Forests

20 pages, 1462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aligning Tourist Demand with Urban Forest Ecosystem Services: Sustainable Development Strategies for Enhancing Urban Tourism Resilience in Kunming

by Xing Zhang, Jinglun Zhang, Zihao Cao, Jing Wang, Jasni Dolah and Xiaoou Mao

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1501; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091501 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 307

Abstract

With the increasing importance of urban green spaces in leisure, ecology, emergency management, and other functions, urban forest parks play a key role in enhancing urban tourism resilience. Tourists are closely related to this, but current research lacks discussion on the sustainable development [...] Read more.

With the increasing importance of urban green spaces in leisure, ecology, emergency management, and other functions, urban forest parks play a key role in enhancing urban tourism resilience. Tourists are closely related to this, but current research lacks discussion on the sustainable development of urban forests and tourism resilience from the perspective of tourist demand. Therefore, this study took Kunming Xishan Forest Park as an example, conducted a questionnaire survey of 385 tourists, and identified tourist demands and weights through in-depth analysis using the KANO model and AHP. The results data show that among the 23 demand indicators across five dimensions, six are must-be qualities, eight are one-dimensional qualities, six are attractive qualities, and three are indifferent qualities. Based on the AHP analysis, we further investigated the weight of each demand indicator. The results of this study not only provide practical support and strategic guidance for the spatial planning and design of urban forests, thereby enhancing the sustainable development of urban tourism resilience, but also contribute to theories of urban tourism resilience and offer a reference source for other cities with similar aspirations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forestry: Management of Sustainable Landscapes)

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25 pages, 3314 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Statistical Methodology for Evaluating the Potential for Poleward Expansion of Warm Temperate and Subtropical Plants Under Climate Change: A Case Study of South Korean Islands

by Woosung Kim and Su Young Jung

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1500; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091500 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 133

Abstract

Many studies have examined how species are shifting their ranges poleward in response to climate change, using statistical approaches such as graphical analyses, t-tests, correlation analyses, and circular data methods. However, these methods are often constrained by assumptions of linearity or reliance [...] Read more.

Many studies have examined how species are shifting their ranges poleward in response to climate change, using statistical approaches such as graphical analyses, t-tests, correlation analyses, and circular data methods. However, these methods are often constrained by assumptions of linearity or reliance on a single explanatory variable, which limits their ecological applicability. This study introduces a new statistical methodology to evaluate the significance of poleward range expansion, aiming to overcome these limitations and improve the robustness of ecological inference. We developed four parameterized nonlinear models—simple, multivariable, fixed, and transformed—to characterize the relationship between latitude and species richness across 1253 islands. Model parameters were estimated using the Gauss–Newton algorithm, and residuals were calculated as the difference between observed and predicted values. To test for distributional shifts, likelihood ratio tests were applied to the residuals, with statistical significance assessed using chi-square statistics and p-values derived from the −2 log-likelihood ratio. Finally, an intuitive indicator based on the fitted models was introduced to evaluate the direction of range shifts, thereby providing a direct means of identifying northward expansion trends under climate change. Applying this framework revealed significant poleward shifts of warm temperate and subtropical species (χ² = 52.4–61.3; p < 0.001). Among the four models, the multivariable model incorporating island area provided the best fit (AIC, BIC), reflecting its ability to account for collinearity. Taken together, these results underscore the robustness and ecological relevance of the methodology, demonstrating its utility for detecting species-specific range shifts and comparing alternative models under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Forests to Climate Change)

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25 pages, 47559 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics and Driving Factors of Soil Carbon Fractions in Corethrodendron scoparium (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Fisch. & Basiner. Sand-Fixing Plantations at the South Edge of Tengger Desert, Northwestern China

by Linqi Shi, Quanlin Ma, Rui Ma, Linyuan Wei, Fang Cheng, Guohong Wu, Runjuan Wang and Qian Wei

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091499 - 22 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Establishing artificial sand-fixing plantations is a key strategy for combating land desertification and enhancing soil carbon sequestration in arid regions. To evaluate the effects of Corethrodendron scoparium (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Fisch. & Basiner. plantations on soil carbon storage along the southern [...] Read more.

Establishing artificial sand-fixing plantations is a key strategy for combating land desertification and enhancing soil carbon sequestration in arid regions. To evaluate the effects of Corethrodendron scoparium (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Fisch. & Basiner. plantations on soil carbon storage along the southern edge of the Tengger Desert, a systematic investigation of the 0–100 cm soil profile was conducted, using mobile sand dunes as the control (CK). The study analyzed dynamic changes in soil carbon fractions and their driving factors during the succession of C. scoparium plantations. After 40 years of vegetation restoration, total soil carbon, soil inorganic carbon (SIC), and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents increased by 0.87-, 0.77-, and 1.27-fold, respectively, while the Carbon Pool Management Index improved by 1.40-fold. Following 10 years of restoration, SIC content, as well as the ratios of particulate organic carbon/SOC, inert organic carbon (IOC)/SOC, and heavy-fraction organic carbon/SOC, increased with soil depth. In contrast, SOC content, the absolute amounts of SOC fractions, and the ratios of dissolved organic carbon/SOC, easily oxidizable organic carbon/SOC, light-fraction organic carbon/SOC, and mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC)/SOC all showed decreasing trends with depth. Overall, C. scoparium plantations enhanced the contents of both labile and stable SOC fractions. The proportions of IOC and MAOC within SOC rose from 52.21% and 34.19% to 60.96% and 45.51%, respectively, indicating greater stability of the soil carbon pool. Structural equation modeling and redundancy analysis revealed that soil pH, bulk density, and soil water content were significantly negatively correlated with carbon fractions, whereas total nitrogen, vegetation cover, C/N ratio, electrical conductivity, available phosphorus, and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen were identified as the main drivers of carbon fraction variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Forests in Carbon Cycles, Sequestration, and Storage)

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23 pages, 8002 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tree Ferns Augment Native Plant Richness and Influence Composition in Urban Plant Communities

by Hannah C. Rogers, Francis J. Burdon and Bruce D. Clarkson

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091498 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 203

Abstract

Tree ferns are ubiquitous in New Zealand forests, but there is limited knowledge of their role in urban plant communities and potential use in restoration. We assessed sixteen sites by measuring 200 m² plots to investigate how tree ferns influence vascular plant [...] Read more.

Tree ferns are ubiquitous in New Zealand forests, but there is limited knowledge of their role in urban plant communities and potential use in restoration. We assessed sixteen sites by measuring 200 m² plots to investigate how tree ferns influence vascular plant composition in Hamilton, North Island, New Zealand. The sixteen plots were assigned to four site type combinations based on restoration status (restored or unrestored) and tree fern presence, each with four plots. Average native plant species richness was higher at sites with tree ferns (36 ± 16; S = 68) than at sites without (19 ± 14; S = 41), with more diverse ground fern and epiphyte assemblages. Higher native plant richness at restored sites (34 ± 18; S = 62) compared to unrestored sites (20 ± 14, S = 44) was partially attributed to increased plant abundances. Multivariate analyses revealed differences in plant community composition among our site types. Angiosperms and conifers were less prevalent in plots with tree ferns, suggesting competitive relationships among these groups. However, tree ferns were associated with some shade-tolerant trees, such as Schefflera digitata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Indicator species of sites with tree ferns were mainly ground ferns and epiphytes (e.g., Blechnum parrisiae Christenh. and Trichomanes venosum R.Br.), whereas species with high fidelity to sites without tree ferns were pioneer trees and shrubs (e.g., Pittosporum eugenioides A.Cunn.). Community structure analyses revealed that total basal areas were highest at unrestored sites with tree ferns, but restored sites exhibited more diverse tree communities. Environmental predictors that correlated significantly with the compositional differences among our site types were tree fern basal area and restoration age. Our results highlight the need to reconsider the potential of tree ferns in current restoration practice. Tree ferns were found to augment native plant diversity in our study, indicating their potential to enhance urban ecological restoration projects in New Zealand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Epiphytes and Host Plants: Structure, Pattern and Processes)

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26 pages, 5149 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Climate Change on Anatomical Characteristics of Silver Fir and European Beech Wood from Three Sites in the Carpathians, Romania

by Pia Caroline Adamič, Peter Prislan, Tom Levanič, Jernej Jevšenak, Jakub Kašpar and Matjaž Čater

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091497 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 279

Abstract

Structural adaptations of wood to environmental conditions play a crucial role in shaping its mechanical and hydraulic properties, which are vital for the performance and survival of fir and beech. In this study, we investigated how site-specific climatic conditions influence tree-ring widths and [...] Read more.

Structural adaptations of wood to environmental conditions play a crucial role in shaping its mechanical and hydraulic properties, which are vital for the performance and survival of fir and beech. In this study, we investigated how site-specific climatic conditions influence tree-ring widths and wood-anatomical traits of fir and beech in the Carpathians. Increment cores were collected from three forest stands across the Carpathians, each characterized by distinct climate regimes. We developed chronologies for mean tree-ring width (MRW), mean lumen area of vessels/tracheids (MLA), cell density (CD), relative conductive tissue area (RCTA), and, for fir, mean tangential cell wall thickness (CWTTAN), covering the period from 1980 to 2016. By comparing MRW and wood-anatomical traits with climatic variables—daily minimum and maximum temperatures and daily precipitation sums from E-OBS climate data—we identified clear differences among the three sites. The relationships between tree-ring widths and wood-anatomical traits varied between fir and beech, reflecting species-specific responses to local climate conditions. Notably, beech appeared more sensitive to warm summer temperatures, while fir was comparatively less affected. Evaluating the variability in radial growth and wood anatomy is essential for understanding the plasticity of fir and beech under diverse environmental conditions, and represents a first step toward predicting their responses to future climate scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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24 pages, 3117 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysing Causes of Carbon Density Dynamics in Subtropical Forests

by Chenchen Wu, Tianxiang Yue, Yifu Wang, Na Zhao, Yang Yang, Zhengping Du, Wei Shao, Xin Zhang, Zishen Li, Jie Pan, Bingcheng Liu and Yu Peng

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1496; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091496 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 213

Abstract

Understanding how biotic and environmental drivers jointly shape forest carbon dynamics over time is essential for climate-adapted management of subtropical forests. We investigated the long-term interactions between biotic factors, environmental factors, and forest carbon dynamics in the subtropical forests of Jiangxi Province, China, [...] Read more.

Understanding how biotic and environmental drivers jointly shape forest carbon dynamics over time is essential for climate-adapted management of subtropical forests. We investigated the long-term interactions between biotic factors, environmental factors, and forest carbon dynamics in the subtropical forests of Jiangxi Province, China, over the period 1989–2019. The High Accuracy Surface Modelling (HASM) multi-source data fusion method integrates ground observation points with area-wide data from remote sensing and existing datasets to simulate the spatial distribution of forest carbon density across the entire study area. In Zixi, forest carbon density increased most rapidly between 1989 and 2009, after which the rate slowed as forest stands matured. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) disentangled direct and indirect effects of drivers, and identified species richness and community-weighted functional traits as key positive drivers of aboveground carbon density. The influence of environmental factors reversed over the study period. Under ongoing global warming, the combined effects of altitude, temperature, and precipitation shifted from suppressing to reinforcing carbon accumulation in later years, increasingly operating through pathways mediated by functional traits. These findings enhance our understanding of carbon dynamics in subtropical forests and underline the importance of preserving species richness, especially in subtropical mountain forest. This study provides valuable insights for adaptive forest management and climate change mitigation strategies, aiming to improve ecosystem resilience and sustain carbon sequestration efforts in the face of ongoing global warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Inventory: The Monitoring of Biomass and Carbon Stocks)

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18 pages, 2836 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Slope Gradient and Litter on Soil Moisture Content in Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest

by Minyoung Lee, Dongmin Seo, Jeong Soo Park and Jaeseok Lee

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1495; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091495 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 222

Abstract

Although rainfall is a major determinant of soil moisture content (SMC), various factors affect SMC. The effects of these environmental factors contribute to spatial heterogeneity in SMC, which influences diverse ecological processes. To better understand the dynamics in SMC, litter and slope gradient [...] Read more.

Although rainfall is a major determinant of soil moisture content (SMC), various factors affect SMC. The effects of these environmental factors contribute to spatial heterogeneity in SMC, which influences diverse ecological processes. To better understand the dynamics in SMC, litter and slope gradient should be considered. To this end, we analyzed the impacts of litter and slope gradient on SMC from 2020 to 2021 on Mt. Jeombong, located in a temperate deciduous broadleaf forest. We classified the study period into foliage (with a developed canopy) and non-foliage (after leaf fall) seasons. Our results indicated that SMC was affected by slope gradient and litter layer. Rainfall absorption occurred more at gentle slope, leading to higher SMC. Additionally, rainfall absorption was interpreted as being intercepted by the litter layer. Consequently, the correlation coefficient between SMC increment and rainfall was lower in the non-foliage season (R² = 0.37–0.56) than in the foliage season (R² = 0.72–0.84). With temporal progression, however, SMC response to rainfall increased where the litter was thickly accumulated, suggesting that litter interception was gradually diminished by decomposition. In this study, spatial heterogeneity in the litter layer and slope gradient substantially influenced the supply of soil moisture from rainfall. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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13 pages, 3038 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Acute Oak Decline Pathogens in Urban Spaces: An Occurrence Analysis Based on the Example of Wrocław, Poland

by Miłosz Tkaczyk, Robert Krzysztof Sobolewski and Katarzyna Sikora

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1494; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091494 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 441

Abstract

Acute Oak Decline (AOD) is a progressive disease affecting oaks across Europe and is increasingly recognised as a threat to the health of forests and urban trees. While the occurrence of this disease has been documented in forest ecosystems, its presence in urban [...] Read more.

Acute Oak Decline (AOD) is a progressive disease affecting oaks across Europe and is increasingly recognised as a threat to the health of forests and urban trees. While the occurrence of this disease has been documented in forest ecosystems, its presence in urban landscapes is still poorly understood. In this study, the occurrence of AOD-associated bacteria (Brenneria goodwinii, Gibbsiella quercinecans, Rahnella victoriana, Lonsdalea quercina) was investigated in Quercus robur and Q. rubra growing in urban areas of Wrocław, Poland. Multiplex real-time PCR analyses confirmed the pathogens in 11 trees, with B. goodwinii being the most common species. Importantly, we provide the first confirmed detection of B. goodwinii in Q. rubra under urban conditions, possibly the first such detection in Europe. The results show the occurrence of AOD-associated pathogens in urban environments, suggesting that such habitats may provide favourable conditions for their occurrence. However, further investigations, including epidemiological and spatial analyses, are needed to clarify whether urban areas contribute to the persistence or spread of these pathogens. Beyond local documentation, our results emphasise the need to include urban ecosystems in AOD surveillance and highlight potential pathways for pathogen adaptation and spread in cities. This work provides new insights into the ecology of AOD in anthropogenically modified habitats and has direct implications for urban tree health monitoring, biodiversity conservation, and the development of integrated management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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15 pages, 1517 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drought Resistance and Its Relationship with Functional Traits of Tree Species in a Tropical Urban Environment

by María Isabel Vásquez, Flavio Moreno, Néstor Orozco Suárez, Krafft H. Saldarriaga and Lucas Cifuentes

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1493; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091493 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 268

Abstract

Despite the progress to understand drought tolerance worldwide, the response of urban trees to the increased frequency and severity of droughts, particularly in tropical regions, remains unclear. Such an evaluation is essential for predicting future urban forest dynamics. The leaf turgor loss point [...] Read more.

Despite the progress to understand drought tolerance worldwide, the response of urban trees to the increased frequency and severity of droughts, particularly in tropical regions, remains unclear. Such an evaluation is essential for predicting future urban forest dynamics. The leaf turgor loss point (π_TLP), leaf safety margins (SMs) and their relationship with functional traits were measured in ten native tree species during wet and dry seasons in a tropical urban environment. We detected interspecific variation in tree responses related to desiccation tolerance and desiccation avoidance as strategies to resist drought. Desiccation avoidance was linked to lower adjustment of midday water potentials and water-conservative traits such as high wood density, low specific leaf area (SLA), and high leaf dry matter content, while species with more negative π_TLP maintained stomatal conductance and growth despite decreasing leaf water potentials. Although the differences between predawn and midday potentials during the dry season suggest that severe drought does not occur, some species showed negative safety margins. This indicates that while some urban trees can tolerate or avoid current dry periods, continued climate change may push certain species beyond their safe operating range, making species selection for urban planning increasingly critical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Tolerance in Trees: Growth and Physiology)

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19 pages, 3205 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Partitioning and Driving Factors of Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Contents in Subtropical Urban Forests—A Case of Shenzhen, China

by Zhiqiang Dong, Shaobo Du, Xufeng Mao, Huichun Xie, Zhengjun Shi and Wei Zeng

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1492; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091492 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 250

Abstract

Global change seriously affects human survival, and urban forests can improve human living environments and mitigate the negative impacts of global change. The spatial distribution of carbon and nitrogen is key to assessing the health of forest ecosystems. However, the mechanism underlying the [...] Read more.

Global change seriously affects human survival, and urban forests can improve human living environments and mitigate the negative impacts of global change. The spatial distribution of carbon and nitrogen is key to assessing the health of forest ecosystems. However, the mechanism underlying the spatial distribution of carbon and nitrogen in urban forests in subtropical regions remains unclear. To study the characteristics and factors influencing the carbon and nitrogen contents of forest soils in Shenzhen, 126 soil samples were collected. Multivariate statistics and spatial analysis methods revealed the spatial distribution patterns and influencing factors of SOC, TN, and C/N in Shenzhen forest soils. The results showed the following: (1) The mean values of SOC, TN, and C/N of the 0–10 cm soil were 18.32 g·kg⁻¹, 1.29 g·kg⁻¹ and 14.43, with coefficients of variation (CVs) of 38.21%, 37.98%, and 15.73%, respectively, and those of the 10–30 cm soil were 9.24 g·kg⁻¹, 0.67 g·kg⁻¹, and 13.75, with CVs of 45.24%, 41.79%, and 19.45%, respectively. (2) The kriging spatial interpolation showed that the high- and low-value areas of 0–10 cm SOC and TN were concentrated in the northwestern and central and northern parts of the study area, respectively. The high value areas of 10–30 cm SOC and TN expanded to the southeastern part of the study area, and the low-value areas of SOC were distributed in the northern part. (3) The edges of the study area were fragmented, and the low-value areas of TN were mainly distributed in the western region, the high-value areas of C/N were mainly distributed in the west, and the low-value areas were mainly distributed at the eastern edge. Soil bulk weight and conductivity were the key factors affecting SOC and TN, which were the key factors affecting C/N. We emphasized the inhomogeneity of the spatial distribution of C/N in the subtropical region and that soil C/N is co-regulated by multiple factors. The results may provide insights for the government’s urban green space construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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23 pages, 5362 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interspecific Hybridization in Populus L. and Its Implications for the Ecology and Management of Riparian Ecosystems in the Southwestern USA

by Maya Scull, Hillary F. Cooper, Arthur R. Keith, Catherine A. Gehring, Thomas G. Whitham and Gerard J. Allan

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1491; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091491 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 165

Abstract

Interspecific hybridization in forest trees is common and can have important implications for ecology, evolution, and the conservation of forest habitats. Hybridization often results in greater genetic diversity and opportunities for backcrossing with one or both parents, which may introduce novel genotypes that [...] Read more.

Interspecific hybridization in forest trees is common and can have important implications for ecology, evolution, and the conservation of forest habitats. Hybridization often results in greater genetic diversity and opportunities for backcrossing with one or both parents, which may introduce novel genotypes that influence biodiversity and ecosystem processes. However, the extent of hybridization, direction of backcrossing, and overall survival and performance of hybrids is often poorly understood, leading to inaccurate assessments of the role hybrids may play in forest ecology and conservation. Here, we investigate interspecific hybridization and the extent and direction of backcrossing between two species, Populus fremontii (S. Watson) and P. angustifolia (E. James ex Torr.), which are broadly distributed along riparian corridors in the riparian ecosystems of the southwestern United States. Using molecular assays of six putative hybrid zones and a common garden trial we test the following: (1) whether putative hybrids show evidence of genetic intermediacy relative to the parent species; (2) if confirmed hybrids exhibit higher genetic diversity than either parent species; (3) the extent and direction of backcrossing (uni- or bi-directional) within each site; and (4) whether hybrid derivatives show evidence of higher survival and performance in an experimental common garden consisting of both parents and hybrids that were propagated from the six sites. Our results confirm genetic intermediacy in all six sites, but with varying degrees of backcrossing, genetic diversity, and structure. All six locations reveal extensive bidirectional backcrossing to both parent species, a result that contrasts with previous findings, which suggest that backcrossing is predominantly unidirectional between the two species. Results from our common garden trial indicate that hybrids do not have higher survival or out-perform the parent species, suggesting that heterosis may be limited in this system, or that long-term assessments beyond the duration of our field experiment may be required. Results from this study improve our understanding of the frequency of hybridization, and the associated backcrossing in this system, and provide land managers with information on how hybrids may be employed for the long-term preservation of riparian habitats undergoing rapid environmental change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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22 pages, 5424 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Transcriptome and Metabolome Analysis Reveals Molecular Mechanisms of Flavonoid Biosynthesis During Camphora officinarum Leaf Development

by Xiaofeng Peng, Peiwu Xie, Bing Li, Yonglin Zhong, Boxiang He, Yingli Wang, Yiqun Chen, Ning Li and Chen Hou

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091490 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 165

Abstract

Camphora officinarum Nees is a significant economic tree because of its aromatic, medicinal, and ornamental attributes. The diverse flavonoids present within the leaves of C. officinarum have been neglected for an extended period, hindering a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for [...] Read more.

Camphora officinarum Nees is a significant economic tree because of its aromatic, medicinal, and ornamental attributes. The diverse flavonoids present within the leaves of C. officinarum have been neglected for an extended period, hindering a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for color transformation and resistance to adverse environmental conditions. In this study, multi-omics analyses were conducted to systematically compare the relative contents of flavonoid metabolites and the expression profiles of flavonoid-related genes across three developmental stages of C. officinarum leaves. A total of 175 flavonoid compounds were detected via metabolomics, with flavonols being the most abundant. Through weighted gene co-expression network analysis, 25 key DEGs encoding CHS, DFR, FLS, ANS, F3′H, and LAR genes are predicted to be involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis for color change during leaf development. Notably, ten MYB, seven bHLH, and three ERF factors are potentially implicated in the regulation of key genes, underscoring their significant contributions to the color mechanisms underlying flavonoid biosynthesis. Other flavonoids, e.g., apigenin, isorhamnetin glycosides, sakuranetin, and sakuranin, may facilitate the adaptation of C. officinarum for protective purposes against adverse environmental conditions. These findings lay a theoretical foundation for resource exploration and the ornamentation improvement of C. officinarum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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18 pages, 1209 KB

Open AccessArticle

Does a Commercial Organic Fertilizer with Hydrogel or Biochar Guarantee the Quality of Eucalyptus Seedlings?

by Daniel Pereira da Silva Filho, Karla Juliana Silva da Costa, Thalia Schilisting, Alexandra Cristina Schatz Sá, Valeria Martel da Silva, Ramon Silveira de Andrade, Bruno Nascimento, Izabelle Maria Barboza de Azevedo, Carolina Moraes, Mariane de Oliveira Pereira, Marcos André Piedade Gama and Marcio Carlos Navroski

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1489; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091489 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 154

Abstract

Our objective was to evaluate the effect of a commercial organic fertilizer and substrate conditioners on the production of Eucalyptus benthamii seedlings. Two experiments were conducted with different doses of organic fertilizer (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kg m⁻³) [...] Read more.

Our objective was to evaluate the effect of a commercial organic fertilizer and substrate conditioners on the production of Eucalyptus benthamii seedlings. Two experiments were conducted with different doses of organic fertilizer (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kg m⁻³) and levels of hydrogel (0 and 3 kg m⁻³) and biochar (0 and 30%). In each experiment, plots were divided into two subplots, with one subplot receiving topdressing with mineral fertilizers. At the end of each experimental period, quality, root morphology, and physiological characteristics of the seedlings were assessed. When only the organic fertilizer was applied with substrate conditioners, seedlings exhibited limited growth, averaging 5.02 cm in height and 0.81 mm in stem diameter. Topdressing fertilization combined with higher organic fertilizer doses (20–25 kg m⁻³) enhanced key traits, such as height (up to 24.15 cm) and stem diameter (up to 2.39 mm). Hydrogel and biochar often reduced seedling quality and root development. Some interactions between factors affected certain root variables, but physiological characteristics remained largely unaffected. Overall, even when combined with a substrate conditioner, the commercial organic fertilizer is insufficient to produce high-quality seedlings. Neither hydrogel nor biochar is recommended under our experimental conditions. However, the commercial organic fertilizer shows potential when used with mineral fertilizers and further should be conducted to explore this possibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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19 pages, 1520 KB

Open AccessArticle

Outcomes of Community-Based Forest Management for Biodiversity Conservation in Northwest Ethiopia

by Tesfaye Mengie and László Szemethy

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1488; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091488 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 276

Abstract

Community-based Forest management (CBFM) has emerged as a promising approach for reconciling biodiversity conservation with rural livelihoods. However, despite its growing implementation in Ethiopia, limited empirical evidence exists on how CBFM influences biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic conditions across different local contexts. This study [...] Read more.

Community-based Forest management (CBFM) has emerged as a promising approach for reconciling biodiversity conservation with rural livelihoods. However, despite its growing implementation in Ethiopia, limited empirical evidence exists on how CBFM influences biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic conditions across different local contexts. This study addressed this gap by examining the biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic implications of CBFM across three districts in Northwest Ethiopia—Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja—where forests are communally managed. A structured questionnaire was administered to 412 randomly selected farmers, and responses were analyzed quantitatively using Likert scale ratings, descriptive statistics, and chi-square tests in SPSS Version 23. The findings revealed statistically significant variations among districts in terms of community engagement in conservation, awareness of environmental policies, and involvement in habitat restoration efforts. Fagita–Lokoma showed the highest levels of participation and knowledge regarding conservation laws (χ² = 11.81, p < 0.019; χ² = 13.3, p = 0.01) as well as active involvement in habitat restoration (χ² = 301, p = 0.000). These differences appear to be associated with stronger local governance structures and greater livelihood dependence on forest resources in Fagita–Lokoma than in the other districts. It consistently demonstrated the highest levels of participation and knowledge, whereas Banja had the lowest levels. Most respondents (76.7%) indicated that socioeconomic interests, particularly related to timber, wildlife, and tourism, were key drivers of their conservation activities. While the economic benefits of biodiversity were generally perceived as moderate, the cost of conservation was seen as low to medium by 65% of participants. These results highlight the critical role of community participation and local awareness in shaping the outcomes of biodiversity conservation. This study concluded that CBFM can achieve positive biodiversity results when local livelihood interests are effectively aligned with ecological goals through inclusive and well-supported governance frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Forest Management for Climate Change Mitigation and Biodiversity Conservation)

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26 pages, 31273 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of Plant Ecological Indicators and Use of Environmental Simulation Methods Based on 3D Plant Growth Models: A Case Study of Wuhan’s Daijia Lake Park

by Anqi Chen, Wenjiao Li and Wei Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1487; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091487 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 273

Abstract

The acquisition of plant ecological indicators, such as leaf area index and leaf area density values, typically relies on labor-intensive field sampling and measurements, which are often time-consuming and hinder large-scale application. As different plant ecological indicators are closely related to plants’ geometric [...] Read more.

The acquisition of plant ecological indicators, such as leaf area index and leaf area density values, typically relies on labor-intensive field sampling and measurements, which are often time-consuming and hinder large-scale application. As different plant ecological indicators are closely related to plants’ geometric characteristics, the development of dynamic correlation and prediction methods for relevant indicators has become an important research topic. However, existing 3D plant models are mainly used for visualization purposes, which cannot accurately reflect the plant’s growth process or geometric characteristics. This study presents a workflow for parametric 3D plant modeling and ecological indicator analysis, integrating dynamic plant modeling, indicator calculation, and microclimate simulation. With the established plant model, a method for calculating and analyzing ecological indicators, including the leaf area index, leaf area density, aboveground biomass, and aboveground carbon storage, was then proposed. A method for exporting the model-generated data into ENVI-met v.5.0 to simulate the microclimate environment was also established. Then, by taking Daijia Lake Park as an example, this study utilized site planting construction drawings and field survey data to perform parametric modeling of 21,685 on-site trees from 65 species at three different growth stages using Blender v.4.0 and The Grove plugin v.10. The generated plant model’s accuracy was then verified using the 3D IoU ratio between the models and on-site scanned point cloud data. Plant ecological indicators at various stages were then extracted and exported to ENVI-met for microclimate analysis. The workflow integrates the simulation of plant growth dynamics and their interactions with environmental factors. It can also be used for scenario-based predictions in planting design and serves as a basis for urban green space monitoring and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growing the Urban Forest: Building Our Understanding)

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14 pages, 2156 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Natural Durability of Quercus pyrenaica Willd. to Wood Decay Fungi and Subterranean Termites

by Sara M. Santos, María Teresa de Troya, Lee Robertson, Saúl Gutiérrez, Gonzalo Caballé and José Luis Villanueva

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1486; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091486 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 181

Abstract

Evaluating wood’s natural durability is essential when establishing the level of protection that is required depending on the end use to extend its service life. Natural durability is defined as the intrinsic resistance of wood against the attack of destructive organisms. There are [...] Read more.

Evaluating wood’s natural durability is essential when establishing the level of protection that is required depending on the end use to extend its service life. Natural durability is defined as the intrinsic resistance of wood against the attack of destructive organisms. There are standardized methods for estimating a durability value. In Europe, the EN 350:2016 standard is responsible for establishing the basic guidelines, as well as the necessary tests to determine this value. This standard applies to commercial wood, both native and imported, and helps to improve and obtain better construction applications depending on the final use. This work aimed to study the natural durability of Quercus pyrenaica Wild. against Basidiomycetes (Coniophora puteana (Schumacher ex Fries) Karsten and Trametes versicolor (Linnaeus) Quélet) and termites (Reticulitermes grassei Clément). The standards applied were EN 113-2:2021 and EN 117:2023. The heartwood of the Quercus pyrenaica is highly durable against both xylophages basidiomycetes and subterranean termites. The sapwood is moderately durable against Coniophora puteana, slightly durable-not durable against Trametes versicolor, and moderately durable against termites. These results open the door for commercialization of this species, and it is expected to be included in EN 350:2016, where Q. pyrenaica is not included. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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17 pages, 2395 KB

Open AccessArticle

Species Composition and Ecological Niche Overlap of Alien and Endemic Plants in South Korea: Insights from the National Ecosystem Survey

by Byeong-Joo Park and Kwangil Cheon

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1485; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091485 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 206

Abstract

Biodiversity conservation in South Korea faces increasing challenges from alien plant invasions. These invasions threaten endemic species uniquely adapted to specialized habitats, making it crucial to understand their ecological interactions. This study quantitatively compared the species composition, ecological niches, and species turnover patterns [...] Read more.

Biodiversity conservation in South Korea faces increasing challenges from alien plant invasions. These invasions threaten endemic species uniquely adapted to specialized habitats, making it crucial to understand their ecological interactions. This study quantitatively compared the species composition, ecological niches, and species turnover patterns of alien and endemic plants in South Korea using data from the National Ecosystem Survey. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and multi-response permutation procedure (MRPP) analyses revealed significant compositional heterogeneity between groups. Kernel density estimation (KDE) revealed niche overlap in water-related factors (precipitation, water yield), but clear separation in topographic and climatic variables (altitude, slope, temperature). Alien plants exhibited broader niche breadths, confirming their ecological generalist traits, whereas endemic species displayed narrower niches confined to specialized habitats. Zeta diversity analysis indicated slower species turnover in alien species, suggesting niche assimilation and habitat homogenization. Both groups fit a power-law model, emphasizing deterministic environmental filtering. These findings highlight the ecological risks posed by alien species to stability of endemic plant communities and underscore the importance of targeted, science-based management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Invasions in Forest Ecosystems: Understanding Arrival, Expansion and Management)

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17 pages, 2706 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climate-Driven Shifts in Wild Cherry (Prunus avium L.) Habitats in Türkiye: A Multi-Model Projection for Conservation Planning

by Ugur Canturk, İsmail Koç, Ramazan Erdem, Ayse Ozturk Pulatoglu, Sevgi Donmez, Nuri Kaan Ozkazanc, Hakan Sevik and Halil Baris Ozel

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091484 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 308

Abstract

Climate change poses a serious threat to biodiversity, particularly for woody species with limited dispersal capacity such as Prunus avium L. (wild cherry). In this study, we assessed potential shifts in its suitable distribution range (SDR) across Türkiye by applying an ensemble modeling [...] Read more.

Climate change poses a serious threat to biodiversity, particularly for woody species with limited dispersal capacity such as Prunus avium L. (wild cherry). In this study, we assessed potential shifts in its suitable distribution range (SDR) across Türkiye by applying an ensemble modeling framework that combined Generalized Additive Models (GAM), Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), and Random Forest (RF). We used updated occurrence data (including GBIF and EUFORGEN records) and 11 ecologically relevant bioclimatic variables under SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios. Model performance was validated using AUC (Area Under the ROC Curve) and TSS (True Skill Statistic) metrics. Results suggest that while 60–70% of current SDRs remain stable by 2100, approximately 10% may be lost, with 20–23% new expansions. Temperature seasonality (Bio4) and seasonal precipitation (Bio15) were consistently identified as dominant predictors across models. Notably, newly suitable habitats are expected to be spatially isolated, limiting natural colonization. Our findings highlight the necessity of proactive conservation planning, including assisted migration and drought-resistant genotype selection, to ensure long-term persistence of wild cherry under changing climates. These results offer actionable insights for adaptive forest management and biodiversity conservation in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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27 pages, 13116 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Structure Evaluation of Chinese Fir Plantation in Hilly Area of Southern China Based on UAV and Cloud Model

by Jinyan Liu, Bowen Jin, Guochang Ding, Xiang Huang and Jianwen Dong

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1483; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091483 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 244

Abstract

Chinese fir, as a crucial fast-growing tree species in the hilly regions of southern China, exhibits spatial structure characteristics that directly influence both the ecological functionality and productivity of its stands. This study focused on Chinese fir plantations in the Yangkou State-Owned Forest [...] Read more.

Chinese fir, as a crucial fast-growing tree species in the hilly regions of southern China, exhibits spatial structure characteristics that directly influence both the ecological functionality and productivity of its stands. This study focused on Chinese fir plantations in the Yangkou State-Owned Forest Farm, Fujian Province. Using UAV-LiDAR point cloud data, individual tree parameters such as height and crown width were extracted, and a DBH inversion model was constructed by integrating machine learning algorithms. Spatial structure parameters were quantified through weighted Voronoi diagrams. A comprehensive evaluation system was established based on the combined weighting method and fuzzy evaluation model to systematically analyze spatial structure characteristics and their evolutionary patterns across different age classes. The results demonstrated that growth environment indicators (openness and openness ratio) progressively declined with the stand’s age, reflecting deteriorating light conditions due to increasing canopy closure. Growth superiority (size ratio and angle competition index) exhibited a “V”-shaped trend, with the most intense competition occurring in the middle-aged stands before stabilizing in the over-mature stage. The resource utilization efficiency (uniform angle and forest layer index) showed continuous optimization, reaching optimal spatial configuration in over-mature stands. This study developed a spatial structure evaluation system for Chinese fir plantations by combining UAV data and cloud modeling, elucidating structural characteristics and developmental patterns across different growth stages, thereby providing theoretical foundations and technical support for close-to-nature management and the precision quality improvement of Chinese fir plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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30 pages, 3492 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Sequestration as a Driver of Pine Forest Succession on Sandy Alluvium: Quantitative Assessment and Process Modeling

by Andrey Smagin, Nadezhda Sadovnikova, Elena Belyaeva, Anvar Kacimov and Marina Smagina

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1482; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091482 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 160

Abstract

The biogenic organization of widespread valley pine ecosystems on sandy alluvium leads to an increase in soil fertility, productivity, and biodiversity through autogenic successions. Using our own stationary observations and literary data on the productivity of pine forests in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, [...] Read more.

The biogenic organization of widespread valley pine ecosystems on sandy alluvium leads to an increase in soil fertility, productivity, and biodiversity through autogenic successions. Using our own stationary observations and literary data on the productivity of pine forests in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, we quantified the mechanism of autogenic forest successions associated with carbon sequestration and the influence of organic matter dynamics on the fertility and water retention of sandy soils. The low rate of organic matter turnover in primary succession leads to the intensive accumulation of thick (6–8 cm) forest litter and the formation of small humus-eluvial horizons with total carbon storage up to 50 Mg/ha. This soil structure retains 2–6 times more water and biophilic elements than in the original sandy alluvium. It is suitable for the settlement of more demanding broadleaf species and nemoral herbs with higher rates of litterfall, its decomposition and humification. As a result, simple pine forests on Arenosols and primitive Sod-podzolic soils are replaced by complex, more productive linden–oak–pine ecosystems on developed Cambisols with thick (up to 30 cm) humus horizons, carbon storage of 80–100 Mg/ha and higher (2–7 times compared to the previous soils) fertility and water-holding capacity. This mechanism is adequately described by a nonlinear process model with a trigger reaction of plant productivity to the storage and quality of soil organic matter, suitable for predicting long-term carbon sequestration during the succession of valley pine forests and the effectiveness of artificial afforestation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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21 pages, 21336 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis of UAV LiDAR and Mobile Laser Scanning for Tree Height and DBH Estimation in a Structurally Complex, Mixed-Species Natural Forest

by Lucian Mîzgaciu, Gheorghe Marian Tudoran, Andrei Eugen Ciocan, Petru Tudor Stăncioiu and Mihai Daniel Niță

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1481; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091481 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 305

Abstract

Accurate measurement of tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH) is essential for forest inventory, biomass estimation, and habitat assessment but remains challenging in structurally complex, multi-layered forests. This study evaluates the accuracy and operational feasibility of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) LiDAR [...] Read more.

Accurate measurement of tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH) is essential for forest inventory, biomass estimation, and habitat assessment but remains challenging in structurally complex, multi-layered forests. This study evaluates the accuracy and operational feasibility of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) LiDAR and Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) for estimating tree height and DBH in such stands with a diverse structure in the Romanian Carpathians. Field measurements from six plots encompassing mixed-species (Fagus sylvatica L., Abies alba Mill., Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.) and single-species (Picea abies) stands were compared against UAV- and MLS-derived metrics. MLS delivered near-inventory-grade DBH accuracy across all species (R² up to 0.98) and reliable height estimates for intermediate and suppressed trees, while UAV LiDAR consistently underestimated tree height, especially in dense, multi-layered stands (R² < 0.2 in mixed plots). Voxel-based occlusion analysis revealed that over 93% of area under canopy and interior crown volume was captured only by MLS, confirming its dominance below the canopy, whereas UAV LiDAR primarily delineated the outer canopy surface. Species traits influenced DBH accuracy locally, but structural complexity and canopy layering were the main drivers of height underestimation. We recommend hybrid UAV–MLS workflows combining UAV efficiency for canopy-scale mapping with MLS precision for stem and sub-canopy structure. Future research should explore multi-season acquisitions, improved SLAM robustness, and automated data fusion to enable scalable, multi-layer forest monitoring for carbon accounting, biodiversity assessment, and sustainable forest management decision making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Solutions in Advanced Forestry: Integrating Sensors, AI, IoT, Robotics, and Connectivity)

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20 pages, 5619 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Dynamics, Environmental Drivers, and Hysteresis of Sap Flow in Forests of China’s Subtropical Transitional Zone

by Houbing Chen, Guoping Tang, Nan Jiang, Zhongkai Ren, Xupeng Fang and Yaoliang Chen

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1480; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091480 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 210

Abstract

The subtropical transitional zone of China exhibits highly complex climatic conditions and diverse forest ecosystems, making it a critical region for understanding vegetation–water interactions. This study employed the Thermal Dissipation Probe (TDP) method to monitor sap flow in three typical forest types—evergreen broad-leaved [...] Read more.

The subtropical transitional zone of China exhibits highly complex climatic conditions and diverse forest ecosystems, making it a critical region for understanding vegetation–water interactions. This study employed the Thermal Dissipation Probe (TDP) method to monitor sap flow in three typical forest types—evergreen broad-leaved forest, bamboo forest (Dendrocalamus latiflorus), and Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata)—in a subtropical transitional watershed in southern China. The aims were to quantify seasonal and annual variations in sap flow, to examine the effects of environmental drivers, and to analyze the hysteretic responses between sap flow and the drivers. The main findings were as follows: (1) bamboo forests exhibited significantly higher sap flow density than evergreen broad-leaved and fir forests at both annual and seasonal scales, though the overall transpiration of bamboo forests was lower than the others due to its limited sapwood area; (2) sap flow was positively correlated with potential evapotranspiration, solar radiation (Ra), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), air temperature, and soil temperature, while it was negatively correlated with relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, soil moisture, and precipitation; (3) Ra and VPD were identified as the dominant drivers of sap flow variations, with nonlinear increases that leveled off once thresholds were reached; (4) clear hysteresis patterns were observed, with sap flow peaks consistently lagging behind Ra but occurring earlier than VPD. These results advance our understanding of forest water-use strategies in the subtropical transitional zone and provide a scientific basis for improving water resource management and ecosystem sustainability in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry Activities and Water Resources)

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14 pages, 1238 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Crown Defoliation Thresholds for the Identification of Trees Targeted for Sanitary Felling

by Damir Ugarković, Anamarija Jazbec, Ivan Seletković, Nenad Potočić, Mladen Ognjenović, Robert Bogdanić and Stjepan Posavec

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1479; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091479 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 202

Abstract

Crown defoliation in trees is one of the indicators of forest tree vitality, and a primary criterion for selecting trees for sanitary felling. In Croatia, the selection of trees for sanitary felling includes all dead trees and those with crown defoliation greater than [...] Read more.

Crown defoliation in trees is one of the indicators of forest tree vitality, and a primary criterion for selecting trees for sanitary felling. In Croatia, the selection of trees for sanitary felling includes all dead trees and those with crown defoliation greater than 60% (defoliation class 3a); in the past, the threshold for marking trees for sanitary felling was above 80% (class 3b). The aim of this study was to analyze tree mortality in pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), silver fir (Abies alba), and European beech (Fagus sylvatica), as well as crown regeneration, i.e., the reduction in defoliation. The analysis included a total of 7975 trees, comprising 1182 silver fir, 4221 European beech, and 2572 pedunculate oak trees, covering the period from 1998 to 2023. The mortality rate was 7.2% for silver fir, 2.16% for beech, and 9.6% for oak. The percentage of trees that regenerated their crowns or reduced defoliation to below 60% was 17.01% for fir, 4.33% for beech, and 12.51% for oak. Considering the proportion of silver fir and pedunculate oak trees whose defoliation decreased to below 60%, a defoliation threshold greater than 80% would be a more appropriate criterion for sanitary felling, except for European beech trees, for which there is a minimal difference between the recovery rates in classes 3a and 3b. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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12 pages, 2882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China

by Chengke Dong, Yulong Liu, Luna Zhang, Zhecheng Liu, Huabin Zhao, Wenjing Li, Xiaoyi Chao and Xingchang Wang

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1478; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 248

Abstract

Fagaceae plants are dominant species in subtropical and temperate forests in China. Studying the geographical pattern of their carbon contents can provide key parameter support for high-precision forest carbon accounting. To investigate the spatial variation and influencing factors of carbon content in bark, [...] Read more.

Fagaceae plants are dominant species in subtropical and temperate forests in China. Studying the geographical pattern of their carbon contents can provide key parameter support for high-precision forest carbon accounting. To investigate the spatial variation and influencing factors of carbon content in bark, sapwood, and heartwood, stem samples from 168 individual trees belonging to 41 species of 5 genera in the Fagaceae family were collected from different regions of China. Carbon was determined with the dry combustion method using an elemental analyzer. The variation in carbon content was partitioned, carbon content among tissues were compared, spatial patterns with latitude and longitude and relative importance of interpreting variables were quantified. The carbon content of stem tissues ranged from 411 to 563 mg·g⁻¹. Variation was primarily driven by geographical location (34%–53%), followed by residuals (26%–40%). The inter-species difference also made significant contributions, ranging from 23% (bark) and 21% (sapwood) to 18% (heartwood). Generally, the carbon content among the three tissues followed the order: bark (494 ± 26 mg g⁻¹) (±SD) < sapwood (503 ± 21 mg g⁻¹) < heartwood (509 ± 23 mg g⁻¹). There was an obvious geographical variation pattern in stem carbon content. The carbon content of different tissues gradually decreased with northward latitude and westward longitude. Aridity index (with a relative importance of 22%), longitude (38%), and solar radiation (27%) were the most important driving factors of bark, sapwood, and heartwood C, while the influence of temperature and precipitation was weak. The results highlight the importance of geographical and environmental gradients over taxonomic differences and provide critical parameters for improving forest carbon storage estimates in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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15 pages, 2050 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Variables Associated with Tapping Panel Dryness and Necrosis Syndromes in Rubber Tree Clones RRIM600 and RRIT251

by Sujittra Sriubon, Anan Wongcharoen, Somyot Meetha and Supat Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091477 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 218

Abstract

Tapping panel dryness (TPD) and tapping panel necrosis (TPN) are syndromes that reduce the yield of rubber trees. Their causes are associated with factors such as clone type, tapping system, and environmental stress and are potentially linked to nutrient deficiencies. This study aimed [...] Read more.

Tapping panel dryness (TPD) and tapping panel necrosis (TPN) are syndromes that reduce the yield of rubber trees. Their causes are associated with factors such as clone type, tapping system, and environmental stress and are potentially linked to nutrient deficiencies. This study aimed to investigate the causes of these disorders, with particular focus on their relationship with nutrient fluctuations in plant tissues. The experiment was conducted at rubber plantations owned by local farmers in Pakkhat District, Bueng Kan Province, Thailand, where soil fertility is generally poor. The plantations were 14–16 years old and had been tapped for 7–9 years. Two rubber tree clones (RRIM600 and RRIT251) were used to evaluate three different tree types: healthy, TPD-affected, and TPN-affected. For each clone, five plantations were sampled. The measurements included the incidence of abnormalities; trunk girth; yield; and nutrient concentrations in the soil, top shoot, bark, and latex. The nutrient analysis focused on nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and boron (B). The results showed that the incidence of abnormalities (both TPD and TPN) was higher in clone RRIT251 than in RRIM600. Yield was reduced in trees affected by TPD and was dramatically reduced in those affected by TPN. In RRIT251 trees affected by TPD, the lowest concentrations of K, Ca, and B were found in the bark, along with the lowest Ca concentration in the top shoot. These findings indicate that RRIT251 is more susceptible to bark necrosis than RRIM600 and that reductions in K, Ca, and B may be associated with development of the syndromes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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24 pages, 4329 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climatic and Forest Drivers of Wildfires in South Korea (1980–2024): Trends, Predictions, and the Role of the Wildland–Urban Interface

by Jinchan Park, Jihoon Suh and Minho Baek

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091476 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 608

Abstract

Wildfire activity is intensifying globally as climate change amplifies heat waves, droughts and wind extremes, threatening biodiversity. South Korea (63% forested) has experienced a sharp rise in large fires. We analysed 905 wildfires ≥ 5 ha from 1980–2024, linking burned area to maximum [...] Read more.

Wildfire activity is intensifying globally as climate change amplifies heat waves, droughts and wind extremes, threatening biodiversity. South Korea (63% forested) has experienced a sharp rise in large fires. We analysed 905 wildfires ≥ 5 ha from 1980–2024, linking burned area to maximum wind speed, relative humidity, temperature and forest structure (conifer, broadleaf and mature–stand ratios, forest cover). Pearson correlations, HC3-corrected regression, a 1000-tree Random Forest and five-fold validated XGBoost interpreted with SHAP captured linear and nonlinear effects; WUI influences were examined qualitatively. Each 1 m s⁻¹ increase in peak wind expanded burned area by ~8.5 ha, whereas a 1% rise in humidity reduced area by ~3 ha (p < 0.01). Broadleaf prevalence restrained spread, while high conifer and mature–stand proportions enlarged it. Machine learning raised explanatory power from R² = 0.62 to 0.66 and showed that very dry air, strong winds and conifer cover above half the landscape coincided with the largest events. Burned area during 2020–2024 reached 29,905 ha—sevenfold that of 2015–2019. These results imply that extreme fire weather, flammable pine fuels and expanding WUI settlements jointly elevate risk; implementing real-time meteorological thresholds, targeted fuel treatments and stricter WUI zoning can help mitigate this risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Before and After the Flames: An Ecological Examination of the Factors That Influence Forest Fire Effects and Post-Fire Recovery and Resilience)

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14 pages, 1678 KB

Open AccessArticle

Habitat Condition of Tilio–Acerion Forest Facilitates Successful Invasion of Impatiens parviflora DC

by Kateryna Lipińska, Adam Cieśla, Olena Hrynyk, Karol Sokołowski and Radosław Gawryś

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1475; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091475 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 165

Abstract

Impatiens parviflora DC. occurs in various plant communities. Its occurrence has been confirmed in Poland across 13 natural habitats protected under the Habitats Directive. The aim of our work is to determine the differences between the plots with and without I. parviflora in [...] Read more.

Impatiens parviflora DC. occurs in various plant communities. Its occurrence has been confirmed in Poland across 13 natural habitats protected under the Habitats Directive. The aim of our work is to determine the differences between the plots with and without I. parviflora in terms of the species richness and ecological conditions of the 9180* habitat-type forest. Using data from 315 plots on which a phytosociological relevés was carried out, we analyzed the geographical variability, the Shannon-Winner index and the indicator species for old forests. Flora diversity was represented using the DCA, and the IndVal index was calculated to determine the species that best characterize the differentiated groups. The highest percentage of monitoring plots with I. parviflora is located in the Sudetes Mountains (67.7%) and the lowest in the Bieszczady Mountains (7.5%). Plots with I. parviflora were characterized by significantly lower tree cover, a higher number of tree species in the stand, a lower height of both the understory and herb layer and a lower number of old forest species. Impatiens parviflora does not affect the total number of species in the understorey but is associated with a lower proportion of species typical of old forests. The presence of I. parviflora also correlates with a higher proportion of young trees in the understorey, suggesting a link with successional processes and habitat disturbance. The spread of I. parviflora is limited by shade-loving trees such as Abies alba Mill. and Fagus sylvatica L. The diversity of the distribution of I. parviflora depends on local conditions, so conservation efforts should take into account the local ecological context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Invasions in Forest Ecosystems: Understanding Arrival, Expansion and Management)

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14 pages, 1664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incidence of Stem Rot in Forests Dominated by Betula pendula Roth in the Central Group of Regions of Krasnoyarsk Krai

by Andrey I. Tatarintsev, Valentina V. Popova, Polina A. Fedonova, Nadezhda N. Kulakova, Andrey A. Goroshko, Natalia P. Khizhniak, Svetlana M. Sultson and Pavel V. Mikhaylov

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091474 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 257

Abstract

Birch stands, dominated by Betula pendula Roth, are a common feature of boreal forests. Within the Krasnoyarsk (central) group of regions, they are concentrated in the taiga, subtaiga and forest steppe zones of actively managed forests, represented by stands of seed and shoot [...] Read more.

Birch stands, dominated by Betula pendula Roth, are a common feature of boreal forests. Within the Krasnoyarsk (central) group of regions, they are concentrated in the taiga, subtaiga and forest steppe zones of actively managed forests, represented by stands of seed and shoot origin. The health and productivity of birch forests is often determined by the activity of wood-decay fungi, which leads to rot and decay in trees. The objective of the research is to evaluate the impact of stem rot on birch forests in the study area, with a focus on key ecological and silvicultural factors. The research methods employed included a reconnaissance survey of birch forests, a detailed forest pathology survey of forest stands on research plots (31 pcs.), comprehensive macroscopic diagnostics of stem rot, identification of xylotrophic fungi by basidiomes, integrated assessment of forest health, graph analytics and statistical data analysis. Stem rot has been identified in all birch forests in the study area. In shoot origin stands, the incidence rate has reached the stage of the disease center (i.e., more than 10% of trees are infected). The following wood-decay fungi have been detected on the trunks of living trees affected by rot: Fomes fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola, Inonotus obliquus, Phellinus igniarius, and Trametes versicolor. The infection typically infects trees via spores, finding entry through dying branches or mechanical and thermal wounds on trunks. In trees of shoot origin, stem rot is frequently transmitted via mycelium from stumps left after felling. This, in conjunction with diminished immunity, contributes to a substantially elevated incidence of stem rot in comparison to stands of seed origin. The research has not established a reliable correlation between the incidence of stem rot and forest stand characteristics due to the impact of human activity on birch forests (e.g., cutting, fires, tree injury). At the same time, no reliable connection has been established between the spread of stem rot and the stage of recreational disturbance. Trees of various sizes are affected by stem rot, usually proportional to their representation in the structure of the forest stand. The disease has a detrimental effect on the trees, which is clearly evident in the decline of forest health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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27 pages, 2907 KB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Integration and Forest Sector Dynamics: Türkiye’s Strategic Outlook in a BRICS-Aligned Future

by Mahmut Muhammet Bayramoğlu, Emre Küçükbekir, Alper Bulut and Abdullah Çelik

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1473; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091473 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 416

Abstract

The BRICS has emerged as a strategic actor in global environmental and economic governance, encompassing 42% of the world’s population, 32% of global GDP, and nearly half of the world’s forest resources. Member countries have integrated forest management with renewable energy transition and [...] Read more.

The BRICS has emerged as a strategic actor in global environmental and economic governance, encompassing 42% of the world’s population, 32% of global GDP, and nearly half of the world’s forest resources. Member countries have integrated forest management with renewable energy transition and carbon market mechanisms as part of their sustainable development strategies. In this context, Türkiye positions the forestry sector as both an environmental and economic lever in its potential alignment with BRICS while seeking to diversify its foreign policy. This study examines the long-term relationships between forest area, population, forest product trade, renewable energy production, and carbon emissions in BRICS-T countries for the period 2009–2023, employing panel econometric methods (FMOLS and DOLS). The findings indicate that population growth, forest expansion, and forest product trade are associated with increased emissions, while renewable energy production contributes to emission reductions. Moreover, bidirectional causality is identified between population and emissions and between renewable energy and emissions. The results suggest that environmental sustainability depends not only on the availability of resources but also on the quality of governance, policy coherence, and sectoral coordination. The study provides an original contribution to the literature by analyzing Türkiye’s environmental and economic integration with BRICS through the combined lens of forestry and energy transition, offering exploratory policy implications for Türkiye’s strategic position in a multipolar world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic Research on Forest Ecosystem Services)

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20 pages, 7878 KB

Open AccessArticle

Retrospective Analysis of a Large-Scale Gypsy Moth Outbreak in Hungary Combining Multi-Source Satellite and In Situ Data

by Tamás Molnár, Norbert Móricz, Anikó Hirka, György Csóka and Anikó Kern

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1472; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091472 - 17 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Gypsy (or spongy) moth (Lymantria dispar) outbreaks have imposed significant threats to European forests for centuries. While traditional field-based research has provided detailed insights, it remains time-consuming, labour-intensive, and spatially limited. With the advancement of Earth observation satellite technology, forest monitoring [...] Read more.

Gypsy (or spongy) moth (Lymantria dispar) outbreaks have imposed significant threats to European forests for centuries. While traditional field-based research has provided detailed insights, it remains time-consuming, labour-intensive, and spatially limited. With the advancement of Earth observation satellite technology, forest monitoring has become more efficient and flexible. This study examined the impact of the most extensive gypsy moth outbreak (2003–2006) on the forest dynamics in Hungary using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-derived indices: the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Standardised NDVI (Z NDVI), and Leaf Area Index (LAI). Our results show that while the gypsy moth population in Hungary peaked in 2004, based on light trap data, and in 2005, according to field damage reports, the most severe defoliation occurred in 2005 and 2006, as detected by satellite-based decreases in the NDVI and LAI. MODIS-based vegetation indices proved effective in quantifying the extent and severity of defoliation, showing temporal and spatial patterns that aligned with ground observations. The LAI and NDVI metrics also captured varying degrees of defoliation and partial recovery. These findings underscore the value of integrating satellite data with field observations to improve early warning systems and enhance the forecasting and management of gypsy moth outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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Forests, Volume 16, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 141 articles

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