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Existing Improvements in Simulation of Fire–Wind Interaction and Its Effects on Structures -
Customising Evacuation Instructions for High-Rise Residential Occupants to Expedite Fire Egress: Results from Agent-Based Simulation -
CO and CH4 Trends from Extreme Wildfires in Portugal Using Sentinel-5P TROPOMI -
Effect of Biomass-Burning Emissions on Soil Water Repellency: A Pilot Laboratory Study -
River Flows Are a Reliable Index of Forest Fire Risk in the Temperate Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, Australia
Journal Description
Fire
Fire
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal about the science, policy, and technology of vegetation fires and how they interact with communities and the environment, broadly defined, published quarterly online by MDPI. The Global Wildland Fire Network is affiliated with Fire and their members receive a discount on the article processing charge.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), AGRIS, AGRICOLA, and many other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision provided to authors approximately 13.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2021).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Paper Types: in addition to regular articles we accept Perspectives, Case Studies, Data Descriptors, Technical Notes, and Monographs.
Latest Articles
How Vulnerable Are American States to Wildfires? A Livelihood Vulnerability Assessment
Fire 2021, 4(3), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030054 (registering DOI) - 27 Aug 2021
Abstract
Quantifying livelihood vulnerability to wildland fires in the United States is challenging because of the need to systematically integrate multidimensional variables into its analysis. We aim to measure wildfire threats amongst humans and their physical and social environment by developing a framework to
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Quantifying livelihood vulnerability to wildland fires in the United States is challenging because of the need to systematically integrate multidimensional variables into its analysis. We aim to measure wildfire threats amongst humans and their physical and social environment by developing a framework to calculate the livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) for the top 14 American states most recently exposed to wildfires. The LVI is computed by assessing each state’s contributing factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) to wildfire events. These contributing factors are determined through a set of indicator variables that are categorized into corresponding groups to produce an LVI framework. The framework is validated by performing a principal component analysis (PCA), ensuring that each selected indicator variable corresponds to the correct contributing factor. Our results indicate that Arizona and New Mexico experience the greatest livelihood vulnerability. In contrast, California, Florida, and Texas experience the least livelihood vulnerability. While California has one of the highest exposures and sensitivity to wildfires, results indicate that it has a relatively high adaptive capacity, in comparison to the other states, suggesting it has measures in place to withstand these vulnerabilities. These results are critical to wildfire managers, government, policymakers, and research scientists for identifying and providing better resiliency and adaptation measures to support states that are most vulnerable to wildfires.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildfire Management in Increasing Complex Socio-Ecological Environments: Needs and Challenges)
Open AccessArticle
Risk Assessment of Industrial Fires for Surrounding Vulnerable Facilities Using a Multi-Criteria Decision Support Approach and GIS
Fire 2021, 4(3), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030053 - 25 Aug 2021
Abstract
The fires encountered in the buildings and facilities of industrial areas make up quite a small proportion of all fire cases. However, in terms of the heat release rate, size of the burned area, damage, and impact zone, such fires have a large
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The fires encountered in the buildings and facilities of industrial areas make up quite a small proportion of all fire cases. However, in terms of the heat release rate, size of the burned area, damage, and impact zone, such fires have a large impact as compared to other fire cases. All fires have risk in terms of propagation. However, since fires in industrial structures and plants have rather high levels, qualitatively and quantitatively, compared to residential fires and other types of fires, it should be regarded as necessary to research them extensively. In this study, fires that have broken out in various places around Turkey, such as in factories, cold storage plants, and manufacturing facilities, were investigated. We aimed to determine the level of risk of the occurrence of these fires in the environment. A large amount of detailed information gathered about these fires was analyzed. This information includes data about the causes of the fires, deformation data of various materials, data on technical problems, data on financial damage levels, and data on fire patterns. We found 40 of these fire cases in total, and the case data were used to calculate the risk scores with the Geographic Information System (GIS), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), and Inverse Distance Weight (IDW) methods. For each fire case, places sensitive to damage and losses were assessed according to six main criteria. Buffer analysis maps were generated for the 40 fire cases, and the cases were ordered based on their overall risk scores. In this ordering, fire case number 21 was found in the riskiest region, and fire cases 32, 17, and 31 were found in the low-risk region. Fire case number 21 occurred in a factory used for manufacturing fabric. This factory works with high volumes of acrylic, polyester, and other raw materials. In addition, there are some structures in very close proximity. It was observed that fire cases could be well differentiated depending on the selected criteria in the model applied.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire in Human Landscapes)
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Open AccessArticle
Mapping Wetland Burned Area from Sentinel-2 across the Southeastern United States and Its Contributions Relative to Landsat-8 (2016–2019)
Fire 2021, 4(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030052 - 25 Aug 2021
Abstract
Prescribed fires and wildfires are common in wetland ecosystems across the Southeastern United States. However, the wetland burned area has been chronically underestimated across the region due to (1) spectral confusion between open water and burned area, (2) rapid post-fire vegetation regrowth, and
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Prescribed fires and wildfires are common in wetland ecosystems across the Southeastern United States. However, the wetland burned area has been chronically underestimated across the region due to (1) spectral confusion between open water and burned area, (2) rapid post-fire vegetation regrowth, and (3) high annual precipitation limiting clear-sky satellite observations. We developed a machine learning algorithm specifically for burned area in wetlands, and applied the algorithm to the Sentinel-2 archive (2016–2019) across the Southeastern US (>290,000 km2). Combining Landsat-8 imagery with Sentinel-2 increased the annual clear-sky observation count from 17 to 46 in 2016 and from 16 to 78 in 2019. When validated with WorldView imagery, the Sentinel-2 burned area had a 29% and 30% omission and commission rates of error for burned area, respectively, compared to the US Geological Survey Landsat-8 Burned Area Product (L8 BA), which had a 47% and 8% omission and commission rate of error, respectively. The Sentinel-2 algorithm and the L8 BA mapped burned area within 78% and 60% of wetland fire perimeters (n = 555) compiled from state and federal agencies, respectively. This analysis demonstrated the potential of Sentinel-2 to support efforts to track the burned area, especially across challenging ecosystem types, such as wetlands.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detecting, Mapping, and Characterizing Wildfires Using Remote Sensing Data)
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Open AccessArticle
Merging of Horizontally and Vertically Separated Small-Scale Buoyant Flames
Fire 2021, 4(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030051 (registering DOI) - 25 Aug 2021
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the merging behavior of small-scale buoyant flames that might be representative of flames from a leaf in a shrub. Zirconia felt pads soaked in n-heptane were suspended on thin rods and spaced both horizontally and
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the merging behavior of small-scale buoyant flames that might be representative of flames from a leaf in a shrub. Zirconia felt pads soaked in n-heptane were suspended on thin rods and spaced both horizontally and vertically. Time-dependent video images from flames from two-pad and three-pad configurations were analyzed to determine merging probability, combined flame characteristics (height, area, and width), and changes in burn time. Correlations of these combined flame characteristics were developed based on horizontal and vertical spacing between the pads. Merging probability correlated with an exponential function that was quadratic in horizontal and/or vertical spacing. Flame heights corrected for vertical inter-pad spacing showed a maximum increase of 50% over single flame heights, and were correlated with an exponential decay function. Flame areas increased by a maximum of 34%, but on average were relatively constant. Corrected flame widths for the merged flames increased by as much as 55% in some configurations, but decreased by up to 73% in other configurations. Burn times for upper pads decreased when there was no horizontal spacing. The limited flame growth observed in these non-overlapping configurations in the horizontal dimension imply that overlapping configurations seem to be necessary for significant flame growth.
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Open AccessArticle
Considerations for Categorizing and Visualizing Numerical Information: A Case Study of Fire Occurrence Prediction Models in the Province of Ontario, Canada
by
, , , , , , and
Fire 2021, 4(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030050 - 18 Aug 2021
Abstract
Wildland fire management decision-makers need to quickly understand large amounts of quantitative information under stressful conditions. Categorization and visualization “schemes” have long been used to help, but how they are done affects the speed and accuracy of interpretation. Using traditional fire management schemes
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Wildland fire management decision-makers need to quickly understand large amounts of quantitative information under stressful conditions. Categorization and visualization “schemes” have long been used to help, but how they are done affects the speed and accuracy of interpretation. Using traditional fire management schemes can unduly restrict the design of new products. Our design process for Ontario’s fine-scale, spatially explicit, daily fire occurrence prediction (FOP) models led us to develop guidance for designing new schemes. We show selected historical fire management schemes and describe our method. It includes specifying goals and requirements, exploring design options and making trade-offs. The design options include gradient continuity, hue selection, range completeness and scale linearity. We apply our method to a case study on designing the scheme for Ontario’s FOP models. We arrived at a smooth, nonlinear scale that accommodates data spanning many orders of magnitude. The colouring draws attention according to levels of concern, reveals meaningful spatial patterns and accommodates some colour vision deficiencies. Our method seems simple now but reconciles complex considerations and is useful for mapping many other datasets. Our method improved the clarity and ease of interpretation of several information products used by fire management decision-makers.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildfire Hazard and Risk Assessment)
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Open AccessCase Report
A Historical Perspective of Landscape and Human Population Dynamics in Guimarães (Northern Portugal): Possible Implications of Rural Fire Risk in a Changing Environment
Fire 2021, 4(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030049 - 17 Aug 2021
Abstract
The occupation of a territory combines a set of variables which affect the development of the mode by which populations have been organized throughout history. How this occupation takes place demonstrates much of a territory’s past and shows how the populations managed to
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The occupation of a territory combines a set of variables which affect the development of the mode by which populations have been organized throughout history. How this occupation takes place demonstrates much of a territory’s past and shows how the populations managed to make the most out of the available resources. The region of Entre-Douro-e-Minho (Northern Portugal), similarly to what happens in other regions, such as Galicia (Northern Spain), Brittany (Northern France), or Ireland, presents a type of dispersed land use, with an alternation of urban, agriculture, and forest areas. On one hand, this proximity allows urban populations to come into contact with a rural environment. On the other hand, this proximity also causes a set of problems, namely those related to rural fires, which are now enhanced by climate change, and associated phenomena, such as heatwaves and the lack of precipitation. The present work analyzes the evolution of rural fires in 1975–2019, in the municipality of Guimarães (Northern Portugal), to understand how these events have been distributed over time and evolved in a climate change scenario. Based on the results and discussion presented, it can be concluded that there is an increasing trend in the occurrence of rural fires in the territory under study, and that this can also be associated to climate change, in the form of a gradual increment in temperature, particularly in the autumn months, and a decrease in rainfall. This situation is responsible for the increment of the risk caused by the proximity of the populations to forest and agricultural areas because rural fires can jeopardize the safety of people and goods.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mediterranean-Type Regions: Rural Fires, Climate Change, Invasive Species and Agro–Silvo–Pastoral Interactions)
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Open AccessArticle
Forest Structure Drives Fuel Moisture Response across Alternative Forest States
by
, , , , , and
Fire 2021, 4(3), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030048 - 15 Aug 2021
Abstract
Climate warming is expected to increase fire frequency in many productive obligate seeder forests, where repeated high-intensity fire can initiate stand conversion to alternative states with contrasting structure. These vegetation–fire interactions may modify the direct effects of climate warming on the microclimatic conditions
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Climate warming is expected to increase fire frequency in many productive obligate seeder forests, where repeated high-intensity fire can initiate stand conversion to alternative states with contrasting structure. These vegetation–fire interactions may modify the direct effects of climate warming on the microclimatic conditions that control dead fuel moisture content (FMC), which regulates fire activity in these high-productivity systems. However, despite the well-established role of forest canopies in buffering microclimate, the interaction of FMC, alternative forest states and their role in vegetation–fire feedbacks remain poorly understood. We tested the hypothesis that FMC dynamics across alternative states would vary to an extent meaningful for fire and that FMC differences would be attributable to forest structural variability, with important implications for fire-vegetation feedbacks. FMC was monitored at seven alternative state forested sites that were similar in all aspects except forest type and structure, and two proximate open-weather stations across the Central Highlands in Victoria, Australia. We developed two generalised additive mixed models (GAMMs) using daily independent and autoregressive (i.e., lagged) input data to test the importance of site properties, including lidar-derived forest structure, in predicting FMC from open weather. There were distinct differences in fuel availability (days when FMC < 16%, dry enough to sustain fire) leading to positive and negative fire–vegetation feedbacks across alternative forest states. Both the independent (r2 = 0.551) and autoregressive (r2 = 0.936) models ably predicted FMC from open weather. However, substantial improvement between models when lagged inputs were included demonstrates nonindependence of the automated fuel sticks at the daily level and that understanding the effects of temporal buffering in wet forests is critical to estimating FMC. We observed significant random effects (an analogue for forest structure effects) in both models (p < 0.001), which correlated with forest density metrics such as light penetration index (LPI). This study demonstrates the importance of forest structure in estimating FMC and that across alternative forest states, differences in fuel availability drive vegetation–fire feedbacks with important implications for forest flammability.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Measurement of Fuels and Fuel Properties)
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Open AccessArticle
Perceptions of NRCS Assistance with Prescribed Fires on U.S. Private Lands: A Regionally Stratified Case Study
Fire 2021, 4(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030047 - 14 Aug 2021
Abstract
The benefits of prescribed fires are recognized throughout the United States, but the ability to assist with prescribed fire application on private land by government agencies has many possible constraints and challenges. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), a federal agency, is mandated
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The benefits of prescribed fires are recognized throughout the United States, but the ability to assist with prescribed fire application on private land by government agencies has many possible constraints and challenges. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), a federal agency, is mandated to assist private landowners with meeting land management objectives, but the ability of employees to utilize prescribed fire as a management tool is complex. We conducted a regionally stratified online survey of NRCS employees across the United States to determine the barriers inhibiting their ability to assist private landowners with prescribed fire application. In January of 2020, we recruited 101 NRCS rangeland and grazing land specialists to participate in the survey with 50 completing the survey (regional sample size: Central n = 14, Northeast n = 5, Southeast n = 12, West n = 19). A majority (82%) of respondents thought prescribed fires were staying the same or increasing in number. Regional differences in assistance types were significant for conducting burns and providing technical education, but not for other assistance types. Regional differences for perceived constraints were also significant for how the public understands the risks of prescribed fire and the ecological constraints but not for state policy, federal policy, liability, or public understanding of prescribed fire benefits. Overall and across regions, the NRCS survey participants perceived federal policies, liability, and private landowners’ lack knowledge of prescribed fire limits their ability to assist in the utilization of prescribed fire. Creating a national policy that allows a streamlined process for NRCS employees to assist with prescribed fire implementation and collaborative initiatives to improve private landowner knowledge gaps has the potential to improve prescribed fire application across the United States.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildfire Management in Increasing Complex Socio-Ecological Environments: Needs and Challenges)
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Open AccessArticle
Reframing Wildfire Simulations for Understanding Complex Human–Landscape Interactions in Cross-Cultural Contexts: A Case Study from Northern Australia
Fire 2021, 4(3), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030046 - 13 Aug 2021
Abstract
An increase in the frequency of severe fire events, as well as a growing interest in wildfire mitigation strategies, has created a demand for skilled managers of landscape fire and a better community understanding of fire behaviour. While on-ground experience is essential, there
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An increase in the frequency of severe fire events, as well as a growing interest in wildfire mitigation strategies, has created a demand for skilled managers of landscape fire and a better community understanding of fire behaviour. While on-ground experience is essential, there is potential to substantially enhance training and community engagement with explanatory simulations. Through this work, we explore landscape fire behaviour as a complex system where understanding key behaviour characteristics is often more important and achievable than prediction. It is argued that this approach has particular value in Northern Australia, where fires burn across vast and sparsely inhabited landscapes that are largely under Indigenous ownership. Land and fire management in such complex cross-cultural contexts requires combining traditional and local knowledge with science and technology to achieve the best outcomes. We describe the workings of the model, a stochastic cellular automata fire behaviour simulation, developed through a participatory modelling approach for Northern Australia; the outputs generated; and a range of operational applications. We found that simulation assisted training and engagement through the development of an understanding of fire dynamics through visualisation, underpinned by landscape data sets, and engaging a culturally diverse set of land managers in discussions of fire management. We conclude that there is scope for a broader use of explanatory fire simulations to support development of shared understandings of fire management objectives.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildfire Management in Increasing Complex Socio-Ecological Environments: Needs and Challenges)
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Open AccessPerspective
Boots on the Ground and Eyes in the Sky: A Perspective on Estimating Fire Danger from Soil Moisture Content
by
and
Fire 2021, 4(3), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030045 - 11 Aug 2021
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With increasing forest and grassland wildfire trends strongly correlated to anthropogenic climate change, assessing wildfire danger is vital to reduce catastrophic human, economic, and environmental loss. From this viewpoint, the authors discuss various approaches deployed to evaluate wildfire danger, from in-situ observations to
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With increasing forest and grassland wildfire trends strongly correlated to anthropogenic climate change, assessing wildfire danger is vital to reduce catastrophic human, economic, and environmental loss. From this viewpoint, the authors discuss various approaches deployed to evaluate wildfire danger, from in-situ observations to satellite-based fire prediction systems. Lately, the merit of soil moisture in predicting fuel moisture content and the likelihood of wildfire occurrence has been widely realized. Harmonized soil moisture measurement initiatives via state-of-the-art soil moisture networks have facilitated the use of soil moisture information in developing innovative applications for wildfire prediction and risk management applications. Additionally, the increasing availability of remote-sensing data has enabled the monitoring and modeling of wildfires across various terrestrial ecosystems. When coupled with remotely sensed data, field-based soil moisture measurements have been more valuable predictors of assessing wildfire than alone. However, sensors capable of acquiring higher spectral information and radiometry across large spatiotemporal domains are still lacking. The automation aspect of such extensive data from remote-sensing and field data is needed to rapidly assess wildfire and mitigation of wildfire-related damage at operational scales.
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Open AccessArticle
Comprehensive Examination of the Determinants of Damage to Houses in Two Wildfires in Eastern Australia in 2013
Fire 2021, 4(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030044 - 09 Aug 2021
Abstract
Wildfires continue to destroy houses, but an understanding of the complex mix of risk factors remains elusive. These factors comprise six themes: preparedness actions (including defensible space), response actions (including defence), house construction, landscape fuels, topography and weather. The themes span a range
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Wildfires continue to destroy houses, but an understanding of the complex mix of risk factors remains elusive. These factors comprise six themes: preparedness actions (including defensible space), response actions (including defence), house construction, landscape fuels, topography and weather. The themes span a range of spatial scales (house to region) and responsible agents (householders through government to entirely natural forces). We conducted a statistical analysis that partitions the contribution of these six themes on wildfire impact to houses, using two fires that destroyed 200 houses in New South Wales (Australia) in October 2013 (the Linksview and Mt York fires). We analysed 85 potential predictor variables using Random Forest modelling. The best predictors of impact were whether the house was defended and distance to forest toward the direction of fire spread. However, predictors from all four of the other themes had some influence, including distance to the nearest other burnt house (indicating house-to-house transmission) and vegetation cover up to 40 m from the house. The worst-placed houses (undefended, without adequate defensible space, with burnt houses nearby and with a westerly aspect) were 10 times more likely to be impacted than the best-placed houses in our study. The results indicate that householders are the agents most able to mitigate risk in the conditions experienced in these fires through both preparation and active defence.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire in Human Landscapes)
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Open AccessReview
Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Formation and Flame Precession of Fire Whirls: A Review
Fire 2021, 4(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030043 - 06 Aug 2021
Abstract
Fire whirls are a particular case of flame behaviour characterized by a rotating column of fire driven by intense convective heating of air close to the ground. They typically result in a substantial increase in burning rate, temperature, and flame height. Fire whirls
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Fire whirls are a particular case of flame behaviour characterized by a rotating column of fire driven by intense convective heating of air close to the ground. They typically result in a substantial increase in burning rate, temperature, and flame height. Fire whirls can occur in any intense flame environment, including urban areas, particularly within combustible structures, and in wildland or forest fires. Recently, investigations on the creation of fire whirls have attracted much attention. However, most analyses are focused on fire whirl structure, formation, and controlling their unique state. In effect, revisiting the available experimental techniques and numerical simulations used in analyzing fire whirls has received less attention. In this paper, experimental arrangements including empirical set ups and employed fuels are presented in detail. Subsequently, major research progress focused on experimental studies and their laboratory setup is fully discussed, followed by the available numerical simulations, including combustion and turbulence models. Applied methodologies and chosen software in the recent numerical studies are also reviewed exclusively. Finally, the latest findings are featured, and prospective pathways are advised.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wind Fire Interaction and Fire Whirl)
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Open AccessReview
Protective Decision-Making in Bushfire Part 2: A Rapid Systematic Review of the ‘Leave Early’ Literature
Fire 2021, 4(3), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030042 - 02 Aug 2021
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In Australia, residents can choose to remain to defend their property against bushfire but, since the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires, considerable emphasis is placed on leaving early, well in advance of a bushfire. However, many householders delay their protective decision. The insights offered
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In Australia, residents can choose to remain to defend their property against bushfire but, since the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires, considerable emphasis is placed on leaving early, well in advance of a bushfire. However, many householders delay their protective decision. The insights offered by the literature into how and why some people leave early before their personal safety is threatened can inform bushfire safety policy and practice. This systematic review reports the findings of 90 papers selected from 216 identified through a search of papers in Scopus, Science Direct and Google Scholar published between 1995 and May 2021 in English. This review establishes the reasons people leave early; the influence of official and unofficial warnings; gender and other demographics; the influence of self-evacuation archetypes; planning and preparation; the influence of children and other dependents and pets; triggers initiating leaving; factors impeding and facilitating leaving; and policy issues around early leaving. This review also details 12 seminal studies that capture much of the evidence on the decision to leave early.
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Open AccessConcept Paper
Transcending Parallel Play: Boundary Spanning for Collective Action in Wildfire Management
Fire 2021, 4(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030041 - 30 Jul 2021
Abstract
A key challenge in the United States is how to manage wildfire risk across boundaries and scales, as roles, responsibilities, and ability to act are distributed among actors in ways that do not always incentivize collective action. In this review paper, we provide
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A key challenge in the United States is how to manage wildfire risk across boundaries and scales, as roles, responsibilities, and ability to act are distributed among actors in ways that do not always incentivize collective action. In this review paper, we provide several conceptual contributions to the understanding of wildfire management through the application of boundary spanning frameworks. This includes: (1) a characterization of four major types of boundaries in managing wildfire risk; (2) a review of major boundary spanning features and frameworks that integrate them; and (3) consideration of current and potential applications of the boundary spanning construct to the domain of wildfire management. Our goal is to advance knowledge of how actors in this arena may overcome “parallel play” to more collectively address wildfire risk. We generate new thinking about wildfire management, and offer potential implications and questions for future research, policy, and management.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Rethinking Wildland Fire Governance: A Series of Perspectives)
Open AccessCase Report
UAV Assisted Spatiotemporal Analysis and Management of Bushfires: A Case Study of the 2020 Victorian Bushfires
Fire 2021, 4(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030040 - 26 Jul 2021
Cited by 1
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Australia is a regular recipient of devastating bushfires that severely impacts its economy, landscape, forests, and wild animals. These bushfires must be managed to save a fortune, wildlife, and vegetation and reduce fatalities and harmful environmental impacts. The current study proposes a holistic
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Australia is a regular recipient of devastating bushfires that severely impacts its economy, landscape, forests, and wild animals. These bushfires must be managed to save a fortune, wildlife, and vegetation and reduce fatalities and harmful environmental impacts. The current study proposes a holistic model that uses a mixed-method approach of Geographical Information System (GIS), remote sensing, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)-based bushfire assessment and mitigation. The fire products of Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) and Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are used for monitoring the burnt areas within the Victorian Region due to the 2020 bushfires. The results show that the aggregate of 1500 m produces the best output for estimating the burnt areas. The identified hotspots are in the eastern belt of the state that progressed north towards New South Wales. The R2 values between 0.91–0.99 indicate the fitness of methods used in the current study. A healthy z-value index between 0.03 to 2.9 shows the statistical significance of the hotspots. Additional analysis of the 2019–20 Victorian bushfires shows a widespread radius of the fires associated with the climate change and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) phenomenon. The UAV paths are optimized using five algorithms: greedy, intra route, inter route, tabu, and particle swarm optimization (PSO), where PSO search surpassed all the tested methods in terms of faster run time and lesser costs to manage the bushfires disasters. The average improvement demonstrated by the PSO algorithm over the greedy method is approximately 2% and 1.2% as compared with the intra route. Further, the cost reduction is 1.5% compared with the inter-route scheme and 1.2% compared with the intra route algorithm. The local disaster management authorities can instantly adopt the proposed system to assess the bushfires disasters and instigate an immediate response plan.
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Open AccessArticle
Towards Understanding Fire Causes in Informal Settlements Based on Inhabitant Risk Perception
Fire 2021, 4(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030039 - 23 Jul 2021
Abstract
Informal settlements (ISs) are a high-risk environment in which fires are often seen. In 2019 alone, 5544 IS fires were reported in South Africa. One of the main problems, when investigating an IS fire, is determining the fire cause. In the last 15
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Informal settlements (ISs) are a high-risk environment in which fires are often seen. In 2019 alone, 5544 IS fires were reported in South Africa. One of the main problems, when investigating an IS fire, is determining the fire cause. In the last 15 years, approximately 40% of the fire causes were classified as ‘undetermined’ in South Africa. Furthermore, the cases where the fire causes have been determined, do not provide the necessary information to comprehend why the fire started. This paper seeks to gain better insight with respect to fire causes by analysing the fire risk perception of IS inhabitants. To this end, a survey that was conducted in 2017, consisting of data from 2178 IS households, that were affected by a large-scale fire, was analysed. The survey consisted of questions relating to the fire risk perception with regards to the settlement in general, to the inhabitants’ own household, and about measures that could reduce fire risk. The analysis suggests that (a) the survey’s risk target had a strong influence on risk perception, (b) the inhabitants’ fire risk perception of their settlement is similar to that of firefighters in previous research, (c) the risk mitigation demands are more focused on decreasing the consequences of the fire than on the occurrence of a fire event, (d) the national fire statistics are not capturing the causes of real fire incidents, and (e) improvements to the documentation process after a fire event could provide critical information for the implementation of prevention measures.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire in Human Landscapes)
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Open AccessArticle
Hotspot Analysis of Structure Fires in Urban Agglomeration: A Case of Nagpur City, India
Fire 2021, 4(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030038 - 21 Jul 2021
Abstract
Fire Service is the fundamental civic service to protect citizens from irrecoverable, heavy losses of lives and property. Hotspot analysis of structure fires is essential to estimate people and property at risk. Hotspot analysis for the peak period of last decade, using a
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Fire Service is the fundamental civic service to protect citizens from irrecoverable, heavy losses of lives and property. Hotspot analysis of structure fires is essential to estimate people and property at risk. Hotspot analysis for the peak period of last decade, using a GIS-based spatial analyst and statistical techniques through the Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) and Getis-Ord Gi* with Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation is performed, revealing fire risk zones at the city ward micro level. Using remote sensing, outputs of hotspot analysis are integrated with the built environment of Land Use Land Cover (LULC) to quantify the accurate built-up areas and population density of identified fire risk zones. KDE delineates 34 wards as hotspots, while Getis-Ord Gi* delineates 17 wards within the KDE hotspot, the central core areas having the highest built-up and population density. A temporal analysis reveals the maximum fires on Thursday during the hot afternoon hours from 12 noon to 5 p.m. The study outputs help decision makers for effective fire prevention and protection by deploying immediate resource allocations and proactive planning reassuring sustainable urban development. Furthermore, updating the requirement of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) to build urban resilient infrastructure in accord with the Smart City Mission.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performance-Based Design in Structural Fire Engineering)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Facilitating Prescribed Fire in Northern California through Indigenous Governance and Interagency Partnerships
by
and
Fire 2021, 4(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030037 - 16 Jul 2021
Cited by 1
Abstract
Prescribed burning by Indigenous people was once ubiquitous throughout California. Settler colonialism brought immense investments in fire suppression by the United States Forest Service and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Prevention (CAL FIRE) to protect timber and structures, effectively limiting prescribed
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Prescribed burning by Indigenous people was once ubiquitous throughout California. Settler colonialism brought immense investments in fire suppression by the United States Forest Service and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Prevention (CAL FIRE) to protect timber and structures, effectively limiting prescribed burning in California. Despite this, fire-dependent American Indian communities such as the Karuk and Yurok peoples, stalwartly advocate for expanding prescribed burning as a part of their efforts to revitalize their culture and sovereignty. To examine the political ecology of prescribed burning in Northern California, we coupled participant observation of prescribed burning in Karuk and Yurok territories (2015–2019) with 75 surveys and 18 interviews with Indigenous and non-Indigenous fire managers to identify political structures and material conditions that facilitate and constrain prescribed fire expansion. Managers report that interagency partnerships have provided supplemental funding and personnel to enable burning, and that decentralized prescribed burn associations facilitate prescribed fire. However, land dispossession and centralized state regulations undermine Indigenous and local fire governance. Excessive investment in suppression and the underfunding of prescribed fire produces a scarcity of personnel to implement and plan burns. Where Tribes and local communities have established burning infrastructure, authorities should consider the devolution of decision-making and land repatriation to accelerate prescribed fire expansion.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Rethinking Wildland Fire Governance: A Series of Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
Non-Destructive Fuel Volume Measurements Can Estimate Fine-Scale Biomass across Surface Fuel Types in a Frequently Burned Ecosystem
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Fire 2021, 4(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030036 - 14 Jul 2021
Abstract
Measuring wildland fuels is at the core of fire science, but many established field methods are not useful for ecosystems characterized by complex surface vegetation. A recently developed sub-meter 3D method applied to southeastern U.S. longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) communities captures
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Measuring wildland fuels is at the core of fire science, but many established field methods are not useful for ecosystems characterized by complex surface vegetation. A recently developed sub-meter 3D method applied to southeastern U.S. longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) communities captures critical heterogeneity, but similar to any destructive sampling measurement, it relies on separate plots for calculating loading and consumption. In this study, we investigated how bulk density differed by 10-cm height increments among three dominant fuel types, tested predictions of consumption based on fuel type, height, and volume, and compared this with other field measurements. The bulk density changed with height for the herbaceous and woody litter fuels (p < 0.001), but live woody litter was consistent across heights (p > 0.05). Our models predicted mass well based on volume and height for herbaceous (RSE = 0.00911) and woody litter (RSE = 0.0123), while only volume was used for live woody (R2 = 0.44). These were used to estimate consumption based on our volume-mass predictions, linked pre- and post-fire plots by fuel type, and showed similar results for herbaceous and woody litter when compared to paired plots. This study illustrates an important non-destructive alternative to calculating mass and estimating fuel consumption across vertical volume distributions at fine scales.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Measurement of Fuels and Fuel Properties)
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Open AccessArticle
Ignition of Fuel Beds by Cigarettes: A Conceptual Model to Assess Fuel Bed Moisture Content and Wind Velocity Effect on the Ignition Time and Probability
Fire 2021, 4(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4030035 - 06 Jul 2021
Abstract
A conceptual model based on the balance of energy in a system composed of a burning cigarette, ambient flow and a porous fuel bed is proposed to study the burning of a single cigarette and the process of fuel bed dehydration, pyrolysis and
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A conceptual model based on the balance of energy in a system composed of a burning cigarette, ambient flow and a porous fuel bed is proposed to study the burning of a single cigarette and the process of fuel bed dehydration, pyrolysis and its eventual ignition or combustion extinction. Model predictions of time to ignition and of the probability of ignition as a function of fuel bed moisture content and ambient flow velocity are compared with results obtained in laboratory ignition tests of straw fuel beds for various ambient conditions. According to this study, the main parameters influencing the models developed are the fuel bed and tobacco moisture content, as well as the flow velocity.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Measurement of Fuels and Fuel Properties)
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