. Sayed, Petra Heinz, Michael Wagreich and Abdelaziz Mahmoud
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040293 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
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The middle and upper Eocene sedimentary successions exposed along the northwestern and northeastern portions of the Nile Valley, Egypt, have been thoroughly examined for their ostracod assemblages. This study enhances the understanding of biostratigraphic zonations and evaluates the paleobiogeographic distribution and paleoenvironmental conditions
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The middle and upper Eocene sedimentary successions exposed along the northwestern and northeastern portions of the Nile Valley, Egypt, have been thoroughly examined for their ostracod assemblages. This study enhances the understanding of biostratigraphic zonations and evaluates the paleobiogeographic distribution and paleoenvironmental conditions that prevailed during the deposition of this sedimentary record. Lithostratigraphically, the studied successions are subdivided into four stratigraphic units, arranged in ascending order as follows: the Qarara, the El Fashn, the Gehannam, and the Beni Suef formations. A total of 125 rock samples were selected and well analyzed, resulting in the identification of sixty-five ostracod species and subspecies belonging to thirty-three genera, fifteen families, and three superfamilies. The stratigraphic distribution of the recorded ostracod taxa contributed to the construction of four local biozones, spanning the interval from the upper Lutetian to lower Priabonian: Schizocythere fadlensis Zone (upper Lutetian–lower Bartonian), Loxoconcha pseudopunctatella Zone, Dygmocythere ismaili Zone (Bartonian), and Asymmetricythere hiltermanni Zone (Bartonian–Priabonian). These biozones are well described, discussed, and correlated with those previously documented in different areas of Egypt and neighboring countries. The statistical analysis, supported by ternary plot diagrams, indicates that the depositional environments of the studied rock units fluctuated between shallow inner neritic and deeper outer neritic marine environments. The identified taxa display a wide geographic distribution and show a significant similarity with those identified in the southern, northern, and eastern Tethyan provinces, suggesting a direct marine connection during the Eocene.
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Influence of Natural and Artificial Habitats and Microhabitats on Urban Amphibian Diversity and Behavior
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Rocio Pamela Demartín, Romina Ghirardi and Javier Alejandro López
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040292 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
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Species presence in urban landscapes is driven by complex biological and environmental interactions. In this study, we evaluated habitat and microhabitat selection by amphibians in urban environments using correspondence analysis, multiple correspondence analysis, and preference analysis. Data on habitats, microhabitats, and activities were
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Species presence in urban landscapes is driven by complex biological and environmental interactions. In this study, we evaluated habitat and microhabitat selection by amphibians in urban environments using correspondence analysis, multiple correspondence analysis, and preference analysis. Data on habitats, microhabitats, and activities were recorded for 26 amphibian species in urban areas. All species were observed in natural habitats, while only 11 in artificial habitats. Leptodactylus latinasus, Leptodactylus macrosternum, Rhinella arenarum, and Rhinella dorbignyi were found in both habitat types, in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Most individuals (74%) were recorded in natural habitats, predominantly aquatic ones. In artificial habitats (26%), R. arenarum was the most abundant species, primarily using terrestrial habitats. All species exhibited some degree of habitat preference, even generalist species. Amphibian activities were also linked to habitat type, with natural aquatic habitats primarily used for breeding and natural terrestrial habitats for refuge, foraging, and other activities. Our results highlight that heterogeneous natural habitats promote greater species diversity, while artificial habitats restrict amphibian presence. However, the capacity of certain species to adjust to artificial environments underscores the need to enhance these habitats by adding bodies of water, bare ground, and vegetation of all kinds to support the conservation of urban amphibians.
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The Evolution of Mosasaurid Foraging Behavior Through the Lens of Stable Carbon Isotopes
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Michael J. Polcyn, John A. Robbins, Anne S. Schulp, Johan Lindgren and Louis L. Jacobs
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040291 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
Abstract
A large data set of new and previously published measurements of δ13C values derived from tooth enamel (n = 223, of which 93 are new) are compiled to explore patterns of foraging area preferences of Late Cretaceous mosasaurid squamates over
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A large data set of new and previously published measurements of δ13C values derived from tooth enamel (n = 223, of which 93 are new) are compiled to explore patterns of foraging area preferences of Late Cretaceous mosasaurid squamates over evolutionary time scales (~93–66 Ma). Our results indicate that small-bodied halisaurines are restricted to a relatively nearshore range, overlapping the lower end of the range of plioplatecarpines and some mosasaurine taxa. Most moderately sized plioplatecarpines occupy a relatively narrow foraging area in much of the nearshore and proximal offshore marine foraging area for the majority of their existence. Tylosaurines exhibit a greater offshore marine range than plioplatecarpines, consistent with their large body size and the robustness of their feeding apparatus. The largest tylosaurine taxa are replaced by Mosasaurus in the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian in the offshore foraging range. Mosasaurine taxa are found to occupy the broadest range of foraging areas, but their ranges are taxonomically segregated, consistent with adult body size and the diversity of feeding adaptations such as tooth morphologies and skull architecture seen in that subfamily. Where foraging areas of multiple taxa overlap, differences are typically in tooth form, reflecting prey preference or feeding niche. Foraging area occupation by multiple taxa with similar tooth forms suggests that other factors such as body size and prey acquisition style may have allowed for the finer partitioning of resources. Deep diving and long submergence may have also contributed to the depleted signals recovered for some of the large-bodied durophages and the largest of the macrophagous apex predators.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Making New Out of the Old: Recent Biological Advances on Mesozoic Marine Reptiles)
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Habitat and Predator Influences on the Spatial Ecology of Nine-Banded Armadillos
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Robert C. Lonsinger, Ben P. Murley, Daniel T. McDonald, Christine E. Fallon and Kara M. White
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040290 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
Abstract
Mesopredator suppression has implications for community structure, biodiversity, and ecosystem function, but mesopredators with physical defenses may not avoid apex predators. We investigated nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) in southwestern Oklahoma (USA) to evaluate if a species with physical defenses was influenced
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Mesopredator suppression has implications for community structure, biodiversity, and ecosystem function, but mesopredators with physical defenses may not avoid apex predators. We investigated nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) in southwestern Oklahoma (USA) to evaluate if a species with physical defenses was influenced by a dominant predator, the coyote (Canis latrans). We sampled nine-banded armadillos and coyotes with motion-activated cameras. We used single-species and conditional two-species occupancy models to assess the influences of environmental factors and coyotes on nine-banded armadillo occurrence and site-use intensity (i.e., detection). We used camera-based detections to characterize the diel activity of each species and their overlap. Nine-banded armadillo occupancy was greater at sites closer to cover, with lower slopes, and further from water, whereas coyote space use was greater at higher elevations; both species were positively associated with recent burns. Nine-banded armadillo occurrence was not influenced by coyotes, but site-use intensity was suppressed by the presence of coyotes. Nine-banded armadillos (strictly nocturnal) and coyotes (predominantly nocturnal) had a high overlap in summer diel activity. Nine-banded armadillos are ecosystem engineers but are often considered a threat to species of concern and/or a nuisance. Thus, understanding the role of interspecific interactions on nine-banded armadillos has important implications for conservation and management.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation of Armadillos)
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High Diversity of Waters, Communities and Stressors—Design of Croatian Fish Index for Rivers (CFIR)
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Ivana Buj, Perica Mustafić, Lucija Ivić, Sara Pleše, Zoran Marčić, Davor Zanella, Marko Ćaleta, Sven Horvatić and Lucija Onorato
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040289 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2025
Abstract
Determination of the ecological state of any water body is crucial for its adequate conservation and is, moreover, required by the Water Framework Directive. Employment of multimetric indices, which integrate various anthropogenic threats to water systems with the responses of different elements of
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Determination of the ecological state of any water body is crucial for its adequate conservation and is, moreover, required by the Water Framework Directive. Employment of multimetric indices, which integrate various anthropogenic threats to water systems with the responses of different elements of fish communities, improve our understanding and allow us to monitor the ecological state of freshwater bodies. However, design of multimetric indices that describe the ecological state of water bodies based on fish communities has already proved difficult for the Mediterranean region for several reasons, including the frequent presence of species-poor and ecologically tolerant fish communities, high endemicity and a serious lack of localities with undisturbed fish communities. The development of an ecological state index for natural water bodies in Croatia based on fish as a biological element which we present in this paper was also hindered by similar obstacles, particularly due to exceptionally high endemicity present in rivers of the Adriatic watershed, the great number of distinct water types, and significant anthropogenic pressures. Nevertheless, based on comprehensive sampling of fish communities throughout Croatia and following appropriate statistical procedures, we were able to identify stressors acting on certain water bodies, as well as responses of fish communities to them, and, finally, describe the ecological state of natural water bodies throughout Croatia. We also propose measures that will most likely help in achieving improvement and/or maintenance of the ecological states of these water bodies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution, Systematic and Conservation of Freshwater Fishes)
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Influence of Gall-Inducing Insects (Cynipini) on the Nutritional and Defensive Chemical Profile of Quercus rugosa
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Miriam Serrano-Muñoz, Elgar Castillo-Mendoza, Alejandro Zamilpa, Patricia Mussali-Galante, Juli Pujade-Villar, Leticia Valencia-Cuevas and Efraín Tovar-Sánchez
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040288 (registering DOI) - 18 Apr 2025
Abstract
Analyzing the nutritional and defensive chemistry of Quercus rugosa provides insight into gall wasp interactions. Quercus rugosa is the most widely distributed white oak species in Mexico. It is the dominant canopy species in its geographic distribution range and has the largest number
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Analyzing the nutritional and defensive chemistry of Quercus rugosa provides insight into gall wasp interactions. Quercus rugosa is the most widely distributed white oak species in Mexico. It is the dominant canopy species in its geographic distribution range and has the largest number of associated gall wasp species (Cynipidae: Cynipini). Our main aims were to characterize the nutritional and defensive chemistry of Q. rugosa leaves and determine whether this chemistry differed between leaves with and without galls. We evaluated 60 trees from six populations of Q. rugosa in central Mexico. For each tree, we analyzed the nutritional chemistry (nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and carbon/nitrogen ratio) and defensive chemistry (secondary metabolites). Also, we characterized the community of cynipids in the leaf tissue of each tree. We documented 18 cynipid species, and the cynipid communities differed in composition among localities. We recorded the presence of a total of ten phenolics. The composition of nutritional and defensive chemicals differed significantly between leaves with and without galls in each locality. The nutritional and defensive chemical compounds of Q. rugosa were influenced by their associated cynipids. Our results suggest that gall-inducing cynipids influence the production of secondary metabolites in leaves with galls through the reassignment of nutritional compounds by the hosts.
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(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity Conservation)
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Where Meiofauna? An Assessment of Interstitial Fauna at a Belgian Beach
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Jill Monnissen, Sofie Thijs, Tom Artois, Philippe Jouk, Emma Van de Reydt, Thomas Van Dijck and Marlies Monnens
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040287 - 18 Apr 2025
Abstract
Meiofauna are frequently overlooked in biodiversity assessments, resulting in a lack of understanding regarding their current status, the potential impact of anthropogenic activities, and climate change. This study on the intertidal zone of the Small Beach of Ostend marks a new effort to
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Meiofauna are frequently overlooked in biodiversity assessments, resulting in a lack of understanding regarding their current status, the potential impact of anthropogenic activities, and climate change. This study on the intertidal zone of the Small Beach of Ostend marks a new effort to characterize meiofaunal communities along the Belgian coast. Sampling was carried out on five separate occasions throughout the year, with abiotic data collected during each event. Collected specimens were sorted according to their taxonomic group, resulting in a retrieval of 1742 organisms. Among these, Platyhelminthes and Nematoda were most abundant. Through metabarcoding of the 18S ribosomal region, a biodiversity assessment was conducted, yielding a total of 106 Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs). After filtering out rare reads, 65 metazoan ASVs were retained: 18 representing Platyhelminthes, 16 Nematoda, 15 Copepoda, 12 Polychaeta, and 4 Acoela. Identification of the ASVs through blasting generated 23 unique species-level identifications. The highest species richness was observed among Proseriata and Nematoda, each comprising six different species. Additionally, four different species of Polychaeta and Copepoda, two species of Acoela, and one species of Rhabdocoela were identified. Compared to findings on similar beaches along the Belgian coast from about 40 years ago, the meiofaunal communities on this beach exhibit an overall low species richness. Finding fewer and other species might be linked to the potential impact of beach nourishments, human trampling, and climate change. However, confirming this hypothesis requires future research.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Barcodes for Evolution and Biodiversity—2nd Edition)
Open AccessReview
Alien Mammals in the Afrotropical Region and Their Impact on Vertebrate Biodiversity: A Review
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Grzegorz Kopij
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040286 - 18 Apr 2025
Abstract
The introduction of alien species may pose an enormous threat to indigenous flora and fauna. Among introduced animals, probably the most destructive to the natural environment are mammals. This is true at least in regard to the Afrotropical Region (sub-Saharan Africa). This review
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The introduction of alien species may pose an enormous threat to indigenous flora and fauna. Among introduced animals, probably the most destructive to the natural environment are mammals. This is true at least in regard to the Afrotropical Region (sub-Saharan Africa). This review attempts to summarize our knowledge on alien mammals in this region and their impact on indigenous vertebrate fauna. This review includes 56 mammal species, belonging to 20 families, introduced to sub-Saharan Africa over the last 2000 years. Most are representatives of the following orders: Artiodactyla, Carnivora, and Primates. Most species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa originated from the Oriental (n = 20) and Palearctic (n = 19) regions. Two species, Mus musculus and Rattus rattus, were introduced before 1400 (probably as early as 800 AD), while three others were introduced between 1401 and 1700. The first half of the 17th century saw the highest number (n = 10) of introduced species. Between 1651 and 1850, only two species were introduced; in the following 175 years (1851–2025), as many as 24 species were introduced. Ten of the introduced mammal species, namely Sus scrofa, Capra hircus, Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus, Mus musculus, Felis catus, Canis familiaris, Viverricula indica, Urva auropunctata, and Maccaca fuscicularis, have become invasive species. A total of 39 mammal species were relocated (mainly for hunting purposes) within sub-Saharan Africa. Most of them were representatives of the family Bovidae (76.9%). Relocations are not considered introductions. Based on published records of the impacts of alien mammals on the vertebrate fauna of sub-Saharan Africa, the following mechanisms may be distinguished: predation, competition, hybridization, transmission of diseases and parasites, and habitat destruction (grazing, herbivory, browsing). Most vertebrate species (79.4%) were affected through direct predation, predation and habitat destruction (7.1%), or predation and competition (1.4%). Alien mammals have caused habitat destruction for only 10 species (7.1%). Other effects (competition and genetic pollution) were marginal (3.5%). At least 144 vertebrate species, representing 52 families, have been affected by alien mammals in sub-Saharan Africa: 3 amphibians, 23 reptiles, 89 birds, and 29 mammals. As a result of mammal introductions, 65 species in sub-Saharan Africa have become globally extinct, 45 are considered threatened (listed in the RDB), and 31 other species are in decline, although not included in the RDB. Most extinct birds were affected by introduced rats, mice, feral cats, and dogs. In continental Africa, only seven vertebrate species have been negatively affected by alien mammals. All other affected vertebrates occur on islands. An especially high rate of extinction has been recorded in the Mascarene Islands. In comparison with alien birds in sub-Saharan Africa, the number of introduced mammal species is much lower, but their negative impact on vertebrate fauna is significantly greater.
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Open AccessArticle
Mixed Mating System, Dispersal Limitation Shape, and Spatial Genetic Structure of Tamarix chinensis on Isolated Wudi Seashell Island
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Binghuang Zhang, Xiao Lan, Shengchang Yang and Ma Hui
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040285 - 18 Apr 2025
Abstract
Tamarix chinensis Lour. is a halophytic shrub native to coastal China, commonly used in afforestation and ecological restoration due to its high tolerance to salinity and drought. To understand how this species maintains genetic variation and adapts to extreme environments, we examined the
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Tamarix chinensis Lour. is a halophytic shrub native to coastal China, commonly used in afforestation and ecological restoration due to its high tolerance to salinity and drought. To understand how this species maintains genetic variation and adapts to extreme environments, we examined the genetic diversity, mating system, and spatial genetic structure of a natural T. chinensis population on the geographically isolated and environmentally harsh Wudi Seashell Island. Using both SSR and ISSR markers, we observed high levels of genetic diversity despite the small population size and spatial fragmentation. SSR markers revealed an average of 11.75 alleles per locus, with an expected heterozygosity (He) of 0.754 and an observed heterozygosity (Ho) of 0.702. ISSR markers showed a polymorphic locus rate of 97.87%, with a mean He of 0.402. Parentage analysis revealed relatively long seed and pollen dispersal distances, with most dispersal occurring within 150 m and seeds and pollens occasionally reaching 948 m and 447 m, respectively. The species exhibited a mixed mating system, with a multilocus outcrossing rate of 0.554, contributing to gene flow and reducing inbreeding. A fine-scale spatial genetic structure was detected within 75 m, consistent across both SSR and ISSR markers, suggesting limited local gene dispersal. These findings provide new insights into the adaptive strategies of T. chinensis in marginal habitats and offer valuable guidance for conservation and restoration efforts in vulnerable coastal ecosystems.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th Anniversary of Diversity—Biodiversity, Conservation and Ecology of Animals, Plants and Microorganisms)
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Open AccessReview
Herbert D. Athearn and the Museum of Fluviatile Mollusks
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Arthur E. Bogan, Jamie M. Smith and Cynthia M. Bogan
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040284 - 18 Apr 2025
Abstract
Herbert D. Athearn (1923–2011) was an avid student of freshwater mollusks. He named his private shell collection “The Museum of Fluviatile Mollusks”, which was meticulously organized at his residence. This collection was curated to current museum standards with detailed labels, all lots with
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Herbert D. Athearn (1923–2011) was an avid student of freshwater mollusks. He named his private shell collection “The Museum of Fluviatile Mollusks”, which was meticulously organized at his residence. This collection was curated to current museum standards with detailed labels, all lots with catalog numbers, and all unionoid valves with catalog numbers written in India ink. Specimens’ collecting dates span between 1850 and 2005, with 23,344 cataloged lots containing over 3000 lots of imperiled and extinct taxa. All data for each of the lots are handwritten in paper catalogs. Many lots contain growth series from the smallest juveniles to the largest specimens seen. He traded extensively with collectors worldwide, obtaining specimens from 84 countries. This collection was donated to the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences in 2007. To date, 64 percent of this collection has been databased using a relational database, totaling 589,995 specimens. The collection consists of bivalves, primarily Unionidae, Margaritiferidae, and Sphaeriidae, as well as gastropods. There are 73 families represented, with the greatest abundance found in freshwater Pleuroceridae. The Athearn collection donation included his correspondence, his library, field notes, and USGS topographic maps with marked field localities.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of Freshwater Mollusks)
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Investigating Endemic Alpine Communities of Papaver corona-sancti-stephani and Cerastium lerchenfeldianum in the Southern Carpathians
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Claudia Biță-Nicolae, Daniela Mogîldea and Oliviu G. Pop
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040283 - 17 Apr 2025
Abstract
The high-elevation calcareous screes of the Southern Carpathians are ecologically important habitats characterised by extreme environmental conditions. These habitats support specialised plant communities, including endemic and relict species, shaped by climatic, edaphic and biogeographic factors. This study examines three scree vegetation communities in
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The high-elevation calcareous screes of the Southern Carpathians are ecologically important habitats characterised by extreme environmental conditions. These habitats support specialised plant communities, including endemic and relict species, shaped by climatic, edaphic and biogeographic factors. This study examines three scree vegetation communities in the Bucegi, Piatra Craiului and Făgăraș massifs to assess species composition, ecological strategies and environmental influences. Phytosociological surveys were carried out using the Braun-Blanquet method, diversity indices (species richness, Simpson indices and species evenness) and multivariate analyses, including ANOSIM (ANalysis Of SIMilarities), SIMPER (Similarity Percentage method) and PCA (Principal Component Analysis), and were applied to evaluate species–environment relationships. A total of 62 vascular plant species were recorded, with Caryophyllaceae and Asteraceae as the dominant families. Differences in lifeform composition and species distribution between the massifs were related to variations in soil moisture, nutrient availability and climatic conditions. The results highlight the role of calcareous substrates in supporting alpine endemism and underline the influence of abiotic stress on community structure. Conservation efforts should prioritise these fragile ecosystems, especially as climate change and human activities increase pressure on high-elevation habitats. The study contributes to a broader understanding of the Carpathian alpine flora and its biogeographic connections with other European mountain systems, and it highlights the need for targeted conservation strategies to preserve biodiversity in these vulnerable environments.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landscape Biodiversity)
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Effects of Phenotypic Plasticity and Genetic Variation on Plant Growth and Litter Decomposition in a Widespread Wetland Grass
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Wei Wei, Qishen Wen, Hong Zhu, Huijia Song, Xiya Zhang, Wenyi Sheng, Liujuan Xie, Xiao Guo, Yaolin Guo, Siyuan Ye, Yuzhi Wang, Lele Liu and Weihua Guo
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040282 - 17 Apr 2025
Abstract
Wetlands are crucial ecosystems that provide a wide range of ecological services, such as water purification, flood control, and carbon sequestration, where the diversity of wetland plants is fundamental to maintaining these functions. Phragmites australis is a globally widespread wetland grass with a
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Wetlands are crucial ecosystems that provide a wide range of ecological services, such as water purification, flood control, and carbon sequestration, where the diversity of wetland plants is fundamental to maintaining these functions. Phragmites australis is a globally widespread wetland grass with a high genetic diversity, exhibiting strong intraspecific variation across environmental gradients. While both phenotypic plasticity and genetic variation are recognized drivers of plant adaptation, their relative importance in mediating the growth and decomposition traits of wetland plants remains debated. Here, we surveyed the growth and litter traits of two lineages (haplotypes) of P. australis in two common gardens in eastern China. The leaf litter of P. australis was also collected from the field in two provinces where the two common gardens are located. Microcosm experiments were carried out to explore the litter decomposition ability. We found that the common garden (growth environment) significantly affected the growth performance (shoot diameter and height), leaf litter stoichiometric traits (contents of N and P), and the leaf decomposition over 180 days. The N content in the leaf litter from the higher-latitude province of Liaoning was greater than that from the lower-latitude province of Shandong, regardless of whether it was collected from the field or the common garden. The litter N and P contents were the key factors affecting the decomposition during the 180-day experiment. However, we did not find the effects of lineage (genetic variation) on the variation of these traits. The climatic factors of the genotype origin were significantly correlated with the growth traits but not the litter traits or decomposition rates. The findings indicate that P. australis in eastern temperate China primarily adapts through phenotypic plasticity rather than genetic variation, which is crucial for wetland resilience in a changing climate. This study underscores the pivotal role of environmental factors and phenotypic plasticity in P. australis growth and decomposition, suggesting that conservation efforts should prioritize the local environment over genetic variation for effective wetland management.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetland Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation)
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Open AccessInteresting Images
To Mate or to Steal Food? A Male Spider’s Dilemma
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Matjaž Kuntner, Xin Xu and Daiqin Li
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040281 - 17 Apr 2025
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We report a sequence of unusual male behaviors observed in Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) (Araneae: Nephilidae Simon, 1894), a sexually size dimorphic tropical spider species in Singapore. We documented a male suitor using his mouth parts (chelicerae) rather than his copulatory organs (pedipalps)
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We report a sequence of unusual male behaviors observed in Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) (Araneae: Nephilidae Simon, 1894), a sexually size dimorphic tropical spider species in Singapore. We documented a male suitor using his mouth parts (chelicerae) rather than his copulatory organs (pedipalps) to repeatedly probe female genitals. The behaviors may have served as a strategy to assess the female’s mating status, functioned as a courtship strategy, or, most plausibly, represented an attempt to remove a genital plug. The documented chrono-sequence culminated in the male’s attempted commensalism, followed by an aggressive attack by the female, resulting in near-fatal injury to the male. Notably, the attack did not escalate into cannibalism, suggesting that the extreme size difference in Nephila may render small males unappealing as prey.
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Open AccessArticle
Characterizing the Seed Coat in the Subtribe Angraecinae (Orchidaceae, Vandeae) and Its Taxonomic Value
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Roberto Gamarra, Emma Ortúñez, Pablo De La Fuente, Guillermo Valdelvira and Álvaro Hernando
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040280 - 16 Apr 2025
Abstract
The seeds of 121 species belonging to 38 genera of the subtribe Angraecinae (Orchidaceae) were studied in terms of their morphological characteristics under a scanning electron microscope (SEM). This study provided new data about the seed micromorphology of 17 genera and 100 species.
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The seeds of 121 species belonging to 38 genera of the subtribe Angraecinae (Orchidaceae) were studied in terms of their morphological characteristics under a scanning electron microscope (SEM). This study provided new data about the seed micromorphology of 17 genera and 100 species. Ten qualitative traits of the seed coat were analyzed, of which four were common for all the examined samples: elongated testa cells, anticlinal zone, curved transverse anticlinal walls, and sunken and narrow-to-not visible periclinal walls. These features are consistent with the epiphytic life-form of the genera studied. However, variation among genera was observed with reference to the seed shape, the morphology of the apical and the basal poles, the arrangement of the medial cells, the morphology of the longitudinal anticlinal walls, and the presence of testa extensions. A cluster analysis was performed, and two large groups were segregated according to the seed shape. Within a genus, all the examined species showed the same pattern of seed coat, except in Diaphananthe, Mystacidium, and Rhipidoglossum. On the other hand, the variation in the seed coat observed in Angraecum sensu lato supported its segregation into different genera. Our results perfectly fitted with recent taxonomic proposals.
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(This article belongs to the Section Plant Diversity)
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Open AccessArticle
Aerobic Composting of Auricularia auricula (L.) Residues: Investigating Nutrient Dynamics and Microbial Interactions with Different Substrate Compositions
by
Qian Liu, Yuxin Tian, Pengbing Wu, Junyan Zheng, Yuhe Xing, Ying Qu, Xingchi Guo and Xu Zhang
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040279 - 16 Apr 2025
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Auricularia auricula (L.) is a widely cultivated edible mushroom, and the resource utilization of its residues offers significant opportunities for sustainable waste management and nutrient recovery. This study investigated the effects of substrate composition on nutrient dynamics and microbial diversity during the aerobic
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Auricularia auricula (L.) is a widely cultivated edible mushroom, and the resource utilization of its residues offers significant opportunities for sustainable waste management and nutrient recovery. This study investigated the effects of substrate composition on nutrient dynamics and microbial diversity during the aerobic composting of Auricularia auricula (L.) residues. Two treatments were established: composting of Auricularia auricula (L.) residues alone (CR) and composting supplemented with green grass (CRG) over a 49-day period. The results showed that both treatments achieved compost maturity, characterized by a slightly alkaline pH, a germination index (GI) above 80%, and an electrical conductivity below 4 mS/cm. Both composts were odorless, insect-free, and dark brown. Compared to CR, the CRG treatment exhibited higher total organic carbon (TOC) degradation, cumulative total phosphorus (TP) and potassium (TK) levels, as well as enhanced urease, cellulase, and β-glucosidase activities. In contrast, CR retained higher total nitrogen (TN), humic carbon (HEC), fulvic acid carbon (FAC), humic acid carbon (HAC), and a greater humic-to-fulvic acid (HA/FA) ratio. Microbial community analysis revealed diverse bacterial and fungal taxa, with certain species positively correlated with nutrient cycling. Notably, specific substrate compositions promoted beneficial microbial proliferation, essential for efficient composting and nutrient mineralization. These findings not only provide a scientific basis for optimizing composting strategies of mushroom residues but also offer a practical pathway to convert agricultural waste into high-quality organic fertilizers. By enhancing soil fertility, reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers, and promoting circular bioeconomy practices, this study contributes directly to sustainable agricultural development. CR and CRG treatments, respectively, support either nutrient retention or release, allowing tailored application based on crop demand and soil condition. This study underscores the potential of Auricularia auricula (L.) residues in composting systems, contributing to waste reduction and soil fertility enhancement through tailored substrate management, and offers practical insights into optimizing composting strategies for Auricularia farming by-products.
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Open AccessArticle
Macrozoobenthic Communities in the Upwelling Area off Chile (36° S) with Special Consideration of the Oxygen Minimum Zone
by
Anna S. Krug and Michael L. Zettler
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040278 - 16 Apr 2025
Abstract
The Humboldt Current System (HCS) off southwest America is known for its strong upwelling and the resulting high primary production and associated oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). Macrozoobenthic species represent a group of organisms that are affected by the low oxygen concentrations in the
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The Humboldt Current System (HCS) off southwest America is known for its strong upwelling and the resulting high primary production and associated oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). Macrozoobenthic species represent a group of organisms that are affected by the low oxygen concentrations in the OMZ. In January 2023, benthic diversity was investigated at 8 stations on a transect off Concepción, central Chile (in the centre of the OMZ) in a water depth range from 56 to 912 m. The measured oxygen values ranged from 0 µmol/L in the OMZ to 144.64 µmol/L outside the OMZ. At each station, 3 van Veen grabs were taken, the species identified, counted and weighed. The mean abundance, biomass and diversity were calculated for each station. This analysis provided an overview of the changes in the species communities at different oxygen concentrations. The species communities at the stations with low oxygen levels differed greatly from those with higher oxygen levels. Species diversity at the stations increased during the transition from low (<2 µmol/L) to higher oxygen levels (>100 µmol/L). In contrast, species abundance and, to a lesser extent, biomass tended to be higher at low oxygen concentrations. The species composition at the various stations showed a high occurrence of polychaetes. The spionid polychaete Paraprionospio pinnata played an important role as a central key species within the OMZ. In addition to Paraprionospio, Ampelisca araucana, Magelona phyllisae, Nephtys ferruginea and Cossura chilensis were found in high abundance in the oxygen minimum zone (50–200 m water depth). At the edge and presumably below the oxygen minimum zone (300–912 m), where the oxygen concentration rises again, the dominance of individual species decreased, and the total number of species increased. In addition, the species composition changed and the abundance of other polychaete families (Cirratulidae, Amphinomidae, Oweniidae and Capitellidae) amplified. The proportion of polychaetes in the total abundance decreased from almost 100% at the low-oxygen stations to around 60% at the stations below the oxygen minimum zone. Bivalvia of the families Thyasiridae, Nuculidae and Yoldiidae were of particular importance at the deeper stations with a share of up to 20% of the total abundance. The study of benthic communities is of central importance to better understand the future changes in the structure and function of marine ecosystems in hypoxic waters.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Biogeography of Marine Benthos—2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Comparative Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecological Indicators in Three Forest Ecosystems of Southern Romania
by
Florin Daniel Stamin and Sina Cosmulescu
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040277 - 15 Apr 2025
Abstract
This paper aims to analyze and compare the structure of tree and herbaceous plant communities in three temperate forest ecosystems located in the south of Olt County, Romania. The research consisted of determining the tree and herbaceous composition of the ecosystems by the
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This paper aims to analyze and compare the structure of tree and herbaceous plant communities in three temperate forest ecosystems located in the south of Olt County, Romania. The research consisted of determining the tree and herbaceous composition of the ecosystems by the frame quadrats sampling method and the taxonomic determination of the species. The community structure was analyzed based on structural indices such as the arithmetic mean of individuals (X), standard deviation (SD), confidence limits (LC), percentage density (DP), frequency (F), constant (C), relative significance index (W) and dominance index (ID). The results indicated that the structure of the plant communities shows differences depending on the studied area, but this structure remains complex but uneven. In the case of trees, species such as Crataegus monogyna, Quercus robur or Acer campestre tend to influence the community more due to an uneven distribution or a significant number of individuals. As regards the herbaceous species, out of the 34 identified, only two were noted to be present in all three sites, namely Geum urbanum and Viola canina, which reflects a higher adaptability in their case.
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(This article belongs to the Section Plant Diversity)
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Open AccessArticle
Bringing Fire Back: How Prescribed Fires Shape Ant Communities in a Fire-Suppressed Neotropical Savanna
by
Ruthe E. O. S. Leão, Karen C. F. Neves, Lino A. Zuanon, Giselda Durigan and Heraldo L. Vasconcelos
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040276 - 15 Apr 2025
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We evaluated the effects of different fire regimes on the ground-ant community from a savanna (Cerrado) reserve in southern Brazil, where a process of woody encroachment has been taking place. Ants are a dominant faunal group in tropical savannas. Over ~8 years, experimental
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We evaluated the effects of different fire regimes on the ground-ant community from a savanna (Cerrado) reserve in southern Brazil, where a process of woody encroachment has been taking place. Ants are a dominant faunal group in tropical savannas. Over ~8 years, experimental plots were protected from fire or burned every one or two years. An additional treatment (adaptive) included annual fires and a reduction in woody biomass to increase fuel loads. Ants were collected prior to the first prescribed fire and again four times. We expected that fire would increase the diversity and overall abundance of open-savanna ant specialists, depending on the extent of changes in vegetation structure. Changes in litter depth, grass cover and bare ground in burned plots were most evident 88 months after the first fire and did not differ between fire regimes. Similarly, overall ant species richness and occurrence neither differed between fire treatments nor from the control. However, burned plots showed a significant increase in the richness and occurrence of open savanna specialists, and a decrease in species most typical of dense savanna or dry forests. As ant responses did not differ between the annual, biennial, and adaptive treatments, we suggest that a fire return interval of two years is enough for reverting the loss of open savanna ant specialists in areas that have been protected from fire for decades.
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Open AccessArticle
Mitochondrial Genetic Mutations in the Pale Grass Blue Butterfly: Possible DNA Damage via the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Real-Time Molecular Evolution
by
Mariko Toki, Wataru Taira, Ko Sakauchi and Joji M. Otaki
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040275 - 14 Apr 2025
Abstract
The pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha has been used to evaluate the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011. Here, we examined the DNA sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) of Z. maha using
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The pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha has been used to evaluate the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011. Here, we examined the DNA sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) of Z. maha using the field samples collected in 2011–2014 and 2021. Among 641 individuals from 44 localities in Northeastern Japan, we detected a heteroplasmic nonsynonymous nucleotide substitution in one out of three 2012 individuals from Hirono, Fukushima Prefecture, where the biological impact of radioactive pollution was the highest among the localities surveyed in 2012, suggesting DNA damage via initial exposure to short-lived radionuclides. An additional 80 individuals from Hirono in 2021 did not show any substitution, suggesting the extinction of the Hirono mutant by 2021. We also detected another heteroplasmic and homoplasmic nonsynonymous substitution in four out of five 2014 individuals from Shibata, Niigata Prefecture, where radioactive pollution was low. These substitutions were not present in the GenBank records of Z. maha and its sister species Z. karsandra, indicating that intraspecific variation may exceed interspecific variation in Z. maha. These results highlight not only the possible impact of the initial exposure in Fukushima but also real-time molecular evolution of butterflies in the field.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biogeography and Diversity of Butterflies and Moths)
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