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From Negative Knowledge to Best Practices for Enhancing Reusability of Sketches in Procedural 3D CAD Models
Optimization of the Human–Robot Collaborative Disassembly Process Using a Genetic Algorithm: Application to the Reconditioning of Electric Vehicle Batteries
Economic and Environmental Analysis of EV Public Fast-Charging Stations Using Renewable Energy
Declaration-Ready Climate-Neutral PEDs: Budget-Based, Hourly LCA Including Mobility and Flexibility
Digital Twins in Development of Medical Products—The State of the Art

Journal Description

Designs

Designs is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of engineering designs published bimonthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, Inspec, Ei Compendex and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Engineering (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2411-9660

Latest Articles

17 pages, 3320 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Feasibility and Compliance Assessment of Container vs. Cold-Formed Steel for a Sustainable 3D Printing Micro-Factory

by Michael Natale Cunzolo and Aziz Ahmed

Designs 2026, 10(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010007 - 19 Jan 2026

This paper addresses critical issues related to the structural design of a micro-factory housing a mobile 3D printing system for plastic recycling. Rather than a simple comparison, it quantifies the “modification penalty”, the structural and economic cost of retrofitting a repurposed ISO shipping [...] Read more.

This paper addresses critical issues related to the structural design of a micro-factory housing a mobile 3D printing system for plastic recycling. Rather than a simple comparison, it quantifies the “modification penalty”, the structural and economic cost of retrofitting a repurposed ISO shipping container (ISCC) versus deploying a purpose-built cold-formed steel (CFS) volumetric structure. Finite Element Analysis of a standard 20-foot shipping container revealed a serviceability failure in its roof under standard imposed loads. Concurrently, an initial analysis of an equivalent CFS structure also indicated non-compliance, with significant floor and roof deflections. Both platforms were subsequently redesigned with structural reinforcements to achieve full compliance with Australian Standards. The comparative evaluation moves beyond static analysis to incorporate critical performance metrics. While the CFS structure proved to be 575 kg lighter with a lifespan 300–400% longer, the modified ISCC was 47% cheaper in initial capital outlay ($7161 vs. $13,549). However, when considering the totality of performance factors, specifically the ISCC’s inherent vulnerability to resonance (8–18 Hz), which overlaps with transport frequencies, and the logistical burden of losing CSC certification upon modification, the CFS platform is conclusively identified as the superior engineering solution. Its design flexibility, predictable performance, and amenability to purpose-built optimization make it a more reliable and operationally secure platform for this specialized application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction: Innovations in Design, Engineering, and the Circular Economy)

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28 pages, 6082 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Design of an LCL Filter for Harmonic Suppression in a Three-Phase Grid-Connected Fifteen-Level CHB Inverter

by Madiha Sattar, Usman Masud, Abdul Razzaq Farooqi, Faraz Akram and Zeashan Khan

Designs 2026, 10(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010006 - 16 Jan 2026

With the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the grid, power quality at the point of common coupling (PCC)—particularly harmonic distortion introduced by power electronic converters—has become a critical concern. This paper presents a rigorous design and evaluation of a three-phase, fifteen-level [...] Read more.

With the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the grid, power quality at the point of common coupling (PCC)—particularly harmonic distortion introduced by power electronic converters—has become a critical concern. This paper presents a rigorous design and evaluation of a three-phase, fifteen-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter (CHB MLI) with an LCL filter, selected for its superior harmonic attenuation, compact size, and cost-effectiveness compared to conventional passive filters. The proposed system employs Phase-Shifted Pulse Width Modulation (PS PWM) for balanced operation and low output distortion. A systematic, reproducible methodology is used to design the LCL filter, which is then tested across a wide range of switching frequencies (1–5 kHz) and grid impedance ratios (X/R = 2–9) in MATLAB/Simulink R2025a. Comprehensive simulations confirm that the filter effectively reduces both voltage and current total harmonic distortion (THD) to levels well below the 5% limit specified by IEEE 519, with optimal performance (0.53% current THD, 0.69% voltage THD) achieved at 3 kHz and X/R ≈ 5.6. The filter demonstrates robust performance regardless of grid conditions, making it a practical and scalable solution for modern renewable energy integration. These results, further supported by parametric validation and clear design guidelines, provide actionable insights for academic research and industrial deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Design and Optimization of Distributed Energy Systems and Smart Infrastructure)

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28 pages, 1994 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Reverse Curves on a Railway Line Using the Analytical Design Method

by Wladyslaw Koc

Designs 2026, 10(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010005 - 9 Jan 2026

This study discusses the issue of designing reverse curves, i.e. a geometric system consisting of two circular arcs (usually with different radii), directed in opposite directions and directly connected to each other. The design is performed in an appropriate local Cartesian coordinate system. [...] Read more.

This study discusses the issue of designing reverse curves, i.e. a geometric system consisting of two circular arcs (usually with different radii), directed in opposite directions and directly connected to each other. The design is performed in an appropriate local Cartesian coordinate system. The origin of this system is located at the point of intersection of adjacent main directions of the route. Unlike other geometric situations, reverse curves have three main directions, which significantly complicate the design process. The initial values of the radii of the reverse arcs must correspond to the existing system of main directions. The introduction of transition curves causes these radii to decrease; their values are determined iteratively. A set of formulas for creating a geometric system of reverse curves is presented. These formulas were used in the calculation example. A graph of the horizontal curvature of the track axis and a method for determining the possible train speed, both without the use of cant on an arc and with the use of cant, are shown. The presented procedure is universal and can be applied to other geometric situations involving the design of reverse curves. It is also necessary to emphasize the practical usefulness of the discussed method not only in the design process, but also to pay attention to the cognitive value of the article. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Resilient Civil Infrastructure, 2nd Edition)

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36 pages, 10670 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Reference Architecture for Smart Charging Management Systems for Electric Vehicles

by Mert Ozkaya, Alper Turunc and Yusuf Talha Togrul

Designs 2026, 10(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010004 - 3 Jan 2026

Smart charging management systems for electric vehicles (SCMSs) enable the effective management of electric vehicle (EV) charging processes using smart technologies. Numerous SCMS technologies have been available for different stakeholders, e.g., EV drivers, charging station managers, and car manufacturers. Despite the ever-increasing interest [...] Read more.

Smart charging management systems for electric vehicles (SCMSs) enable the effective management of electric vehicle (EV) charging processes using smart technologies. Numerous SCMS technologies have been available for different stakeholders, e.g., EV drivers, charging station managers, and car manufacturers. Despite the ever-increasing interest in SCMSs, the literature lacks in reusable, standardised architecture design that reduces the effort for the development of quality SCMSs. In this paper, we propose a reference architecture (RA) for SCMSs. Our RA design is based on our comprehensive domain analysis that encompasses the analysis of the existing literature and commercial technologies which have been supported by our survey on EV drivers. In our RA, we provide four different viewpoints. The context viewpoint classifies the potential stakeholders and their roles and responsibilities. The module viewpoint defines the software implementation units and their modules that can be used for implementing any SCMSs. The component and connector viewpoint defines the executing parts of any SCMSs and their organisations into layers. The allocation viewpoint defines how the executable components can be mapped into the physical devices. We validated our RA design via prototyping and surveying to measure the RA’s applicability in real-world scenarios and usability for stakeholders. Full article

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25 pages, 10505 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Scalable Production of Liquid Crystal Elastomers: A Low-Cost Automated Manufacturing Framework

by Rocco Furferi, Andrea Profili, Monica Carfagni and Lapo Governi

Designs 2026, 10(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010003 - 30 Dec 2025

Liquid Crystal Elastomers combine the elasticity of polymer networks with the anisotropic ordering of liquid crystals, thus enabling reversible shape modifications and stimulus responsive actuation. Unfortunately, manual LCE fabrication remains limited by operator-dependent variability, which can lead to inconsistent film thickness and manufacturing [...] Read more.

Liquid Crystal Elastomers combine the elasticity of polymer networks with the anisotropic ordering of liquid crystals, thus enabling reversible shape modifications and stimulus responsive actuation. Unfortunately, manual LCE fabrication remains limited by operator-dependent variability, which can lead to inconsistent film thickness and manufacturing times inadequate for a mass production. This work presents a low-cost, automated manufacturing framework that redesigns the mechanical assembly steps of the traditional one-step LCE fabrication process. The design includes rubbing, slide alignment, spacer placement, and infiltration cell assembly to ensure consistent film quality and scalability. A customized Cartesian robot, built by adapting a modified X–Y core 3D printer, integrates specially designed manipulator systems, redesigned magnetic slide holders, automated rubbing tools, and supporting fixtures to assemble infiltration devices in an automated way. Validation tests demonstrate reproducible infiltration, improved mesogen alignment confirmed via polarized optical microscopy, and high geometric repeatability, although glass-slide thickness variability remains a significant contributor to deviations in final film thickness. By enabling parallelizable low-cost production, the designed hardware demonstrates its effectiveness in devising the scalable manufacturing of LCE films suited for advanced therapeutic and engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Smart Manufacturing System Design)

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18 pages, 5486 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sensorless Control of SPM Motor for e-Bike Applications Using Second-Order Integrator Flux Observer

by Abdin Abdin and Nicola Bianchi

Designs 2026, 10(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010002 - 22 Dec 2025

The aim of this research is to present both a sensorless control and a torque derating algorithm in the overload region of a permanent magnet motor for e-bikes. First, the theoretical backgrounds and the field-oriented control are presented. Then, a sensorless control is [...] Read more.

The aim of this research is to present both a sensorless control and a torque derating algorithm in the overload region of a permanent magnet motor for e-bikes. First, the theoretical backgrounds and the field-oriented control are presented. Then, a sensorless control is designed based on the back-emf estimation with a second-order generalized integral flux observer for the permanent magnet motor. The second-order generalized integral flux observer is an adaptive filter which can eliminate the DC offset and strongly attenuate the harmonics of the estimated rotor flux. The algorithms have been simulated and then validated by means of tests on a permanent magnet motor for e-bikes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Electrical Machines and Drives Technologies, 3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 3358 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D-Printed Ankle Foot Orthosis (AFO) with Optimized Material and Design for Children with Cerebral Palsy

by Putra Aji Pangestu, Christian Harito, Elioenai Sitepu, Safarudin Gazali Herawan, Syauqi Abdurrahman Abrori and Cokisela Christian Lumban Tobing

Designs 2026, 10(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs10010001 - 22 Dec 2025

Cerebral palsy (CP) often causes mobility limitations that require assistive devices such as Ankle Foot Orthoses (AFOs) to enhance functional stability. This study aims to develop an optimized 3D-printed AFO design that improves comfort, structural durability, and production efficiency for children with CP. [...] Read more.

Cerebral palsy (CP) often causes mobility limitations that require assistive devices such as Ankle Foot Orthoses (AFOs) to enhance functional stability. This study aims to develop an optimized 3D-printed AFO design that improves comfort, structural durability, and production efficiency for children with CP. The research applies a Design of Experiment approach using the Taguchi method to optimize 3D printing parameters, supported by tensile testing to identify the best material configuration. Design alternatives were prioritized using the Analytical Hierarchy Process, while Finite Element Analysis was conducted to evaluate mechanical performance under physiological loading. The selected PETG configuration (33% infill density and 0.15 mm layer thickness) demonstrated improved tensile strength and flexibility, contributing to enhanced structural behavior. A prototype was produced and validated using the Quebec User Evaluation of Satisfaction with Assistive Technology (QUEST) questionnaire. Results showed higher overall user satisfaction for the optimized 3D-printed AFO compared to conventional devices, particularly in safety, comfort, and durability. The integration of optimized material parameters, systematic design evaluation, and user-centered assessment provides an effective pathway toward improving AFO performance and supporting the mobility and quality of life of children with cerebral palsy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Design Methodologies for Additive Manufacturing in Patient-Specific Medical Solutions)

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32 pages, 7353 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Methodology for the Design and Selection of Multifunctional Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer for Aircraft Structures

by Muhammad Hijaaj Tahir, Catherine E. Jones and Robert Ian Whitfield

Designs 2025, 9(6), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060146 - 18 Dec 2025

Multifunctional aerostructures that carry mechanical loadings while conducting electrical currents offer a promising approach to reduce the weight of Electrical Power Systems (EPS) of aircraft. However, Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), when used for aerostructures, presents challenges in achieving multi-functionality due to anisotropic mechanical, [...] Read more.

Multifunctional aerostructures that carry mechanical loadings while conducting electrical currents offer a promising approach to reduce the weight of Electrical Power Systems (EPS) of aircraft. However, Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), when used for aerostructures, presents challenges in achieving multi-functionality due to anisotropic mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. These properties are interdependent on both laminate-level design factors (fibre/resin choice, fibre volume fraction, stacking sequence, and electrode configuration) and system-level EPS constraints (allowable voltage drop, current, and installation geometry). State-of-the-art material design and selection methods lack a coupled mechanical–electro–thermal design and selection approach to overcome these challenges of a complex design space to enable identification of multifunctional CFRP (MF-CFRP) solutions. This paper presents the first methodology for the design and selection of MF-CFRP with combined electrical, structural, and thermal properties. The methodology integrates requirement capture, laminate layup determination, electro-thermal assessment, option ranking, and manufacturing route selection. The methodology couples laminate-level design factors with system-level EPS constraints and includes iterative loops to refine either the CFRP design or the EPS parameters when no solution initially exists. The methodology is demonstrated to enable the design of a CFRP component to conduct the electrical current as part of the 28 V_DC network in an aircraft. This case study demonstrates the value of the methodology to identify knowledge and dataset gaps necessary for MF-CFRP design, alongside enabling the design of MF-CFRP components to enable increased power density of weight-critical EPS. Although the case study focused on a 28 V_DC system, the methodology is generalisable to other aircraft electrical architectures since system-level electrical parameters are used within the methodology as adaptable inputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mechanical Engineering Design)

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36 pages, 11316 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Glaucoma Drainage Devices and Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery—Evolution of Designs and Materials

by Hari Tunga, Neloy Shome, Amirmohammad Shafiee, Prisha Jonnalagadda, Noah Wong, Amirmahdi Shafiee, Sohan Bobba and Karanjit Kooner

Designs 2025, 9(6), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060145 - 15 Dec 2025

Glaucoma is recognized as the second leading cause of blindness globally and a primary cause of irreversible blindness, estimated to affect over 80 million patients worldwide, including 4.5 million in the United States. Though the disease is multifactorial, the primary cause is elevated [...] Read more.

Glaucoma is recognized as the second leading cause of blindness globally and a primary cause of irreversible blindness, estimated to affect over 80 million patients worldwide, including 4.5 million in the United States. Though the disease is multifactorial, the primary cause is elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), which damages the optic nerve fibers that connect the eye to the brain, thus interfering with the quality of vision. Current treatments have evolved, which consist of medications, laser therapies, and surgical interventions such as filtering procedures, glaucoma drainage devices (GDDs), and current innovations of minimally invasive glaucoma surgeries (MIGS). This paper aims to discuss the history and evolution of the design and biomaterials employed in GDDs and MIGS. Through a comprehensive review of the literature, we trace the development of these devices from early concepts to modern implants, highlighting advancements in materials science and surgical integration. This historical analysis, ranging from the mid-19th century, reveals a trend towards enhanced biocompatibility, improved efficiency in IOP reduction, and reduced complications. We conclude that the ongoing evolution of GDDs and MIGS underscores a persistent commitment to advancing patient care in glaucoma, paving the way for future device innovations and therapeutic trends to treat glaucoma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Biomaterials Design)

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31 pages, 5434 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Low-Cost and Low-Power LoRa-Based IoT System for Rockfall and Landslide Monitoring

by Luis Miguel Pires and Ileida Veiga

Designs 2025, 9(6), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060144 - 12 Dec 2025

This work presents the development and evaluation of a low-cost and low-power IoT system for monitoring slope instabilities, rockfalls, and landslides using LoRa communication. The prototype integrates commercial ESP32-based hardware with an SX1276 transceiver, a triaxial MEMS accelerometer, and a GPS module for [...] Read more.

This work presents the development and evaluation of a low-cost and low-power IoT system for monitoring slope instabilities, rockfalls, and landslides using LoRa communication. The prototype integrates commercial ESP32-based hardware with an SX1276 transceiver, a triaxial MEMS accelerometer, and a GPS module for real-time tilt and location measurements. A tilt-estimation expression was derived from accelerometer data, enabling adaptation to different terrain inclinations. Laboratory tests were performed to validate the stability and accuracy of the inclination measurement, followed by outdoor LoRa range tests under mixed line-of-sight conditions. A lightweight dashboard was implemented for real-time visualization of GPS position, signal quality, and tilt data. The results show reliable tilt detection, consistent long-range communication, and low power consumption, highlighting the potential of the proposed prototype as a scalable and energy-efficient tool for geotechnical monitoring. Full article

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14 pages, 6141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Stability Evaluation of Slopes in the Sejiang Deformable Body Region Based on Experimental Data

by Dongqiang Li, Baodong Jiang, Gan Li and Chun Zhu

Designs 2025, 9(6), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060143 - 10 Dec 2025

In the field of engineering construction design, slope instability near water bodies remains a significant challenge. This issue is influenced by various factors, including fluid dynamics and external load disturbances. This study focuses on the design and stability evaluation of the slope in [...] Read more.

In the field of engineering construction design, slope instability near water bodies remains a significant challenge. This issue is influenced by various factors, including fluid dynamics and external load disturbances. This study focuses on the design and stability evaluation of the slope in the Sejiang deformation area of the Baala Hydropower Station, applying three advanced techniques: PS-InSAR remote sensing for dynamic slope deformation data, FLAC3D stability simulation for numerical analysis of slope stability, and FLOW-3D wave calculation for quantifying secondary wave effects caused by potential landslides. By integrating these technologies, the study provides a multi-dimensional, quantitative evaluation of the secondary disasters triggered by landslides in this region. The findings are as follows: (1) The slope in the deformation zone exhibits a long-term “stable-creep” evolution, characteristic of a “stable-creep landslide” type; (2) Sliding failure primarily occurs along the interface between the bedrock and overburden layer due to shear deformation; (3) When the deformation body, with a volume of 2.1 million cubic meters, slides into the water at a velocity of 24 m/s, the calculated maximum water level height on the opposite bank reaches approximately 2925 m, near the top elevation of the dam, but still within the project’s preset safety threshold. The design methodologies and conclusions drawn from this study offer valuable insights for evaluating and designing the stability of near-water slopes in other hydropower stations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering Design)

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18 pages, 3025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Prestress Value for Multi-Row Anchor in Anti-Slide Pile Based on a Staged Orthogonal Design

by Peng Zhang, Hongjie Jin, Rui Guo, Xiaokun Xu, Shuaikang Li and Qingxiang Meng

Designs 2025, 9(6), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060142 - 7 Dec 2025

The anti-slide pile with multi-row prestress anchor is widely used to prevent the failure of the slope. This paper proposes a multi-row anchor prestress optimization method based on a staged uniform design that combines FLAC3D 9.0 numerical simulations with the minimum bending moment [...] Read more.

The anti-slide pile with multi-row prestress anchor is widely used to prevent the failure of the slope. This paper proposes a multi-row anchor prestress optimization method based on a staged uniform design that combines FLAC3D 9.0 numerical simulations with the minimum bending moment criterion. By determining a global reference prestress and performing successive layered adjustments, the proposed method effectively controls the peak bending moment of the support structure and significantly enhances overall stability. Case studies demonstrate that this method reduces the peak bending moment of piles by approximately 31.88%, leading to a more uniform bending moment distribution, improved safety, and better cost efficiency. These results indicate that the proposed method provides an efficient and reliable approach for optimizing prestress distribution in complex slope support systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Resilient Civil Infrastructure, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 4249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Sustainable Construction: Hybrid Prediction Modeling for Compressive Strength of Rice Husk Ash Concrete

by Wanling Yang, Yasha Ji, Shengtao Zhou, Ling Ji, Yu Lei and Minhao Wang

Designs 2025, 9(6), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060141 - 5 Dec 2025

Rice husk ash (RHA) offers an eco-friendly way to improve concrete. Owing to the complex mix design of RHA concrete, accurately predicting its strength remains a challenge. This study addresses this need by compiling a dataset of 291 compressive strength records for RHA [...] Read more.

Rice husk ash (RHA) offers an eco-friendly way to improve concrete. Owing to the complex mix design of RHA concrete, accurately predicting its strength remains a challenge. This study addresses this need by compiling a dataset of 291 compressive strength records for RHA concrete. Using seven key input variables (e.g., cement, water, and RHA content), three novel hybrid models were developed by integrating the XGBoost algorithm with advanced metaheuristic optimizers: Northern Goshawk Optimization (NGO), Arctic Puffin Optimization (APO), and Catch Fish Optimization Algorithm (CFOA). These hybrid models were compared against classic Random Forest (RF), and Support Vector Regression (SVR), and unoptimized XGBoost models. The results demonstrated that all hybrid models significantly outperformed the unoptimized classic models. The APO–XGBoost model achieved the highest prediction accuracy on the testing set (RMSE = 3.5462, R² = 0.9579 on testing set), followed by CFOA–XGBoost and NGO–XGBoost. Cement content was revealed to be the most influential parameter on compressive strength, as determined by a sensitivity analysis, ahead of both water and coarse aggregate content. This research confirms the superiority of metaheuristic-optimized hybrid models for predicting the strength of RHA concrete, providing a reliable data-driven tool to support its mix design and promote its application in sustainable construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction: Innovations in Design, Engineering, and the Circular Economy, 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 4743 KB

Open AccessReview

Digital Twins in Development of Medical Products—The State of the Art

by Zhuming Bi, Ruaa Jamal Rabi Salem Alfakawi, Hosni Abu-Mulaweh and Donald Mueller

Designs 2025, 9(6), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060140 - 4 Dec 2025

This article provides a Structured Literature Review (SLR) on the uses of Digital Twins (DT-Is) in the development of medical products. The purposes of our SLR are to find out (1) whether existing DT-I technologies are mature enough to be adopted for new [...] Read more.

This article provides a Structured Literature Review (SLR) on the uses of Digital Twins (DT-Is) in the development of medical products. The purposes of our SLR are to find out (1) whether existing DT-I technologies are mature enough to be adopted for new medical product development, and (2) if the answer to item (1) is no, what existing works can be utilized in developing DT-Is for designs of bone fixations? It is our finding that numerous works are reported on using DT-Is in healthcare applications such as remote surgeries, remote diagnoses, personalized medicines, and assistive technologies. These applications involve one-to-one correspondence of physical and digital entities but exhibit several limitations in (1) inheriting and transferring knowledge from legacy products to new products and (2) a lack of a systematic approach in creating innovations for new product development. We suggest adopting Digital Triad (DT-II) for medical product development. A background study on using DT-II for the design of bone staples is conducted to illustrate the feasibility of the proposed idea. Full article

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4 pages, 157 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Towards Net-Positive Energy Urban Districts: A Pillar of the Energy Transition

by Tony Castillo-Calzadilla

Designs 2025, 9(6), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060139 - 2 Dec 2025

In the current energy transition landscape, characterised by the dual requirements of accelerated decarbonisation and increased resilience to disruptions in the electricity system, the concept of positive energy districts (PEDs) is becoming increasingly relevant [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Applications of Positive Energy Districts)

26 pages, 4052 KB

Open AccessArticle

Solar-Thermal Process Intensification for Blue Hydrogen Production: Integrated Steam Methane Reforming with a Waste-Derived Red Mud Catalyst

by Taher Maatallah, Mussad Al-Zahrani, Salman Hilal, Abdullah Alsubaie, Mohammad Aljohani, Murad Alghamdi, Faisal Almansour, Loay Awad, Yassine Slimani and Sajid Ali

Designs 2025, 9(6), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060138 - 28 Nov 2025

The transition to low-carbon energy systems necessitates innovative design strategies for decarbonizing hydrogen production, particularly in industrial-scale applications where steam methane reforming (SMR) remains predominant. This study proposes a novel, integrated process design for blue hydrogen production that addresses both energy and environmental [...] Read more.

The transition to low-carbon energy systems necessitates innovative design strategies for decarbonizing hydrogen production, particularly in industrial-scale applications where steam methane reforming (SMR) remains predominant. This study proposes a novel, integrated process design for blue hydrogen production that addresses both energy and environmental sustainability through process intensification and resource valorization. A hybrid system was developed that combines solar thermal energy input with the catalytic potential of industrial waste, specifically, red mud, a byproduct of alumina refining. A solar parabolic dish (SPD) was engineered to contribute 10% of the heat demand, generating superheated steam at 477 °C. This work serves as a proof-of-concept, demonstrating the technical viability of integration at a bench scale. In parallel, red mud was characterized, thermochemically activated, and formulated into a low-cost catalyst for the SMR process. The integrated system includes solar-assisted steam generation, red mud-based catalytic reforming, CO₂ capture using methyl diethanolamine (MDEA), and hydrogen purification via pressure swing adsorption (PSA). The full process was modeled and optimized using ASPEN Plus, ASPEN Adsorption, and COMSOL Multiphysics^® Under optimal conditions (900 °C, 25 bar, steam-to-carbon ratio of 3), the system produced 1070 kg/h of hydrogen, achieving 95% CO₂ capture efficiency and 99.99% hydrogen purity. Techno-economic analysis revealed the red mud-derived catalyst costs 3.89 SAR/g (1.04 USD/g), a 77% cost reduction compared to conventional Ni-based catalysts. The integration of solar thermal energy, while offering modest direct economic savings of approximately 9500 SAR (2530 USD) annually, primarily demonstrates the technical feasibility of renewable heat integration for reducing the carbon intensity of hydrogen production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy System Design)

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19 pages, 3202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Physics-Based and Data-Driven Approaches for Accurate Bending Prediction in Soft Pneumatic Actuators

by Nikhil Aryan, Narendra Gariya and Pravin Sankhwar

Designs 2025, 9(6), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060137 - 28 Nov 2025

Soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) are gaining attention in the field of soft robotics due to their lightweight, highly flexible, and safer interaction while operated under an unstructured environment. They are easy to fabricate, produce high output force, and are relatively very inexpensive compared [...] Read more.

Soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) are gaining attention in the field of soft robotics due to their lightweight, highly flexible, and safer interaction while operated under an unstructured environment. They are easy to fabricate, produce high output force, and are relatively very inexpensive compared to other soft actuators. However, accurate prediction of their nonlinear bending behavior is one of the main challenges, which is mainly due to the complex material properties and high deformation patterns. Therefore, this study focused on a hybrid approach that accurately captures the bending behavior of a single-chambered SPAs. This approach integrates physics-based modeling (finite element analysis (FEA) and analytical modeling) with a data-driven (polynomial regression modeling) approach to analyze the bending of single-chambered SPAs. Initially, four different hyperelastic material models (Neo-Hookean, Yeoh, Arruda–Boyce, and Ogden) were tested using FEA to analyze how material selection affects the SPA response. It is found that the Arruda–Boyce model generates the highest bending of 101° at 30 kPa pressure, while the other models consistently underestimated deformation at higher pressures. Further, an enhanced mathematical or analytical model was developed using Euler and Timoshenko beam theory with certain assumptions, such as neutral axis shifting, chamber ballooning, and shear deformation. These assumptions significantly improve the prediction accuracy and generate a bending angle of 99°at 30 kPa, which closely matches FEA bending. Further, a polynomial regression-based machine learning (ML) model was trained using analytical or mathematical bending data for faster output prediction. This data-driven approach achieves very high accuracy in the validation range, with an average absolute percentage deviation of only 0.002%. Additionally, comparison with the analytical results showed a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.00180°, root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.00205°, and coefficient of determination (R²) value of 0.999999808. Overall, integrating physics-based modeling with a data-driven approach provides a reliable and scalable method for SPA design. It provides practical information on material selection, analytical correction, and ML modeling, which will reduce the need for time-consuming prototyping. Finally, this hybrid approach can help to accelerate the development of soft robotic grippers, rehabilitation tools, and other bio-inspired actuation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mechanical Engineering Design)

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25 pages, 1309 KB

Open AccessArticle

Navigating Digital Transformation in Asset-Intensive Companies: A Process Model Informed by Design Science

by Ilja Heitlager, Bernard Jenniskens and A. Georges L. Romme

Designs 2025, 9(6), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060136 - 26 Nov 2025

Companies in asset-intensive industries, such as aviation and railways, face unique digital transformation challenges due to the misalignment between the rapid evolution of digital technologies and decades-long asset lifecycles. Existing innovation frameworks are inadequate for managing this complexity, which in turn creates tensions [...] Read more.

Companies in asset-intensive industries, such as aviation and railways, face unique digital transformation challenges due to the misalignment between the rapid evolution of digital technologies and decades-long asset lifecycles. Existing innovation frameworks are inadequate for managing this complexity, which in turn creates tensions between innovation requirements and operational reliability demands. This paper therefore investigates how asset-intensive companies can systematically integrate digital technologies, while fully complying with regulatory constraints and safety requirements. We employ a design science approach in a study of Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS), the Dutch national railway operator, focusing specifically on the implementation of AI-driven CCTV systems within the operations of NS. Drawing on a literature review and participant-observer as well as interview data, we develop six design propositions that address the key digital transformation challenges of asset-intensive companies in the area of market readiness assessment, modular architecture, regulatory compliance, temporal coordination, ecosystem governance, and organizational capability development. Using these design propositions, we develop the Iterative Development & Adoption Model (IDAM) that operationalizes market maturity assessment through market readiness levels to guide make-or-buy transitions across four iterative phases: ideate, assess, realise, and review. This model includes a Development Reference Architecture for emerging technologies and an Integration Reference Architecture for more mature technologies, enabling concurrent sourcing strategies based on technological maturity. IDAM provides actionable guidance for decisions about technology adoption in asset-intensive contexts, thereby offering a systematic approach to innovation management in industries with very long asset lifecycles and huge regulatory constraints. Full article

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29 pages, 7160 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Dynamic and Energetic Performances of an Electric SUV in Real Driving Conditions

by Alexandru-Adrian Ancuta, Cristian-Alexandru Rentea and Daniel-Mihail Iozsa

Designs 2025, 9(6), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060135 - 26 Nov 2025

Electric vehicles have a limited driving range compared to conventional vehicles. This paper aims to present a particular study of the performances of electric vehicles based on real driving conditions on a cycle carried out using the general conditions of European Regulation regarding [...] Read more.

Electric vehicles have a limited driving range compared to conventional vehicles. This paper aims to present a particular study of the performances of electric vehicles based on real driving conditions on a cycle carried out using the general conditions of European Regulation regarding RDE tests. In this sense, a modern electric SUV was used and experimental tests were conducted using a measuring equipment connected to the vehicle via the OBD2 plug. The experimental results will be analyzed and presented in the following sections, and the main influencing factors on the energy performances (range, state of charge, energy consumption) that may occur in real running conditions will be identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vehicle Engineering Design)

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17 pages, 2468 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comfort Prediction Model for Sports Car Seats

by Marco Cuomo, Alessandro Naddeo and Rosaria Califano

Designs 2025, 9(6), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9060134 - 25 Nov 2025

Automotive seat comfort is a critical factor in enhancing driver satisfaction, especially in sports cars, where design must balance comfort features and performance-oriented features like lateral containment and anti-submarining. This study adopts an empirical-analytical approach for assessing and modelling perceived comfort in sports [...] Read more.

Automotive seat comfort is a critical factor in enhancing driver satisfaction, especially in sports cars, where design must balance comfort features and performance-oriented features like lateral containment and anti-submarining. This study adopts an empirical-analytical approach for assessing and modelling perceived comfort in sports car seats using both objective and subjective data. A total of 64 participants (50 males, 14 females) evaluated two types of sports car seats—a road model (SEAT A) and a racing model (SEAT B)—during 15-min driving simulations using a dynamic simulator equipped with a full-body pressure mat (XSENSOR X3 PRO). Comfort was assessed through a postural comfort questionnaire using 10-point Likert scales. Statistical analysis revealed significant correlations between anthropometry, pressure distribution, and perceived comfort. In light of the correlation analysis, regression models were developed for four anthropometric percentile clusters (0–25th, 25–50th, 50–75th, 75–100th). Models were validated (accuracy > 75%) and one of them (named Model III) achieved accuracies of 95%, 96%, 90%, and 97% for its percentile clusters. The proposed models offer actionable insights for tailoring sports car seats to different user percentiles, enabling more personalized and effective seat designs that enhance both performance and comfort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vehicle Engineering Design)

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