Journal Description
Fire
Fire
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal about the science, policy, and technology of fires and how they interact with communities and the environment, published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), AGRIS, PubAg, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Paper Types: in addition to regular articles we accept Perspectives, Case Studies, Data Descriptors, Technical Notes, and Monographs.
Impact Factor:
2.7 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.0 (2024)
Latest Articles
A Methodological Approach to Address Economic Vulnerability to Wildfires in Europe
Fire 2025, 8(10), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100379 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
The assessment of the economic vulnerability of natural disasters is a necessary step in the evaluation of any risks. This study proposes the approach implemented under the H2020 FirEurisk project to value the economic damage of wildfires on a European scale. Economic damage
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The assessment of the economic vulnerability of natural disasters is a necessary step in the evaluation of any risks. This study proposes the approach implemented under the H2020 FirEurisk project to value the economic damage of wildfires on a European scale. Economic damage is assessed as the net value change in natural (agricultural and forestry resources and their ecosystem services) and manufactured assets under simulated fire intensity, taking into consideration the time necessary for natural capital to recover to the pre-damaged conditions. We show minimum, maximum, and average damage for European countries and map the critical areas. Damages to provisioning-ecosystem services are more pronounced in Central Europe because of the lower resilience of ecosystems compared to the Mediterranean, suggesting that mitigation measures (such as managing vegetation to reduce fuel; improving access to fire services; and engaging communities through education, agriculture, and forest management participation) must be enforced. We are confident that the approach proposed may stimulate further research to test the goodness of the estimates proposed and suggest where it is more appropriate to invest in fire prevention.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Explosion of Flammable Propane Refrigerants Leaked in an MiC Unit
by
Cheuklun Chow, Zheming Gao, Shousuo Han and Wanki Chow
Fire 2025, 8(10), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100378 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
Modular Integrated Construction (MiC) has been strongly promoted in many dense urban areas, including the Greater Bay Area. There might be an explosion risk if leaked flammable clean refrigerants accumulate in a confined unit. Experimental and modeling studies on the explosion of flammable
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Modular Integrated Construction (MiC) has been strongly promoted in many dense urban areas, including the Greater Bay Area. There might be an explosion risk if leaked flammable clean refrigerants accumulate in a confined unit. Experimental and modeling studies on the explosion of flammable refrigerant propane in an MiC unit were carried out with a rectangular unit model to explore well-covered or partially covered conditions, representing the scenario of an MiC unit with its door open or closed. The experimental results were used in developing an analytical model to predict the flame surface and pressure change, with acceptable results. This study could be used as a reference for estimating pressure changes and designing ventilation systems to prevent deflagration in MiC units.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Scenario-Based Wildfire Boundary-Threat Indexing at the Wildland–Urban Interface Using Dynamic Fire Simulations
by
Yeshvant Matey, Raymond de Callafon and Ilkay Altintas
Fire 2025, 8(10), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100377 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
Conventional wildfire assessment products emphasize regional-scale ignition likelihood and potential spread derived from fuels and weather. While useful for broad planning, they do not directly support boundary-aware, scenario-specific decision-making for localized threats to communities in the Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI). This limitation constrains the
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Conventional wildfire assessment products emphasize regional-scale ignition likelihood and potential spread derived from fuels and weather. While useful for broad planning, they do not directly support boundary-aware, scenario-specific decision-making for localized threats to communities in the Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI). This limitation constrains the ability of fire managers to effectively prioritize mitigation efforts and response strategies for ignition events that may lead to severe local impacts. This paper introduces WUI-BTI—a scenario-based, simulation-driven boundary-threat index for the Wildland–Urban Interface that quantifies consequences conditional on an ignition under standardized meteorology, rather than estimating risk. WUI-BTI evaluates ignition locations—referred to as Fire Amplification Sites (FAS)—based on their potential to compromise the defined boundary of a community. For each ignition location, a high-resolution fire spread simulation is conducted. The resulting fire perimeter dynamics are analyzed to extract three key metrics: (1) the minimum distance of fire approach to the community boundary ( ) for non-breaching fires; and for breaching fires, (2) the time required for the fire to reach the boundary ( ), and (3) the total length of the community boundary affected by the fire ( ). These raw outputs are mapped through monotone, sigmoid-based transformations to yield a single, interpretable score: breaching fires are scored by the product of an inverse-time urgency term and an extent term, whereas non-breaching fires are scored by proximity alone. The result is a continuous boundary-threat surface that ranks ignition sites by their potential to rapidly and substantially compromise a community boundary. By converting complex simulation outputs into scenario-specific, boundary-aware intelligence, WUI-BTI provides a transparent, quantitative basis for prioritizing fuel treatments, pre-positioning suppression resources, and guiding protective strategies in the WUI for fire managers, land use planners, and emergency response agencies. The framework complements regional hazard layers (e.g., severity classifications) by resolving fine-scale, consequence-focused priorities for specific communities.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Computational Statistics to Wildfire Science and Management)
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Open AccessArticle
A Joint Transformer–XGBoost Model for Satellite Fire Detection in Yunnan
by
Luping Dong, Yifan Wang, Chunyan Li, Wenjie Zhu, Haixin Yu and Hai Tian
Fire 2025, 8(10), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100376 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
Wildfires pose a regularly increasing threat to ecosystems and critical infrastructure. The severity of this threat is steadily increasing. The growing threat necessitates the development of technologies for rapid and accurate early detection. However, the prevailing fire point detection algorithms, including several deep
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Wildfires pose a regularly increasing threat to ecosystems and critical infrastructure. The severity of this threat is steadily increasing. The growing threat necessitates the development of technologies for rapid and accurate early detection. However, the prevailing fire point detection algorithms, including several deep learning models, are generally constrained by the inherent hard threshold limitations in their decision-making logic. As a result, these methods lack adaptability and robustness in complex and dynamic real-world scenarios. To address this challenge, the present paper proposes an innovative two-stage, semi-supervised anomaly detection framework. The framework initially employs a Transformer-based autoencoder, which serves to transform raw fire-free time-series data derived from satellite imagery into a multidimensional deep anomaly feature vector. Self-supervised learning achieves this transformation by incorporating both reconstruction error and latent space distance. In the subsequent stage, a semi-supervised XGBoost classifier, trained using an iterative pseudo-labeling strategy, learns and constructs an adaptive nonlinear decision boundary in this high-dimensional anomaly feature space to achieve the final fire point judgment. In a thorough validation process involving multiple real-world fire cases in Yunnan Province, China, the framework attained an F1 score of 0.88, signifying a performance enhancement exceeding 30% in comparison to conventional deep learning baseline models that employ fixed thresholds. The experimental results demonstrate that by decoupling feature learning from classification decision-making and introducing an adaptive decision mechanism, this framework provides a more robust and scalable new paradigm for constructing next-generation high-precision, high-efficiency wildfire monitoring and early warning systems.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) Applications in Wildfire Science: Principles, Progress and Prospects (2nd Edition))
Open AccessArticle
Fire Extinction Analysis and OH-PLIF Visualization of the Methane–Air Premixed Laminar Flame Interacting with the Downward Water Mist
by
Yangpeng Liu, Yufei Zhou, Yingxia Zhong, Chuanyu Pan, Guochun Li and Zepeng Wu
Fire 2025, 8(10), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100375 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
In this study, a McKenna burner made for calibration is used to generate the laminar flame with the equivalence ratio of 0.78~2.0. The effect of the downward water mist spray on the extinction of the methane–air premixed laminar flame is investigated using hydroxide
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In this study, a McKenna burner made for calibration is used to generate the laminar flame with the equivalence ratio of 0.78~2.0. The effect of the downward water mist spray on the extinction of the methane–air premixed laminar flame is investigated using hydroxide planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF). The variation of the water flow rate for flame extinction is analyzed by the hydroxyl radical concentration distribution and the effective water mist flow rate. The required water flow rate for flame extinction is higher in the cases of rich fuel mixtures. The maximum critical extinguishing water flow rate for the methane–air premixed laminar flame is about 9.55 L/min under the conditions of water mist spray with a 45° solid cone spray angle and a 24 μm droplet size. Furthermore, the evolution of OH-PLIF flame behavior revealed that the stability of the hydroxyl radical concentration at the base of the flame mainly contributed to the flame extinction. This study provides a theoretical reference for the critical extinguishing conditions of water mist in the application of an active fire suppression system.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamental Research and Case Studies on Clean and Efficient Fire Suppression Technologies)
Open AccessArticle
Modeling Firebrand Spotting in WRF-Fire for Coupled Fire–Weather Prediction
by
Maria Frediani, Kasra Shamsaei, Timothy W. Juliano, Hamed Ebrahimian, Branko Kosović, Jason C. Knievel and Sarah A. Tessendorf
Fire 2025, 8(10), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8100374 - 23 Sep 2025
Abstract
This study develops, implements, and evaluates the Firebrand Spotting parameterization within the WRF-Fire coupled fire–atmosphere modeling system. Fire spotting is an important mechanism characterizing fire spread in wind-driven events. It can accelerate the rate of spread and enable the fire to spread over
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This study develops, implements, and evaluates the Firebrand Spotting parameterization within the WRF-Fire coupled fire–atmosphere modeling system. Fire spotting is an important mechanism characterizing fire spread in wind-driven events. It can accelerate the rate of spread and enable the fire to spread over streams and barriers such as highways. Without the capability to simulate fire spotting, wind-driven fire simulations cannot accurately represent fire behavior. In the Firebrand Spotting parameterization, firebrands are generated with a set of fixed properties, from locations vertically aligned with the leading fire line. Firebrands are transported using a Lagrangian framework accounting for particle burnout (combustion) through an MPI-compatible implementation within WRF-Fire. Fire spots may occur when firebrands land on unburned grid points. The parameterization is verified through idealized simulations and its application is demonstrated for the 2021 Marshall Fire, Colorado. The simulations are assessed using the observed fire perimeter and time of arrival at multiple locations identified from social media footage and official documents. All simulations using a range of ignition thresholds outperform the control without spotting. Simulations accounting for fire spots show more accurate fire arrival times (i.e., reflecting a better fire rate of spread), despite producing a generally larger fire area. The Heidke Skill Score (Cohen’s Kappa) for the burn area ranges between 0.62 and 0.78 for simulations with fire spots compared to 0.47 for the control. These results show that the parameterization consistently improves the fire forecast verification metrics, while also underscoring future work priorities, including advancing the generation and ignition components.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fire Science Models, Remote Sensing, and Data)
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Open AccessArticle
Burning Trash for Science: The Potential Use of Discarded Waste to Monitor Energy Fluxes Delivered to Ecosystem Components by Wildfires
by
Ania Losiak, Amber Avery, Andy Elliott, Sarah J. Baker and Claire M. Belcher
Fire 2025, 8(9), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090373 - 22 Sep 2025
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Assessing the energy flux delivered to ecosystem components by wildfires is hard because of technical and safety problems in performing measurements during such events. Here, we present a laboratory and field experimental assessment of a new method of evaluating a wildfire energy flux;
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Assessing the energy flux delivered to ecosystem components by wildfires is hard because of technical and safety problems in performing measurements during such events. Here, we present a laboratory and field experimental assessment of a new method of evaluating a wildfire energy flux; our approach is based on the fact that different types of trash deform at different temperatures. We produced deformed trash in a laboratory environment using an iCone calorimeter to deliver a range of heat fluxes over a range of durations. We followed this by placing trash in instrumented prescribed fires. We show that finding melted or heat-altered plastic bottles and aluminium cans in the aftermath of wildfires can provide useful information about the heating that they received during the fire: plastic bottles are a useful indicator for areas that received less than 2 MJ/m2 with a maximal temperature of <200 °C, while aluminium cans may be applied to higher-energy sites 100 MJ/m2 that experienced a temperature above 600 °C. We provide a semi-quantitative proxy guide as to what different observed deformations may indicate in terms of energy flux and hope that this may allow scientists and forest managers to easily and cheaply assess the energy flux delivered to ecosystems and semi-quantitatively compare different wildfires.
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Open AccessArticle
Thermophy: A Chebyshev Polynomial-Based Tool for Transport Property Estimation in Multicomponent Gas Systems
by
Nuri Özgür Aydın and Mehmet Kopaç
Fire 2025, 8(9), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090372 - 20 Sep 2025
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The accurate computation of the thermophysical properties of gases and gas mixtures is critical for combustion analysis but remains challenging due to the precision and numerical stability required across wide temperature ranges. In this study, we present Thermophy, a computational framework based on
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The accurate computation of the thermophysical properties of gases and gas mixtures is critical for combustion analysis but remains challenging due to the precision and numerical stability required across wide temperature ranges. In this study, we present Thermophy, a computational framework based on Chebyshev polynomial fitting, developed to calculate thermal conductivity, viscosity, and binary diffusion coefficients for pure gases and multicomponent mixtures. Unlike conventional tools that rely on low-order polynomial approximations, Thermophy applies Chebyshev fitting over defined temperature intervals, enabling higher accuracy, improved numerical stability, and computational efficiency. Thermophy is validated through four case studies involving pure gases, binary mixtures, and ternary mixtures relevant to combustion applications. For pure gases and air, deviations in thermal conductivity and viscosity were found to be 1.22–4.25% and 0.11–4.71%, respectively. For ternary mixtures, viscosity deviations ranged from 0.11 to 0.24%, while binary mixtures showed deviations of 2.60% and 0.20% for viscosity and thermal conductivity, respectively. Binary diffusion coefficients exhibited an overall deviation of approximately 3.35%. The combination of flexible input handling, extensibility, and high-fidelity calculations positions Thermophy as a robust and efficient alternative for integration into combustion modeling and other gas-phase simulation frameworks, including gasification, pyrolysis, global carbon cycle analysis, environmental systems, and fire modeling.
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Open AccessArticle
Study on Qinghai Province Residents’ Perception of Grassland Fire Risk and Influencing Factors
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Wenjing Xu, Qiang Zhou, Weidong Ma, Fenggui Liu, Baicheng Niu and Long Li
Fire 2025, 8(9), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090371 - 19 Sep 2025
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Grassland fire risk perception constitutes a fundamental element of fire risk assessment and underpins the evaluation of response capacities in grassland regions. This study examines Qinghai Province, the fourth-largest pastoral region in China, as a case study to develop an evaluation index system
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Grassland fire risk perception constitutes a fundamental element of fire risk assessment and underpins the evaluation of response capacities in grassland regions. This study examines Qinghai Province, the fourth-largest pastoral region in China, as a case study to develop an evaluation index system for assessing residents’ perceptions of grassland fire risk. Using micro-level survey data, the study quantifies these perceptions and applies a quantile regression model to investigate influencing factors. The results indicate that: (1) the average grassland fire risk perception index among residents in Qinghai Province’s grassland areas is 0.509, with response behaviors contributing the most and response attitudes contributing the least; (2) Residents in agricultural areas perceive higher risks than those in semi-agricultural/semi-pastoral or purely pastoral areas, and individuals in regions with moderate dependency ratios and moderate fire-susceptibility conditions demonstrate the highest performance, whereas those in pastoral and high-susceptibility zones exhibit signs of “risk desensitization”; (3) risk communication and information dissemination are the primary drivers of enhanced perception, followed by climate variables, whereas individual characteristics of residents attributes exert no significant effect. It is recommended to monitor the impacts of climate change on fire risk patterns, update risk information dynamically, address deficits in residents’ cognition and capabilities, strengthen behavioral guidance and capacity-building initiatives, and foster a transition from passive acceptance to active engagement, thereby enhancing both cognitive and behavioral responses to grassland fires.
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Open AccessArticle
Thermal Decomposition Mechanism of PF5 and POF3 with Carbonate-Based Electrolytes During Lithium-Ion Batteries’ Thermal Runaway
by
Yao Tian, Xiaotiao Zhan, Yuxin Zhang, Zhen Qiao, Yuxiang Lu, Qing Xia, Jian Lu, Xia Zhang and Zhaoyang Chen
Fire 2025, 8(9), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090370 - 19 Sep 2025
Abstract
Against the background of the accelerating global transition towards a low-carbon energy system, the lithium-ion battery (LIB) industry has witnessed a rapid development. Concurrently, fire accidents in LIB application scenarios have occurred frequently, with safety issues becoming increasingly prominent. Thermal runaway of LIBs
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Against the background of the accelerating global transition towards a low-carbon energy system, the lithium-ion battery (LIB) industry has witnessed a rapid development. Concurrently, fire accidents in LIB application scenarios have occurred frequently, with safety issues becoming increasingly prominent. Thermal runaway of LIBs is the direct cause of such fires. During the thermal runaway process of LIBs, lithium salts in the electrolyte undergo thermal decomposition reactions with carbonate-based electrolytes, releasing a large amount of heat and fire gases. Among them, the thermal decomposition reactions of LiPF6 with electrolytes are coupled and superimposed, exhibiting a significant synergistic effect. This paper employs quantum chemical calculation methods to investigate the thermal decomposition reaction mechanisms between PF5 and POF3, which generated from the thermal decomposition of LiPF6 and carbonate-based electrolytes (EC, DMC, and DEC) during the thermal runaway process of LIBs; and presents detailed chemical reaction mechanism models. The P atoms in PF5 or POF3 combine with the O atoms of the ether oxygen groups in carbonates, while the F atoms combine with the C atoms adjacent to the ether oxygen groups. This promotes the ring-opening or chain scission of carbonate molecules, reduces the energy required for the reaction, and accelerates the thermal decomposition reaction and the generation of fire gases. Modification of EC, DMC, and DEC through fluorination can effectively inhibit the catalytic effect of PF5 and POF3 and improve the oxidation resistance and thermal stability of the electrolytes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in New Energy Materials and Fire Safety)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Investigation on Combustion Characteristics of Massage Chairs in Waiting Halls of High-Speed Railway Stations
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Xiaodong Yang, Wenbin Wei, Yujia Chen, Jiaming Zhao, Yanlong Li, Cheng Zhang and Saiya Feng
Fire 2025, 8(9), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090369 - 18 Sep 2025
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In order to provide fire-scene parameters for fire protection design and data support for fire safety management of waiting halls in high-speed railway stations, this study systematically investigated the combustion characteristics of single, two, and three massage chairs using an industrial calorimeter. The
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In order to provide fire-scene parameters for fire protection design and data support for fire safety management of waiting halls in high-speed railway stations, this study systematically investigated the combustion characteristics of single, two, and three massage chairs using an industrial calorimeter. The results showed the following: The change in heat release rate in the growth stage of the massage chairs’ combustion tests was consistent with the t2 fast fire (with a growth coefficient of 0.04689). The maximum HRR was 1.2 MW for the single-massage-chair combustion test, 2.5 MW for the two-massage-chairs combustion test, and 3.5 MW for the three-massage-chairs combustion test. In the full-scale massage chairs combustion test, setting a 6.0 m fire isolation zone could effectively serve the functions of fire prevention and heat insulation. Considering a certain safety margin, and with a safety factor of 1.5 adopted, it is recommended that a fire isolation zone with a width of 9.0 m be used in the waiting halls of high-speed railway stations, which provides a direct, actionable design basis for engineering practice.
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Open AccessArticle
Performance Comparison of Deep Learning Models for Predicting Fire-Induced Deformation in Sandwich Roof Panels
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Bohyuk Lim and Minkoo Kim
Fire 2025, 8(9), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090368 - 18 Sep 2025
Abstract
Sandwich panels are widely used in industrial roofing due to their lightweight and thermal insulation properties; however, their structural fire resistance remains insufficiently understood. This study presents a data-driven approach to predict the mid-span deformation of glass wool-cored sandwich roof panels subjected to
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Sandwich panels are widely used in industrial roofing due to their lightweight and thermal insulation properties; however, their structural fire resistance remains insufficiently understood. This study presents a data-driven approach to predict the mid-span deformation of glass wool-cored sandwich roof panels subjected to ISO 834-5 standard fire tests. A total of 39 full-scale furnace tests were conducted, yielding 1519 data points that were utilized to develop deep learning models. Feature selection identified nine key predictors: elapsed time, panel orientation, and seven unexposed-surface temperatures. Three deep learning architectures—convolutional neural network (CNN), multilayer perceptron (MLP), and long short-term memory (LSTM)—were trained and evaluated through rigorous 5-fold cross-validation and independent external testing. Among them, the CNN approach consistently achieved the highest accuracy, with an average cross-validation performance of , and achieved on the external test set. These results highlight the robustness of CNN in capturing spatially ordered thermal–structural interactions while also demonstrating the limitations of MLP and LSTM regarding the same experimental data. The findings provide a foundation for integrating machine learning into performance-based fire safety engineering and suggest that data-driven prediction can complement traditional fire-resistance assessments of sandwich roofing systems.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in the Assessment and Mitigation of Fire Risk in Buildings and Urban Areas: 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Impacts of Indigenous Cultural Burning Versus Hazard Reduction on Dry Sclerophyll Forest Composition, Abundance, and Species Richness in Southeast Australia
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Michelle McKemey, John T. Hunter, Maureen (Lesley) Patterson, Ian Simpson and Nick C. H. Reid
Fire 2025, 8(9), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090367 - 17 Sep 2025
Abstract
Fire has had a profound impact on Australia’s landscapes and biodiversity since the late Tertiary. Indigenous (Aboriginal) people have lived in Australia for at least 65,000 years and fire is an integral part of their culture and cosmology. In 2015, an Indigenous cultural
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Fire has had a profound impact on Australia’s landscapes and biodiversity since the late Tertiary. Indigenous (Aboriginal) people have lived in Australia for at least 65,000 years and fire is an integral part of their culture and cosmology. In 2015, an Indigenous cultural burn was undertaken by Banbai rangers at Wattleridge Indigenous Protected Area, New England Tablelands, NSW. We compared the impact of this burn on the composition, cover, abundance, and species richness of dry sclerophyll vegetation and fuel hazard, with a hazard reduction burn at nearby Warra National Park, using a Before-After-Control-Impact experimental design. Our study found that the low-severity cultural burn and moderate-severity hazard reduction burn reduced fuel loads but did not have a significant impact on the composition of the vegetation overall or the herb layer. The hazard reduction burn had a significant impact on shrub and juvenile tree (woody species) cover, while the abundance of woody species was significantly affected by both fires, with a mass germination of ‘seeder’ species, particularly after the cultural burn. The long unburnt fire regime at Wattleridge may have made the vegetation more responsive to fire than the more frequently burnt vegetation at Warra, through accumulation of seed in the seed bank, so that the patchy cultural burn had a greater impact on woody species abundance. In terms of ecological and bushfire management outcomes, this study provides evidence to support claims that Indigenous cultural burning decreases fuel loads, stimulates regeneration of shrubs and trees, and manages at a local, place-based scale. We recommend cultural burning as a key management tool across Indigenous Protected Areas and other land tenures, with its implementation monitored and adaptively managed through two-way science, to foster fire regimes that are both culturally and ecologically beneficial. This is a vital element of our resilience in the Pyrocene and a significant step toward decolonizing science and land management.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fire Research at the Science–Policy–Practitioner Interface)
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Open AccessArticle
From Wind to Smoke: A Unified WebGIS Platform for Wildfire Simulation and Visualization
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Saray Martínez-Lastras, José Manuel Iglesias, David Cifuentes-Jimenez, María Isabel Asensio and Diego González-Aguilera
Fire 2025, 8(9), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090366 - 17 Sep 2025
Abstract
A unified WebGIS platform for wildfire simulation and visualization is presented, integrating three coupled physical models: HDWind for wind field computation, PhyFire for wildfire spread, and PhyNX for smoke plume dispersion. The system includes preprocessing and postprocessing scripts that enable the efficient integration
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A unified WebGIS platform for wildfire simulation and visualization is presented, integrating three coupled physical models: HDWind for wind field computation, PhyFire for wildfire spread, and PhyNX for smoke plume dispersion. The system includes preprocessing and postprocessing scripts that enable the efficient integration of meteorological and cartographic data and support the visualization of outputs such as burned areas, wind and smoke fields, and emission estimates. The platform is deployed through a WebGIS interface that supports both decoupled and coupled simulations, providing operational flexibility and reducing computational demands when needed. A real wildfire scenario is simulated to demonstrate system capabilities. The case study highlights the platform’s applicability in operational contexts, reinforcing its potential to evolve into an accessible and user-oriented environmental decision support system for wildfire management.
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(This article belongs to the Section Mathematical Modelling and Numerical Simulation of Combustion and Fire)
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Open AccessArticle
Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of Dowelled Timber Connections in Single Shear with the Char Layer Calculation Effect
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João Campos Aguiar and Elza M. M. Fonseca
Fire 2025, 8(9), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090365 - 16 Sep 2025
Abstract
The main goal of this work is to analyse the thermo-mechanical effect in single shear dowelled timber connections under fire conditions. This research includes the development of numerical models using the finite element method. The numerical methodology was validated using previously published experimental
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The main goal of this work is to analyse the thermo-mechanical effect in single shear dowelled timber connections under fire conditions. This research includes the development of numerical models using the finite element method. The numerical methodology was validated using previously published experimental and numerical data. New models were developed to evaluate the temperature evolution, charring rate, and load-bearing capacity of the connections throughout exposure to fire. The calculations based on Eurocode 5 are conservative in the dimensioning of connections at room temperature but have less impact on the design of fire resistance, as they do not consider factors such as geometric parameters or passive protection influence on structural performance. Finally, based on the results obtained, two useful design equations are proposed, allowing the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of single shear timber connections, with or without protection, as a function of fire exposure.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Fire Science and Fire Protection Engineering)
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Open AccessArticle
Asymmetric Flow Induced by the Longitudinal Position of the Fire Source Under Different Ambient Pressures
by
Fei Wang, Tianji Liu, Lin Xu, Chunjie Cheng, Haisheng Chen, Xingsen He and Shengzhong Zhao
Fire 2025, 8(9), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090364 - 14 Sep 2025
Abstract
This research examined how ambient pressure impacts the asymmetrical flow effects of fire induced under natural ventilation. Numerical simulations using Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) software were conducted, altering the longitudinal positions of fire sources and ambient pressure. The findings reveal that ambient pressure
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This research examined how ambient pressure impacts the asymmetrical flow effects of fire induced under natural ventilation. Numerical simulations using Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) software were conducted, altering the longitudinal positions of fire sources and ambient pressure. The findings reveal that ambient pressure impacts the movement of smoke and air within the tunnel, with both outgoing smoke and incoming air increasing as ambient pressure rises. Asymmetric flow, influenced by the fire source’s longitudinal position, is observed under different ambient pressures. The intensity of these asymmetric flow effects can be characterized by the parameter of induced longitudinal flow mass rate, . A dimensionless ambient pressure, P*, was introduced to assess its impact on longitudinal flow’s induction, leading to the development of a predictive model for calculating the . While ambient pressure affects the mass flow values of smoke and airflow in tunnel fires under natural ventilation, it has minimal impact on their fundamental distribution patterns. A predictive model has been proposed for the distribution patterns of smoke overflow and air inflow under various ambient pressures.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tunnel Fire Behavior: Dynamics, Smoke Management, and Safety Strategies)
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Open AccessArticle
Evaluating and Predicting Wildfire Burn Severity Through Stand Structure and Seasonal NDVI: A Case Study of the March 2025 Uiseong Wildfire
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Taewoo Yi and JunSeok Lee
Fire 2025, 8(9), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090363 - 11 Sep 2025
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This study examined the structural and ecological drivers of burn severity during the March 2025 wildfire in Uiseong County, Republic of Korea, with a focus on developing a predictive framework using the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR). Seventeen candidate variables were evaluated, among
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This study examined the structural and ecological drivers of burn severity during the March 2025 wildfire in Uiseong County, Republic of Korea, with a focus on developing a predictive framework using the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR). Seventeen candidate variables were evaluated, among which the forest type, stand age, tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH), and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) were consistently identified as the most influential predictors. Burn severity increased across all forest types up to the 4th–5th age classes before declining in older stands. Coniferous forests exhibited the highest severity at the 5th age class (mean dNBR = 0.3069), followed by mixed forests (0.2771) and broadleaf forests (0.2194). Structural factors reinforced this pattern, as coniferous and mixed forests recorded maximum severity within the 5–11 m height range, while broadleaf forests showed relatively stable severity across 3–21 m but declined thereafter. In the final prediction model, NDVI emerged as the dominant variable, integrating canopy density, vegetation vigor, and moisture conditions. Notably, NDVI exhibited a positive correlation with burn severity in coniferous stands during this early-spring event, diverging from the generally negative relationship reported in previous studies. This seasonal anomaly underscores the need to interpret NDVI flexibly in relation to the forest type, stand age, and phenological stage. Overall, the model results demonstrate that mid-aged stands with moderate heights and dense canopy cover are the most fire-prone, whereas older, taller stands show reduced susceptibility. By integrating NDVI with structural attributes, this modeling approach provides a scalable tool for the spatial prediction of wildfire severity and supports resilience-based forest management under climate change.
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Open AccessArticle
Synoptic and Regional Meteorological Drivers of a Wildfire in the Wildland–Urban Interface of Faro (Portugal)
by
Flavio Tiago Couto, Cátia Campos, Carolina Purificação, Filippe Lemos Maia Santos, Hugo Nunes Andrade, Nuno Andrade, André Becker Nunes, Nuno Guiomar and Rui Salgado
Fire 2025, 8(9), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090362 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
A major fire occurred in the wildland–urban interface in southern Portugal, on 13 July 2022, becoming uncontrolled due to weather conditions. This study investigates how atmospheric dynamics increased fire danger in Mainland Portugal during early July 2022. The synoptic circulation from European Centre
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A major fire occurred in the wildland–urban interface in southern Portugal, on 13 July 2022, becoming uncontrolled due to weather conditions. This study investigates how atmospheric dynamics increased fire danger in Mainland Portugal during early July 2022. The synoptic circulation from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analysis and mesoscale conditions from Meso-NH model simulation at 1.5 km resolution revealed atmospheric conditions before and during the fire. Fire risk was assessed using the Fire Weather Index (FWI) from Meso-NH outputs. A blocking pattern was configured by an upper-level low-pressure system in early July, remaining semi-stationary west of Mainland Portugal until 18 July. The counter-clockwise circulation of the cut-off low resulted in dry, warm air advection from North Africa, enhancing fire danger over the Iberian Peninsula. In southern Portugal, a jet-like wind with strong east/southeasterly flow from Gibraltar Strait favored rapid fire spread. This circulation below 1 km altitude from the Mediterranean Sea enhanced fire danger through strong winds, independent of the large-scale blocking pattern. This study presents an atmospheric scenario for evaluating fire danger in Southern Portugal, important for pre-firefighting management that complemented previous studies for the region. Also, high-resolution FWI calculations using Meso-NH emphasized the importance of improved temporal and spatial resolution for fire danger assessment.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Climate Change on Fire Danger)
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Open AccessArticle
A BIM-Based Multi-Criteria Spatial Framework for Assessing Fire Risks in Indoor Environments
by
Aydın Furkan Terzi, Koray Aksu, Ayşenur Koçyiğit and Hande Demirel
Fire 2025, 8(9), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090361 - 9 Sep 2025
Abstract
Building fires are considered major disasters because of their significant effects on people, property, and the environment. This understanding has led to increased attention on developing preventive measures, particularly through the creation of effective methods for assessing fire risk. However, the effectiveness of
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Building fires are considered major disasters because of their significant effects on people, property, and the environment. This understanding has led to increased attention on developing preventive measures, particularly through the creation of effective methods for assessing fire risk. However, the effectiveness of these methods relies heavily on detailed physical and functional information of the building and data-driven decision-making. Building Information Modeling (BIM) has proven effective in representing structures, even in three dimensions. When integrated with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), it enhances spatial intelligence, leading to improved decision-making through robust multi-criteria approaches. Hence, this study develops a framework to assess fire risk in an indoor environment that deploys a BIM-based GIS and Multi-Criteria Decision-Making; this is specifically known as Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). The developed framework consists of four steps: identifying fire risk parameters, calculating weights, conducting spatial fire risk assessments, and visualizing the results, where the developed concepts are tested and validated. According to the significant findings, the developed framework estimates that 18% of building rooms are at moderate risk, while the compared model identifies only 1%. This considerable difference could potentially arise from the detailed data structure of BIM and the spatial insights gained from GIS. By implementing the designed framework, key fire risk factors can be identified in three dimensions, accompanied by a comprehensive quantitative evaluation platform for fire risks within indoor environments.
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(This article belongs to the Section Fire Risk Assessment and Safety Management in Buildings and Urban Spaces)
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Open AccessArticle
Halogen-Free Flame Retardant Impact on Rigid Polyisocyanurate Foam Properties
by
Laima Vevere, Beatrise Sture-Skela, Vanesa Dhalivala, Uldis Bariss, Uldis Pasters, Nikolajs Kurma, Ugis Cabulis and Mikelis Kirpluks
Fire 2025, 8(9), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8090360 - 8 Sep 2025
Abstract
This study evaluates the impact of different flame retardants on the mechanical and thermal properties of rigid polyisocyanurate (PIR) foams, focusing on formulations with isocyanate indexes of 335 and 400. The flame retardants tested include triethyl phosphate (TEP), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), aluminium hydroxide
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This study evaluates the impact of different flame retardants on the mechanical and thermal properties of rigid polyisocyanurate (PIR) foams, focusing on formulations with isocyanate indexes of 335 and 400. The flame retardants tested include triethyl phosphate (TEP), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3), and a combination of APP and Al(OH)3. FOAMAT® was used to analyse the foaming kinetics, while further tests assessed density, thermal conductivity, and compression strength. TEP, a liquid flame retardant, was found to reduce peak heat release rate (pHRR) and total heat release significantly, outperforming solid flame retardants. Although solid flame retardants like APP slightly increase start times and gel times due to their non-reactive, filler role, they increase the foam’s density and somewhat limit the effectiveness in reducing flammability. The uneven dispersion and lower compatibility of solid additives may lead to suboptimal improvements in fire resistance. APP displayed dual-phase decomposition, aiding char formation to a degree. Overall, TEP proved most effective in enhancing PIR foam’s fire resistance, demonstrating the advantage of liquid over solid flame retardants in achieving uniform distribution and better integration with the foam matrix, thus optimising thermal insulation and mechanical performance.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Flame-Retardant Polymeric Materials)
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