Agronomy

24 pages, 7190 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

DNA Barcoding and Allele-Specific PCR Discrimination of Glasswort Ecotypes from Apulia Region (Southern Italy)

by Angelica Giancaspro, Giulia Conversa, Luigi Giuseppe Duri, Gaetana Ricatti, Antonio Elia, Stefano Pavan and Concetta Lotti

Agronomy 2026, 16(10), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16100947 - 8 May 2026

Viewed by 516

Abstract

In the scenario of ongoing climate changes, the selection of plant genotypes with high salt tolerance is emerging as the most sustainable strategy to safeguard crop yield and quality and make productive use of salinized soils. Glassworts are annual and perennial halophytes found [...] Read more.

In the scenario of ongoing climate changes, the selection of plant genotypes with high salt tolerance is emerging as the most sustainable strategy to safeguard crop yield and quality and make productive use of salinized soils. Glassworts are annual and perennial halophytes found in inner and coastal wastelands, indistinctly consumed as high-nutritional green vegetables. Traditional taxonomic classification based on morphological traits can be very challenging in glasswort, due to phenotypic plasticity, reduced plant morphology, and inbreeding. In this work, we used DNA-based molecular tools to overcome such constraints and assess inter-generic and inter-specific genetic diversity in a collection of ecotypes from different Apulian areas. A fast and reliable Allele-Specific PCR assay was optimized to enable molecular detection of annual and perennial genera. Species-level classification was obtained through a similarity- and phylogeny-based approach relying on matK and rbcL DNA barcoding. Combined DNA tools identified perennial samples as Sarcocornia fruticosa and Arthrocaulon macrostachyum, along with annual Salicornia europaea, and phylogenetic trees unveiled genetic distances between glassworts, which clustered according to life cycle. The relationship between genotypes and nutritional profiles was finally investigated, suggesting that environmental factors may play a predominant role over taxonomic relatedness in shaping interspecific differences in nutrient composition of the analyzed samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agro-Environmental Sustainable Exploitation of Halophyte, Medicinal and Aromatic Species from Marginal Areas—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 1091 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Labile Carbon Additions Reduce Soil Nitrate but Can Increase Maize Fertilizer N Needs

by Stephen W. Potter, John E. Sawyer and Marshall D. McDaniel

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090933 - 4 May 2026

Viewed by 497

Abstract

Winter cover crops (WCCs) are effective at reducing N losses from temperate agroecosystems. Although extensive research on WCCs has demonstrated numerous benefits, overall adoption rates in the Midwest U.S. remain low. We evaluated an alternative to WCC’s ability to reduce nitrate (NO₃ [...] Read more.

Winter cover crops (WCCs) are effective at reducing N losses from temperate agroecosystems. Although extensive research on WCCs has demonstrated numerous benefits, overall adoption rates in the Midwest U.S. remain low. We evaluated an alternative to WCC’s ability to reduce nitrate (NO₃⁻)-N leaching; that is, adding an inexpensive, easy-to-apply, form of labile carbon (C) as a soil amendment intended to immobilize N and mitigate leaching. In the autumn in a typical maize–soybean rotation, we added crude glycerol (a C-rich, biodiesel byproduct) and hypothesized that glycerol carbon (C_glyc) would immobilize N and have no effect on crop growth. More specifically, C_glyc was broadcast applied at three rates (0, 216, and 866 kg C ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) and combined factorially with six spring-applied fertilizer N rates (0, 56, 112, 168, 224, and 280 kg N ha⁻¹) at two sites. In response, we measured: soil profile NO₃⁻-N, leached NO₃⁻-N, crop health (via SPAD), yield, and maize agronomic optimum N rate (AONR). C_glyc reduced spring soil profile NO₃⁻-N by 14–24% across site-years, but had highly variable and non-significant effects on NO₃⁻-N leaching. C_glyc had an inconsistent impact on crop SPAD and yield, with C_glyc increasing AONR by ~63 kg N ha⁻¹ (or 31–40%) at one of two sites. Our results show promise for using labile C as a “liquid cover crop” soil amendment. Future studies should explore greater labile C application rates and alternate application timing in order to fine-tune the balance between environmental benefits and crop productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Major Crops: Mechanisms, Management, and Synergies with Yield Formation)

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26 pages, 1483 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Activity in Leaves of Seven Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) Cultivars

by Samuel Valdebenito, Marcela Escobar, Ricardo Cautín, Juan Vidal, Martina Ruiz, Benjamín Astudillo, Ignacia Hernández and Patricia Peñaloza

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090929 - 3 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1402

Abstract

Leaves of Persea americana Mill. are a potential source of bioactive compounds; however, current knowledge is limited by the lack of studies that simultaneously evaluate multiple cultivars and leaf developmental stages under comparable field conditions, as well as by inconsistent sampling criteria across [...] Read more.

Leaves of Persea americana Mill. are a potential source of bioactive compounds; however, current knowledge is limited by the lack of studies that simultaneously evaluate multiple cultivars and leaf developmental stages under comparable field conditions, as well as by inconsistent sampling criteria across studies. This study aimed to assess how leaf developmental stage and cultivar influence phenolic composition and antioxidant activity in avocado leaves grown under field conditions. Total polyphenols, total flavonoids, quercetin-3-O-galactoside, and chlorogenic acid were selected as representative compounds due to their relevance in plant defense and antioxidant capacity. These compounds, together with antioxidant activity, were quantified in young expanding (E1) and fully expanded (E6) leaves of seven avocado cultivars using spectrophotometric methods and HPLC-DAD, and analyzed through two-way ANOVA. Results showed that leaf developmental stage significantly influenced flavonoid content, chlorogenic acid, and antioxidant activity, which were consistently higher in E1 leaves. In contrast, total polyphenol content exhibited cultivar-dependent responses, increasing toward E6 only in specific genotypes, while quercetin-3-O-galactoside remained stable across developmental stages but varied among cultivars. Overall, the results indicate that phenolic metabolism in avocado leaves is regulated by both developmental stage and genotype in a compound-specific manner, with no consistent pattern associated with racial background. From a practical perspective, these findings provide a basis for selecting leaf material according to the intended application: young leaves for higher antioxidant capacity and flavonoid content, and specific cultivars at advanced stages for higher total polyphenol accumulation, supporting the functional valorization of avocado leaves as a source of bioactive compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genotype × Environment Interactions in Crop Production—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 864 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biomass Production and Nitrogen Accumulation of Summer Cover Crop Mixtures Under Two Sowing Dates in a Cool Temperate Climate

by Kristo Tikk, Liina Talgre, Karli Sepp, Liina Edesi, Karin Kauer, Viacheslav Eremeev and Merili Toom

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090927 - 2 May 2026

Viewed by 511

Abstract

Summer cover crops can improve soil fertility and contribute to nitrogen (N) supply in temperate cropping systems, yet the effects of mixture composition and sowing timing remain insufficiently documented. This study evaluated biomass production and N accumulation of five multispecies cover crop mixtures [...] Read more.

Summer cover crops can improve soil fertility and contribute to nitrogen (N) supply in temperate cropping systems, yet the effects of mixture composition and sowing timing remain insufficiently documented. This study evaluated biomass production and N accumulation of five multispecies cover crop mixtures grown in Estonia during 2024–2025 under two sowing dates per year. Aboveground biomass, botanical composition, and carbon (C) and nitrogen concentrations were measured to assess productivity, species contributions, and residue quality. Earlier sowing was generally associated with higher biomass and N accumulation, with first-sown mixtures producing, on average, 38.7% more biomass than later-sown mixtures. Mixture performance was strongly shaped by species composition and competitive hierarchies. Total N accumulation of the cover crop mixtures ranged from 42 to 275 kg N ha⁻¹ depending on mixture composition and sowing time, with mixtures dominated by common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) achieving the highest values. Oat (Avena sativa) dominated and contributed substantially to biomass in mixtures lacking competitive legumes, whereas sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and maize (Zea mays) performed less well under delayed sowing. Low-growing species such as Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum) produced little biomass when grown with highly competitive species. Legumes exhibited lower C:N ratios than non-legumes, while mixture-level values remained moderate, suggesting residue quality with potential for favourable decomposition and nutrient release in summer cover crop systems under temperate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cover Crops Grown Alone and in Consortia: Biomass Production, Nutrient Cycling of Residues and Relationships with Soil and Crop Productivity)

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25 pages, 4439 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Monitoring Crop Structure and Moisture Using GNSS Interferometric Reflectometry Based on SNR Modeling

by Samuele De Petris and Enrico Borgogno-Mondino

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090922 - 1 May 2026

Viewed by 864

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate the potential of Global Navigation Satellite System Interferometric Reflectometry (GNSS-IR) based on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) analysis for monitoring crop structure and moisture. Data were collected using a GNSS antenna placed within an experimental meadow located in NW Italy. [...] Read more.

This study aims to evaluate the potential of Global Navigation Satellite System Interferometric Reflectometry (GNSS-IR) based on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) analysis for monitoring crop structure and moisture. Data were collected using a GNSS antenna placed within an experimental meadow located in NW Italy. GNSS-IR exploits the interference between direct and ground-reflected signals to derive physical parameters such as the vegetation phase center height and soil moisture. In this work, by analyzing and modeling the oscillations in SNR time series, the sensitivity to crop growth dynamics was assessed. Vegetation height and dielectric parameters were compared against corresponding ground-surveyed values collected using a ruler and buried soil moisture sensors. Results suggest that GNSS-IR can detect canopy height with a high degree of consistency (Pearson’s r = 0.89, MAPE = 18%). Results also show that changes in the amplitude and phase of the interference pattern are sensitive to biomass density and dielectric properties of the reflecting surface (r = −0.81 and r = 0.86 respectively). GNSS-IR observables were analyzed across four representative measurement campaigns capturing distinct seasonal stages of meadow development. Despite the limited temporal sampling (n = 4), the selected observations correspond to contrasting vegetation and soil moisture conditions, allowing the identification of systematic variations in crop biophysical properties. These findings open promising perspectives for the development of innovative monitoring strategies in precision agriculture, leveraging existing GNSS infrastructure to obtain key biophysical parameters with minimal additional equipment and operational complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Farming Technologies for Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 7010 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fast-Tracking Trait Combination in Triticale Through Doubled Haploid Technology

by Sue Broughton, Marieclaire Castello, Yong Han, Richard Bennett, Manisha Shankar, Ryan Varischetti and Daniel Real

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090923 - 1 May 2026

Viewed by 720

Abstract

This study aimed to develop an anther culture protocol for triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) and generate a doubled haploid (DH) population combining awnlessness and stripe rust resistance. A wheat anther culture protocol was evaluated on nine triticale varieties, with and without Trichostatin A [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop an anther culture protocol for triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) and generate a doubled haploid (DH) population combining awnlessness and stripe rust resistance. A wheat anther culture protocol was evaluated on nine triticale varieties, with and without Trichostatin A (TSA), and tested on parental genotypes—an awned, stripe rust–resistant breeding line (AT-45) and an awnless variety (‘1143’)—as well as on ten F₁ plants derived from crosses between AT-45 and ‘1143’. Plant regeneration varied widely among varieties, ranging from 0.8 to 39.7 green plants per 30 anthers (1.6–80 per spike), with an overall mean of 9.9 (20 per spike). TSA did not significantly improve green plant production in this study, though further optimisation of the application method may be warranted. An average of 17.4 green plants per spike was obtained from the F₁ plants, and 1130 regenerant plants were grown to maturity, with a mean spontaneous chromosome doubling rate of 42.5%. A total of 480 DH lines were harvested, comprising 250 awned, 60 reduced awn, and 170 awnless lines. Awned and reduced awn lines were discarded, and 114 awnless lines were advanced for field evaluation of stripe rust resistance and agronomic traits. These results establish an effective anther culture system for DH production in triticale and demonstrate the potential of DH technology to accelerate the development of resilient, high-performing varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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17 pages, 2713 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energetic Constraints and Carbon Efficiency During Sucrose Storage in Sugarcane Culms

by Frederik C. Botha

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090913 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 366

Abstract

Sugarcane stores sucrose in a living culm for extended periods, yet the respiratory cost of maintaining this storage tissue remains poorly quantified. We quantified growth and maintenance respiration along the culm (internodes 1 to 12) in three genotypes at mid-season (rapid growth) and [...] Read more.

Sugarcane stores sucrose in a living culm for extended periods, yet the respiratory cost of maintaining this storage tissue remains poorly quantified. We quantified growth and maintenance respiration along the culm (internodes 1 to 12) in three genotypes at mid-season (rapid growth) and end-season (maturation) using a composition-based carbon accounting framework derived from measurements of biomass accumulation and composition. Growth respiration was highest in elongating internodes (3 to 6) and declined with maturation, whereas maintenance respiration increased progressively and dominated in mature storage internodes (10 to 12). Consequently, total sink demand remained substantial even after structural growth slowed, indicating that mature internodes continue to require significant metabolic input despite limited biomass production. To evaluate the potential impact of energetic constraints, we simulated reduced mitochondrial energy contribution to assess the sensitivity of respiratory carbon demand to decreased energetic efficiency. These simulations predicted an increase in glucose requirement for respiration across all internodes, with the largest proportional effect in mature tissue where maintenance costs dominated. Despite this predicted increase in respiratory demand, sucrose accumulation was maintained in mature culms, indicating that respiratory carbon loss remains constrained during storage. This suggests that storage tissue operates with relatively high carbon-use efficiency during maintenance-dominated metabolism. We interpret this pattern as consistent with metabolic configurations that reduce ATP demand, potentially involving partial substitution of ATP-dependent reactions by pyrophosphate (PPi)-dependent pathways, although this mechanism was not directly measured. These findings highlight the importance of maintenance respiration and energetic efficiency in determining sink strength and sucrose yield, and they provide a physiological framework for understanding carbon conservation in long-lived storage organs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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27 pages, 3100 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Ecological and Metagenomic Characterisation of Wild Legume Habitats in Bulgaria: Kaliakra, Strandzha, and Eastern Rhodopes

by Mariana Petkova, Nurettin Tahsin and Mariya Sabeva

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090910 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 403

Abstract

Wild relatives of cultivated legumes represent valuable genetic resources for crop improvement, ecosystem resilience, and sustainable agriculture. This study presents a comparative ecological and metagenomic assessment of three biogeographically distinct regions in Bulgaria—Kaliakra, Strandzha, and the Eastern Rhodopes—where populations of wild legumes, including [...] Read more.

Wild relatives of cultivated legumes represent valuable genetic resources for crop improvement, ecosystem resilience, and sustainable agriculture. This study presents a comparative ecological and metagenomic assessment of three biogeographically distinct regions in Bulgaria—Kaliakra, Strandzha, and the Eastern Rhodopes—where populations of wild legumes, including Pisum elatius, Cicer montbrettii, Vicia incisa, and Lupinus spp., occur. Field expeditions were conducted during flowering and seed maturation stages, followed by rhizosphere soil sampling and high-throughput sequencing targeting bacterial 16S rRNA and fungal ITS regions. Soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity indices, and taxonomic composition were analysed and compared among regions. Distinct microbial community structures were identified. Kaliakra soils were dominated by Firmicutes (26–58%) and Proteobacteria (20–25%), while Strandzha soils showed higher abundance of Actinobacteriota (12–68%) and Proteobacteria (10–35%). The Eastern Rhodopes exhibited more balanced communities, with Proteobacteria (30–45%), Firmicutes (7–43%), and Actinobacteriota (3–11%). Fungal communities also differed significantly, with Nectriaceae dominating in Kaliakra, higher evenness in Strandzha, and intermediate diversity in the Eastern Rhodopes. Alpha diversity revealed the highest bacterial richness in Kaliakra, whereas the Eastern Rhodopes showed the greatest community evenness. Beta diversity analysis demonstrated clear regional separation driven by environmental filtering. These findings highlight the ecological and microbiological differentiation of wild legume habitats and support their conservation and utilisation in sustainable agriculture and breeding programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Plants)

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22 pages, 1168 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydrochar as a Modulator of Soil Microbial Activity and Soil Biochemical Processes

by Francisco J. Moreno-Racero, Marta Velasco-Molina, Rafael López-Núñez and Heike Knicker

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090917 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 581

Abstract

Hydrochar has emerged as a promising carbonaceous amendment to enhance soil quality, yet its short-term effects on soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics and microbial functioning remain poorly understood. Here, a 77-day greenhouse pot experiment was conducted using a Cambisol cultivated with [...] Read more.

Hydrochar has emerged as a promising carbonaceous amendment to enhance soil quality, yet its short-term effects on soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics and microbial functioning remain poorly understood. Here, a 77-day greenhouse pot experiment was conducted using a Cambisol cultivated with sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) under two irrigation regimes simulating well-irrigated (WI) and water-deficit (WD) scenarios. Two doses of chicken-manure-derived hydrochar (3.25 and 6.5 t ha⁻¹, corresponding to 2.35 and 4.69 g kg⁻¹ of dry soil, respectively) and mineral fertilizer (MF) treatments providing equivalent N inputs were evaluated. Hydrochar promoted microbial growth and enhanced enzymatic and respiratory activities despite its low apparent C and nutrient input. After 77 days under WI, the addition of 6.5 t ha⁻¹ hydrochar enhanced the activity of phenol oxidase (POA) and acid phosphomonesterase (AcPA). Concomitantly, the availability of soluble C and N increased, whereas total organic C (TOC) and N decreased relative to the initial values. These responses may suggest enhanced mineralization potentially related to early-stage priming processes. The increase in POA relative to β-glucosidase is in line with a functional shift from a predominant degradation of labile compounds towards an increased oxidation of more complex structures. This interpretation is supported by solid-state ¹³C NMR data, revealing a higher degradation index of the soil organic matter. Under WD, the overall effects of hydrochar were attenuated or suppressed, particularly those related to C and N dynamics, emphasizing the interactive influence of moisture and amendment dose. Overall, our results show that hydrochar can modulate short-term soil biochemical processes, partly through enhanced microbial responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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20 pages, 2033 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intra- and Interspecific Competition Between Ile1781Leu ACCase-Resistant and Susceptible Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) Populations and Corn or Sunflower

by Aristeidis P. Papapanagiotou, Ioannis Vasilakoglou and Ilias G. Eleftherohorinos

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090915 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 410

Abstract

The evolution of herbicide resistance can increase, decrease, or have no effect on the growth rate, competitive ability, and fitness of field-selected populations. The growth response of an ACCase-resistant (R) johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] population harboring an Ile1781Leu mutation, and a [...] Read more.

The evolution of herbicide resistance can increase, decrease, or have no effect on the growth rate, competitive ability, and fitness of field-selected populations. The growth response of an ACCase-resistant (R) johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] population harboring an Ile1781Leu mutation, and a susceptible (S) population was studied in pot experiments under intraspecific and interspecific competition with corn or sunflower, using a target-neighborhood design. The R population in the intraspecific competition indicated greater fitness-related traits such as height (H), tiller number (TN), aboveground fresh weight (AFW), and rhizome fresh weight (RFW) than the S population. Aggressiveness, competitive ratio, competition intensity index, and relative competition intensity indices confirmed also the superiority of the R population. Similarly, the R population grown in interspecific competition with corn or sunflower produced greater H, TN, and AFW than the S population. In addition, both R and S populations growing in competition with corn produced more H, TN, and AFW than those growing in competition with sunflower. Furthermore, the R population in competition with corn hybrids resulted in a greater reduction in H and AFW in corn plants. These findings strongly support the evidence of fitness advantage in the R population harboring the 1781Leu mutant allele as compared to the S counterpart. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Weed Science and Weed Management)

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16 pages, 2584 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of the Freeze–Thaw Process on Plant Available Water and Water-Stable Aggregates as a Function of Soil Tillage and Soil Chemical Quality

by Mykola Kochiieru, Simona Pranaitienė, Virginijus Feiza and Yuliia Kochiieru

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090916 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 825

Abstract

The goal of this work was to determine the effect of soil freeze–thaw processes on the formation of water-stable aggregates (WSA) and plant available water (PAW) in soils of different textures, depending on the intensity of tillage: conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) [...] Read more.

The goal of this work was to determine the effect of soil freeze–thaw processes on the formation of water-stable aggregates (WSA) and plant available water (PAW) in soils of different textures, depending on the intensity of tillage: conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT). The WSA value (0.4%) and PAW mean (5.5%) in sandy loam were higher than in loam. The average content of WSA and PAW tended to decrease in the following order: air-dry soil > soil with water content at field capacity > soil near full saturation. These results indicate that WSA in soils that are close to full saturation upon freezing will be less stable after thawing and will decrease the PAW. The content of WSA in NT was 9.4% higher than in RT and 14% higher than in CT. The content of PAW in NT was 5.6% higher than in CT and 13.6% higher than in RT. The effects of various physical and chemical properties on PAW as a function of water level during the freeze–thaw process indicate that WSA content acted as a direct factor for PAW. In a temperate climate zone under dry meteorological conditions, NT would have a promising future for soil stability by maintaining higher WSA and PAW. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Organic Farming Systems)

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19 pages, 4118 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Agricultural Forecasting: Predicting Crop–Livestock Spatial Layouts in China’s Industrial Parks

by Jinghua Wu and Zhuocheng Xie

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090898 - 29 Apr 2026

Viewed by 599

Abstract

The development of China’s National Modern Agricultural Industrial Parks (NMAIPs) has provided valuable knowledge to guide regional agricultural structural adjustment. To systematically analyze and scale up the successful practices of crop–livestock spatial layouts, this study examines 335 NMAIPs established between 2017 and 2024. [...] Read more.

The development of China’s National Modern Agricultural Industrial Parks (NMAIPs) has provided valuable knowledge to guide regional agricultural structural adjustment. To systematically analyze and scale up the successful practices of crop–livestock spatial layouts, this study examines 335 NMAIPs established between 2017 and 2024. Based on seven natural environmental variables, a deep clustering model (VAE-GMM) was applied to classify the parks into representative environmental types, establishing a standardized spatial reference frame. Crucially, the study introduces a spatial discrepancy (Gap) metric—calculated as the difference between model-predicted theoretical suitability and actual occurrence frequencies—to evaluate industrial expansion potential. Results reveal the parks form five distinct environmental types with clear regional patterns. The LightGBM prediction (micro-average AUC = 0.75, macro-average AUC = 0.63; range: 0.37–0.86) effectively captures natural constraints. Discrepancy analysis exposes a structural divergence between environmental suitability and actual agricultural allocation. Quantifying this divergence highlights suitable yet underrepresented industries, offering a pathway for sustainable resource management. By treating existing parks as reference baselines, this AI-driven forecasting framework provides transferable decision support for preliminary ecological screening and early-stage option identification in newly established parks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence as a Support for Forecasting in Sustainable Agriculture)

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17 pages, 3197 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Biotic and Abiotic Factors on the Flight Performance of Anarta trifolii (Hüfnagel, 1766)

by Xiaoting Sun, Yatao Zhou, Wei He, Shishuai Ge, Kongming Wu and Limei He

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090884 - 28 Apr 2026

Viewed by 610

Abstract

The clover cutworm, Anarta trifolii (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), constitutes a polyphagous pest known for causing sporadic, local outbreaks that significantly damage Beta vulgaris, Gossypium hirsutum, Brassica oleracea and others. Evidence supports the occurrence of seasonal migration in this species, but the determinants [...] Read more.

The clover cutworm, Anarta trifolii (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), constitutes a polyphagous pest known for causing sporadic, local outbreaks that significantly damage Beta vulgaris, Gossypium hirsutum, Brassica oleracea and others. Evidence supports the occurrence of seasonal migration in this species, but the determinants of A. trifolii flight performance remain unexplored. Understanding the species’ flight performance is essential for predicting its long-distance dispersal, identifying source and sink populations, and improving regional pest forecasting. We characterized flight performance and its influencing factors via computer-monitored flight mills. Maximum flight performance was achieved in A. trifolii adults at two days, followed by a significant decline with increasing age. At 24 °C and 80% relative humidity (RH), in a 12 h test, males and females aged two days achieved total flight distances of 38.90 ± 1.21 km and 31.70 ± 1.56 km, respectively. In a 24 h test, three-day-old adults reached a maximum flight speed of 19.68 km/h, a sustained flight duration of 17.38 h, a total flight duration of 23.89 h, a sustained flight distance of 69.64 km, and a total flight distance of 96.56 km. The flight performance of A. trifolii was significantly affected by both temperature and RH, with the maximum flight capacity achieved at 18–28 °C and 35–80% RH. Flight performance was significantly enhanced when A. trifolii were fed honey or sucrose. Moreover, the wingbeat frequency of A. trifolii adults varied among age groups, ranging from 31.90 to 57.65 Hz. In females, the wingbeat frequency peaked at 2 days old (46.72 ± 0.25 Hz), whereas in males it peaked at 10 days old (47.18 ± 0.66 Hz). These results advance the fundamental understanding of A. trifolii migration and offer practical applications, including improved pest management strategies, optimized use of chemical insecticides and biological control agents, and enhanced decision-making in integrated pest management programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pests, Pesticides, Pollinators and Sustainable Farming—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 4254 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Weed Structure and Yield Response to Crop Sequence and Chemical Protection in Long-Term Experiment with Winter Wheat

by Arkadiusz Stępień

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090887 - 28 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 543

Abstract

Long-term simplification of cropping systems and crop protection practices promotes increased weed infestation and may lead to yield decline. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of crop sequence systems and levels of crop protection on weed infestation, weed community [...] Read more.

Long-term simplification of cropping systems and crop protection practices promotes increased weed infestation and may lead to yield decline. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of crop sequence systems and levels of crop protection on weed infestation, weed community diversity, and grain yield of winter wheat under long-term field experiment conditions. The research was conducted in a static field experiment established in 1967 in Bałcyny, Poland. Two cropping systems were analyzed, monoculture and a six-course crop rotation, combined with three levels of protection: no protection, herbicide, and herbicide + fungicide. Weed density, biomass, and species composition were evaluated, as well as diversity indices (Shannon–Wiener and Simpson) and grain yield. Monoculture significantly increased weed density and biomass, promoting the dominance of competitive species such as Apera spica-venti and Centaurea cyanus. In the crop rotation system, lower weed infestation, higher species diversity, and a more even community structure were observed. The application of herbicide effectively reduced weed infestation; however, it led to a decline in species diversity and an increase in the dominance of tolerant species. Grain yield was strongly negatively correlated with the level of weed infestation. The highest yields were obtained in the crop rotation system with full chemical protection, whereas monoculture resulted in a significant yield reduction regardless of the level of protection. These results highlight the key role of crop rotation and integrated crop protection in reducing weed infestation and stabilizing winter wheat yields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation Agricultural Practices for Improving Crop Production and Quality—2nd Edition)

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31 pages, 3994 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

High-Throughput Citrus Detection via Citrus-SGYOLOv2: A Symmetric Ghost-Based Architecture with High-Resolution Feature Fusion

by Jinfeng Li, Yutian Miao, Wenxuan Guo, Yuxiang Li, Qian Xu, Yue Xiang, Yanyu Chen, Xianyao Wang, Yunsen Liang and Jun Li

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090894 - 28 Apr 2026

Viewed by 652

Abstract

Accurate high-throughput fruit detection is the core prerequisite for precision citrus management. Existing models face a critical trade-off between accuracy for small fruits and computational efficiency, restricting large-scale industry transformation. To resolve this, we propose Citrus-SGYOLOv2, an optimized deep learning architecture specifically engineered [...] Read more.

Accurate high-throughput fruit detection is the core prerequisite for precision citrus management. Existing models face a critical trade-off between accuracy for small fruits and computational efficiency, restricting large-scale industry transformation. To resolve this, we propose Citrus-SGYOLOv2, an optimized deep learning architecture specifically engineered for high-throughput phenotypic monitoring. The primary contribution of this work lies in three synergistic innovations: a novel Symmetric Ghost Backbone that prunes architectural redundancy while maintaining hierarchical feature depth; a Citrus Color Prior Calibration Attention Mechanism (Citrus_SE) that embeds physiological chromaticity priors to suppress complex spectral noise from foliage; and a P2-layer-based full-scale fusion strategy designed to recover fine-grained spatial details lost during downsampling. Experiments on our self-built dataset show that Citrus-SGYOLOv2 achieves 95.54% mAP@50 and 77.13% mAP@50–95, outperforming YOLOv11s by 5.03 and 9.90 percentage points respectively. Notably, the model achieves a 48.8% reduction in parameters (4.84 M) while sustaining a high-throughput inference speed of 139.00 FPS. This research provides a robust and efficient foundational framework for intelligent yield estimation and precision orchard management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Studies in High-Throughput Plant Phenomics)

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16 pages, 5460 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metagenomic Analysis Reveals Viral Diversity of Vanilla planifolia in South Florida

by Jesse Potts, Vincent N. Michael and Xingbo Wu

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090881 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 581

Abstract

Vanilla planifolia, a high-value tropical orchid, is significantly impacted by viral pathogens that threaten its cultivation and productivity. This study employs metagenomic techniques to detect and characterize the viral communities associated with V. planifolia in South Florida. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing, the [...] Read more.

Vanilla planifolia, a high-value tropical orchid, is significantly impacted by viral pathogens that threaten its cultivation and productivity. This study employs metagenomic techniques to detect and characterize the viral communities associated with V. planifolia in South Florida. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing, the Cymbidium mosaic virus (CymMV) and Vanilla latent virus (VLV) were prevalent in the plant system, with CymMV being the dominant viral species. Phylogenetic analysis of the CymMV coat protein gene revealed notable genetic divergence in the Homestead isolate, forming a distinct clade from global reference strains, suggesting local adaptation or host-specific evolution. Viral distribution across the plant system revealed higher viral loads in stem tissue, consistent with their role in systemic transport, whereas leaves exhibited greater viral richness, likely due to increased environmental exposure. The low abundance of other viral species, including Garlic viruses and Senna severe yellow mosaic virus, suggests that V. planifolia may harbor a broader range of viral taxa than previously characterized, though these findings represent a preliminary survey of symptomatic plants rather than a comprehensive regional assessment. This study underscores the value of metagenomic approaches for uncovering both well-characterized and novel viruses in plant systems and highlights the need for expanded sampling and continuous viral surveillance to guide disease management strategies in economically important crops such as vanilla. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Breeding, Genetics and Genomics, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 2160 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Distance-Dependent Patterns of Metcalfa pruinosa (Say, 1830) Across a Forest–Crop Interface in an Agricultural Landscape

by Denisa-Daliana Sfirculus and Ioana Grozea

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090878 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 584

Abstract

Invasive polyphagous insects are an increasing concern in agricultural landscapes, particularly where forest and crop habitats occur in close proximity. The invasive planthopper Metcalfa pruinosa (Say, 1830) has expanded widely across Europe, yet its distribution across forest–crop interfaces remain insufficiently documented. This study [...] Read more.

Invasive polyphagous insects are an increasing concern in agricultural landscapes, particularly where forest and crop habitats occur in close proximity. The invasive planthopper Metcalfa pruinosa (Say, 1830) has expanded widely across Europe, yet its distribution across forest–crop interfaces remain insufficiently documented. This study examined the population dynamics of M. pruinosa along a forest–crop gradient in western Romania during the 2024–2025 growing seasons. Monitoring was conducted in a deciduous forest habitat and in adjacent crop systems located at increasing distances from the forest edge. In the forest habitat, adult abundance was consistently higher near the forest margin, while nymphs were recorded in the forest interior, indicating local development. In adjacent crop systems, both adult and nymph abundance showed a clear distance-dependent decline, with higher values recorded closer to the forest edge. Crop-level incidence and seasonal severity generally followed the same spatial pattern, with higher infestation levels in sites located nearer to the forest margin. These findings show a consistent spatial association between forest proximity and variation in M. pruinosa abundance and infestation levels across the forest–crop interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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24 pages, 4823 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biodegradable Mulch Thickness and Color Effects: Multi-Environment Assessment for Optimizing Processing Tomato Yield and Performance

by Nicolò Iacuzzi, Ida di Mola, Noemi Tortorici, Eugenio Cozzolino, Antonio Giovino, Lucia Ottaiano, Maria Eleonora Pelosi, Mauro Sarno, Teresa Tuttolomondo and Mauro Mori

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 879; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090879 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 733

Abstract

The Mediterranean Basin faces increasing risks from extreme weather events, particularly heat stress, which severely threatens the productivity of sensitive crops, like processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). This study evaluated the agronomic, physiological, quality, and economic performance of using Mater-Bi^®-based [...] Read more.

The Mediterranean Basin faces increasing risks from extreme weather events, particularly heat stress, which severely threatens the productivity of sensitive crops, like processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). This study evaluated the agronomic, physiological, quality, and economic performance of using Mater-Bi^®-based biodegradable mulch films—varying in color (black and White/Black) and thickness (12 µm and 15 µm)—in two distinct Southern Italian pedoclimatic sites: Sicily and Campania. The aim was to define site-specific optimization strategies by comparing three biodegradable mulch film treatments, 12 µm (BDM12), 15 µm (BDM15), and Black/White (BDBW), against bare soil (BS). The results confirmed that biodegradable mulching enhances plant physiological status, such as chlorophyll and nitrogen balance index (NBI), and marketable yield compared to BS. The effectiveness of the films depended significantly on the environment. In Sicily, the BDBW (White/Black) film provided the maximum marketable yield (804.7 q ha⁻¹), confirming its crucial role in mitigating high soil temperatures through radiation reflection. Conversely, in the more favorable Campanian environment, the thicker black film (BDN15) achieved the highest yield (867.3 q ha⁻¹), indicating that microclimate stability is prioritized over heat mitigation under optimal conditions. Quality analysis showed high variability; while the Sicilian site generally favored color and antioxidant capacity, total soluble solids (°Brix) exhibited a trade-off. BDBW achieved the highest °Brix (6.1) in Sicily, while BS yielded the highest (6.03) in Campania, suggesting that slight water stress can concentrate sugars at the expense of total yield. The economic analysis demonstrated that the °Brix increase achieved with biodegradable films provided a net additional economic return superior to BS in both sites (up to +52.92% with BDBW). These findings suggest that the adoption of biodegradable mulching represents a key strategy for the sustainable intensification of processing tomato. Future cultivation strategies must mandatorily integrate the personalized selection of film color and thickness as a key element to synergistically maximize yield, quality, and economic return, tailored to the specific pedoclimatic conditions of each production site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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19 pages, 7920 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.) Straw Incorporation by Shallow Tillage as an Alternative Allelopathic Strategy for Natural Controlling Weeds in Transplanting Rice Fields

by Qingyi Cao, Siyu Yang, Rong Yang, Jinwen Zhu, Shuying Li, Mengcen Wang and Wenjun Gui

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090876 - 26 Apr 2026

Viewed by 636

Abstract

Effective weed control is essential for sustainable and safe rice production, particularly under the long-term and widespread use of chemical herbicides. Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) is one of the most important oil crops worldwide, and the oilseed rape–rice rotation system is [...] Read more.

Effective weed control is essential for sustainable and safe rice production, particularly under the long-term and widespread use of chemical herbicides. Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) is one of the most important oil crops worldwide, and the oilseed rape–rice rotation system is widely practiced in China. It has been reported to exhibit strong allelopathy on various plants, but the feasibility of using its straw incorporation for weed control in transplanted rice fields remains unclear. In this study, a natural weed management strategy based on shallow tillage of oilseed rape straw (ORS) was evaluated through laboratory bioassays, greenhouse experiments, and field trials. The results indicated that soil decomposition liquids (SDLs) of ORS exhibited strong dose- and decomposition time-dependent allelopathic effects on seven paddy weed species, while rice showed markedly lower sensitivity. ORS incorporated at 700–1100 g/m² generally exhibited high integrated allelopathic inhibition (in lab) and population control effects (in greenhouse) on paddy weeds, especially Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees, Cyperus iria L., and Cyperus difformis L. Among the growth parameters of ORS allelopathic stress, root growth was the most sensitive indicator, followed by shoot growth and seed germination. Greenhouse experiments displayed variety-dependent impact on the transplanted rice seedlings, with Xiushui134 and Yongyou1540 showing relatively high tolerance. Field trials revealed that ORS incorporation at 1100 g/m² for 10 d achieved a satisfactory control of population (77.7–84.9%) and fresh weight (80.7–95.6%) across Gramineae, Cyperaceae and Broadleaf weeds, without adverse impact on the growth of transplanted rice seedlings (Yongyou1540). This treatment also significantly promoted theoretical grain yield by 13.4–19.4%. Overall, shallow tillage of oilseed rape straw provides a feasible and environmentally friendly weed control strategy for transplanted rice systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Weed Science and Weed Management)

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14 pages, 3037 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization and Haplotype Analysis of TaMAPK6-7A Regulating Grain Number in Wheat

by Yue Lu, Qiang Yan, Yunlong Pang, Hailiang Zhao, Shuangrong Liu, Huaqiang Zhu, Zongyao Li, Yu Lu, Yuye Wu and Shubing Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090852 - 23 Apr 2026

Viewed by 794

Abstract

Grain number and size are important agronomic traits determining grain yield, and yield improvement depends on exploring functional variations of key regulatory genes. Mitogen-activated protein kinase 6 (MAPK6) plays a key role in crop development; however, its function and variation in wheat remain [...] Read more.

Grain number and size are important agronomic traits determining grain yield, and yield improvement depends on exploring functional variations of key regulatory genes. Mitogen-activated protein kinase 6 (MAPK6) plays a key role in crop development; however, its function and variation in wheat remain largely unclear. In this study, we aimed to characterize the function and haplotype variations of TaMAPK6-7A in wheat and develop functional molecular markers for marker assisted breeding. We identified three TaMAPK6 homoeologs on 7A, 7B, and 7D in wheat through bioinformatics analysis and revealed their evolutionary trajectory by phylogenetic analysis, with clear monocot-dicot lineage divergence and TaMAPK6 homoeolog clustering matching with hexaploid wheat’s allopolyploid origin. Spatiotemporal expression analysis showed that the TaMAPK6 homoeologs constitutively expressed in wheat tissues and were highly abundant in endosperm, spike, grain, and anther, with TaMAPK6-7A showing slightly higher transcript levels. In an ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS)-induced Jing411 mutant library, we identified a loss-of-function mutant of TaMAPK6-7A (J7633452), which exhibited severely reduced grain number per spike, impaired anther fertility, and increased grain size. Natural variation analysis of a large set of wheat accessions identified two major haplotypes of TaMAPK6-7A, with Type I was identical to the reference genome cultivar ‘Chinese Spring’, and Type II was consistent with the elite wheat cultivar ‘AK58’. We developed a PCR marker to accurately distinguish the two haplotypes and genotyped 192 wheat cultivars and elite breeding lines. Phenotypic evaluation indicated that Type II was an elite haplotype significantly associated with higher grain number per spike. This study characterizes TaMAPK6-7A as a key regulator of grain number per spike, providing a gene and molecular marker for marker-assisted breeding to improve grain yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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33 pages, 1466 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Does It Hold Water? Effectiveness, Feasibility, and Risks of Drought Adaptation Amendments

by Noah Silber-Coats and Guillermo Alvarez

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090854 - 23 Apr 2026

Viewed by 513

Abstract

Increasing freshwater scarcity alongside growing irrigation demand poses a major challenge for agricultural production. One potential response is the use of drought adaptation amendments: materials of natural or synthetic origin that, when applied to soil or crops, either increase water availability or improve [...] Read more.

Increasing freshwater scarcity alongside growing irrigation demand poses a major challenge for agricultural production. One potential response is the use of drought adaptation amendments: materials of natural or synthetic origin that, when applied to soil or crops, either increase water availability or improve plant performance under water stress. Because these amendments range from minerals and microorganisms to polymers and plant-derived compounds, they are often studied in separate disciplinary literatures rather than as a single category of inputs. Here, we review drought adaptation amendments for agricultural use and evaluate them along three dimensions: effectiveness in mitigating drought stress, economic feasibility, and environmental and human-health implications. Across amendment classes, effectiveness is achieved through several recurring pathways, including reduced soil evaporation, altered canopy energy balance, improved infiltration and soil water retention, improved rhizosphere and root access to retained water, and enhanced physiological tolerance to water deficit. No single amendment consistently performs best across all three criteria. Materials that strongly modify soil water dynamics can be effective but may be costly or environmentally risky, while lower-risk options often have smaller or more context-dependent effects. Among the most promising lower-risk options identified in this review are microbial inoculants, certain mineral amendments, and water-based plant extracts, though their effectiveness remains context-dependent. Future research should prioritize amendments that combine drought-mitigating effects with economic feasibility and minimal environmental or health risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Water Scarcity in Agriculture: Innovative Management Strategies for Sustainable Cropping Systems)

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22 pages, 1856 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Plant Responses to Copper Nanoparticles and Alginate-Encapsulated Copper Nanoparticles in Lactuca sativa L.

by Iria Moreira-Suarez, Cecilia Martínez-Castillo, Paula Pérez-Rodríguez and Daniel Arenas-Lago

Agronomy 2026, 16(9), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16090853 - 23 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 676

Abstract

Copper (Cu) is an essential micronutrient, but poorly controlled inputs may increase phytotoxicity risks and alter soil–plant nutrient dynamics. Therefore, Cu formulations that regulate rhizosphere Cu availability are of agronomic interest. This study compared non-encapsulated Cu nanoparticles (CuNPs) and alginate-encapsulated Cu nanoparticles (eCuNPs) [...] Read more.

Copper (Cu) is an essential micronutrient, but poorly controlled inputs may increase phytotoxicity risks and alter soil–plant nutrient dynamics. Therefore, Cu formulations that regulate rhizosphere Cu availability are of agronomic interest. This study compared non-encapsulated Cu nanoparticles (CuNPs) and alginate-encapsulated Cu nanoparticles (eCuNPs) in a 42-day pot experiment with Lactuca sativa L. grown in two agricultural soils with different properties, applying 0, 10, 25, 50, and 100 mg of Cu kg⁻¹. Soil properties, Rhizzo-extractable Cu as a proxy of available Cu, plant biomass, Cu accumulation, and nutrient concentrations were evaluated. Rhizzo-extractable Cu increased with dose under CuNPs, particularly in the soil with lower organic matter and ECEC, whereas eCuNPs maintained values closer to the control levels. In the soil with higher organic matter and ECEC, CuNPs were associated with reduced shoot and root biomass at higher doses, while eCuNPs showed a more variable response and, in some cases, higher biomass values. In contrast, biomass remained low across all treatments in the more limiting soil. Cu accumulated mainly in roots, and foliar Cu (FW) remained low and close to typical values reported for lettuce in the USDA FoodData Central database. Alginate encapsulation may reduce short-term Cu mobilization in the rhizosphere and could represent a promising strategy to improve the safety of CuNP applications, particularly in soils with higher organic matter and ECEC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of Nanomaterials in Crop Growth and Physiology Under Abiotic Stress)

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16 pages, 16919 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization, and Expression Profiling of the HvLEA Family Genes Under Salt Stress, and Prediction of Their Protein–Protein Interaction Networks in Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

by Yiru Mao, Nan Li, Duo Zhao, Lufei Li, Ye Yang, Ao Qian, Jiaying Wang, Xuqi Zheng, Yi Hong, Chao Lv, Baojian Guo, Feifei Wang, Rugen Xu and Juan Zhu

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080836 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 824

Abstract

Salt stress is a major abiotic factor that significantly limits crop yields worldwide. Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, which are widely present across diverse organisms, play critical and multifaceted roles in plant responses to abiotic stress. However, only a few salt tolerance-related HvLEA [...] Read more.

Salt stress is a major abiotic factor that significantly limits crop yields worldwide. Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, which are widely present across diverse organisms, play critical and multifaceted roles in plant responses to abiotic stress. However, only a few salt tolerance-related HvLEA genes have been identified in barley. In this study, we characterized 107 HvLEA proteins in barley, which were classified into eight groups and found to be distributed across all seven chromosomes. RNA-Seq analysis of root and leaf tissues from the cultivar “Golden Promise” at 12, 48, and 120 h after salt stress treatment identified 69 differentially expressed HvLEA genes across both tissues. Among these, 41 HvLEA genes were commonly differentially expressed in leaves and roots. Six genes (HvDHN2, HvDHN5, HvDHN10, HvLEA1.1, HvLEA1.6, and HvSMP2) were extremely up-regulated after salt stress in both roots and leaves, with log2FC values exceeding 10, indicating their potential key roles in salt stress response. qPCR validation of selected genes confirmed expression trends consistent with the RNA-Seq data. Database predictions and co-expression network analysis suggested that, in addition to potential protein interactions within the same family, these genes may interact with partners such as cysteine-rich receptor kinases, zinc finger proteins, calcium-binding EF-hand family proteins, NAC domain-containing proteins, and glycosyltransferases. This study identified key HvLEA genes involved in salt stress response and provided valuable genetic resources for improving barley tolerance through molecular breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulatory Network of Crop to Environmental Stress: Genetic and Biochemical Characterization)

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23 pages, 354 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Nitrogen and Sulphur Fertilisation on Phosphorus and Silicon Content and Uptake by Biomass of Spring Wheat

by Hanna Klikocka, Anna Podleśna and Janusz Podleśny

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080841 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 717

Abstract

Nitrogen and sulphur are among the most important plant nutrients (along with C, H, and O) and the main elements comprising the organic substance of plants. In this study, it is assumed that light soils (Cambisols) do not naturally meet the nitrogen and [...] Read more.

Nitrogen and sulphur are among the most important plant nutrients (along with C, H, and O) and the main elements comprising the organic substance of plants. In this study, it is assumed that light soils (Cambisols) do not naturally meet the nitrogen and sulphur needs of spring wheat and, consequently, impact the phosphorus and silicon content in the plant biomass. Therefore, to determine the effect of N and S on the content and uptake of these elements at specific growth stages (BBCH 30–31: in leaves, BBCH 55–59: in whole plants, BBCH 89–90: in grain and straw), a three-year field experiment was conducted using different doses of nitrogen (0, 40, 80, and 120 kg ha⁻¹) and sulphur (0, 50 kg ha⁻¹). The results show that fertilisation with N and S had a significant effect on increasing the content and uptake of P and Si by phytomass in the phenostages studied. In general, as the N fertilisation dose increased, the yields of phytomass and grain increased. A beneficial effect of S on increases in green weight, straw, and spring wheat grain was found. A significant effect of N and S fertilisation on the growth of the Si:P ratio in individual parts of plants in the studied stages was also observed. A significant positive correlation between P and Si content was proven, indicating that the two elements do not act antagonistically towards each other. In contrast, a negative correlation was observed between the P content in plants and their Si uptake. Si is taken up more strongly by plants under conditions of N and S fertilisation, as evidenced by the increase in the Si:P ratio and the fact that plants accumulated on average 3.5 times more Si than P. The highest Si content was found in the green parts of plants in the BBCH 30–31 and BBCH 55–59 stages, while in BBCH 89–92, straw had nearly half that amount and grain contained a thousand times less silicon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phosphorus–Silicon Crosstalk in Plants: Enhancing Nutrient Efficiency and Alleviating Stress)

20 pages, 1941 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Field Evidence of Commercial Mycorrhizal Inoculum Mix Effects on Rhizosphere Microbiome and Lettuce Performance

by Borbála Kuchár, Ákos Juhász, János Balogh, Sándor Takács, Attila Ombódi and Katalin Posta

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080844 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 555

Abstract

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are widely applied as bioinoculants to enhance crop performance, yet their broader ecological effects on rhizosphere microbial assembly under field conditions remain insufficiently understood. Here, we evaluated the impact of a commercial AMF inoculant and its carrier material on [...] Read more.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are widely applied as bioinoculants to enhance crop performance, yet their broader ecological effects on rhizosphere microbial assembly under field conditions remain insufficiently understood. Here, we evaluated the impact of a commercial AMF inoculant and its carrier material on lettuce performance and rhizosphere microbial communities in an open-field experiment. We hypothesized that both viable AMF propagules and formulation components contribute to shifts in rhizosphere processes. Active AMF inoculation significantly increased root colonization and fresh biomass at harvest, confirming successful establishment and enhanced plant performance under field conditions. Colonization levels in the heat-inactivated carrier treatment were comparable to the non-inoculated control, indicating that the carrier did not inhibit indigenous AMF activity or induce nutrient-mediated suppression of symbiosis. Plant physiological responses were stage-dependent, supporting the context-dependent nature of AMF effects in dynamic field environments. High-throughput sequencing revealed no significant treatment effects on bacterial or fungal alpha diversity. However, beta-diversity analyses demonstrated significant compositional restructuring of rhizosphere communities, particularly within the bacterial domain. A stable core microbiome persisted across treatments, yet relative abundances and community evenness were altered by both active inoculation and carrier application. These results suggest that AMF inoculation reorganizes microbial community structure predominantly via shifts in ecological niche occupation. Collectively, our results show that AMF inoculation functions not only as a symbiotic nutrient-acquisition strategy but also as a driver of rhizosphere microbial reorganization under field conditions. Integrating plant performance with microbiome dynamics provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding and optimizing microbial inoculants in sustainable agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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18 pages, 1235 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biochar and Nitrogen Synergistically Regulate Soil Carbon Mineralization by Enhancing Aggregate Stability and Altering Microbial Function in Intensive Vegetable Systems

by Xi Zhang, Chenchen Xue, Xiaoxiao Liu, Lihong Xue and Zhengqin Xiong

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080825 - 17 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 910

Abstract

Intensive nitrogen (N) fertilization in greenhouse vegetable systems degrades soil structure and accelerates soil carbon (C) mineralization. Biochar application can alleviate these adverse effects by enhancing aggregate stability and mediating microbially driven nutrient cycling, yet its effects across aggregate fractions remain poorly understood. [...] Read more.

Intensive nitrogen (N) fertilization in greenhouse vegetable systems degrades soil structure and accelerates soil carbon (C) mineralization. Biochar application can alleviate these adverse effects by enhancing aggregate stability and mediating microbially driven nutrient cycling, yet its effects across aggregate fractions remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated how biochar (0, 20, 40 t ha⁻¹) and N interact to affect aggregate stability, C mineralization, nutrient status, and microbial properties in bulk soil and four aggregate classes (large macroaggregates: LMA, > 2000 μm; small macroaggregates: SMA, 250–2000 μm; microaggregates: MA, 53–250 μm; silt + clay: S + C, < 53 μm) in vegetable soil after a 60-day incubation. Results showed that biochar–N co-application increased mean weight diameter by 27.4–30.5% and elevated soil total organic C (TOC) in LMA by 9.11–12.0% and in MA by 8.77–20.2% relative to the N-only treatment. It also reduced β-glucosidase and oxidase activities, as well as fungal and G⁻-bacterial abundance. Biochar amendment suppressed TOC mineralization by 2.7–24.6% in bulk soil and aggregate fractions, while boosting potentially mineralizable C pools by 12.5–155.7%, and thereby increasing overall mineralization potential. Structural equation modeling revealed the size-dependent regulatory mechanisms underlying these observations. Aggregate stability directly inhibited CO₂ emissions in bulk soil and SMA, while the effects in MA and S + C fractions were mediated by shifts in nutrient stoichiometry and hydrolase activities. Our findings clarified the size-dependent mechanisms by which biochar–N co-application promoted soil C sequestration, providing a theoretical basis for the sustainable management of intensive vegetable systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Net-Zero Emissions for Sustainable Food Production and Land Management—2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 2989 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sensory Profiling of Advanced Bulgarian Mutant Potato Lines After Steaming and Oven-Frying

by Dida Iserliyska, Emiliya Nacheva and Nasya Tomlekova

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080826 - 17 Apr 2026

Viewed by 481

Abstract

Potato sensory quality is a key determinant of consumer acceptance and processing suitability; however, it remains insufficiently explored in Bulgarian potato breeding programs. This study aimed to characterize the sensory profiles of advanced Bulgarian mutant potato lines developed through induced mutagenesis, in comparison [...] Read more.

Potato sensory quality is a key determinant of consumer acceptance and processing suitability; however, it remains insufficiently explored in Bulgarian potato breeding programs. This study aimed to characterize the sensory profiles of advanced Bulgarian mutant potato lines developed through induced mutagenesis, in comparison with their parental genotypes and untreated controls, after steaming and oven-frying. A trained descriptive sensory panel evaluated attributes related to appearance, aroma, flavor, texture, taste, and aftertaste, and the resulting data were explored using principal component analysis (PCA). Steamed samples were mainly associated with potato identity, earthy and raw potato peel aromatics, and potato-like flavor, whereas oven-fried samples were more strongly associated with overall sweet impression, buttery, earthy, and potato flavors, together with nutty aftertaste. Texture-related attributes were expressed in both culinary preparations, while undesirable bitter, sour, and astringent aftertastes occurred less frequently and were mainly linked to specific genotypes rather than to the overall sensory profile. Exploratory PCA supported the visualization of genotype-related sensory tendencies across both datasets. Several mutant lines showed favorable sensory profiles aligned with desirable parental characteristics, whereas others were more often associated with less favorable attributes, including increased bitter and astringent aftertastes. Overall, steaming emphasized inherent potato like, earthy, and raw-related notes, whereas oven-frying enhanced color development, sweet–buttery flavor impressions, and richer texture expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breakthrough and Innovation of Mutants in Genetic Improvement of Crop Varieties)

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13 pages, 1885 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identification of Sources of Resistance to Aphanomyces euteiches in Common Vetch (Vicia sativa subsp. sativa) Germplasm

by Mario González, Ángela Molina, Sara Rodriguez-Mena and Diego Rubiales

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080823 - 17 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1014

Abstract

Aphanomyces root rot is a major threat to legume production worldwide, mainly in pea and lentil, crops on which extensive research programs are targeting the management of the disease. However, other legumes such as common vetch, although known to be severely affected by [...] Read more.

Aphanomyces root rot is a major threat to legume production worldwide, mainly in pea and lentil, crops on which extensive research programs are targeting the management of the disease. However, other legumes such as common vetch, although known to be severely affected by the disease, remain largely unexplored. This study aimed to identify sources of resistance within V. sativa subsp. sativa accessions. A total of 211 genetically diverse accessions were screened under controlled conditions following inoculation with isolate RB84. Disease progression was monitored through periodic foliar assessments and final root symptom evaluation. To assess resistance stability, a subset of 13 accessions representing contrasting response levels was further inoculated with three additional isolates (Aph-1, AE11, and AE12). In this multi-isolate assay, disease severity was quantified, shoot biomass was recorded, and root system architecture traits were determined using WinRHIZO image analysis. A high correlation between foliar and root symptoms at 20 days indicated that foliar symptom assessment provides a reliable, non-destructive indicator of root health. Considerable variation in disease response was detected, with several genotypes maintaining consistently low symptom levels and three exhibiting near-complete resistance across all isolates. Root architectural traits further corroborated visual disease assessments, showing patterns consistent with resistance and susceptibility responses. Overall, this study demonstrates the presence of genetic variability in the response of V. sativa to A. euteiches, with a subset of accessions showing resistance to the four isolates tested. This resistance potential can be directly used in breeding programs focused on improving tolerance to root rot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Legume Crop Protection—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1008 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genotype-by-Environment Interaction and Stability Analysis for Four Functional Compounds in Tea Chrysanthemums: A Three-Year Study

by Yidi Shen, Xinyi Ning, Dawei Wang, Xinli Zhang, Zhiyong Guan, Weimin Fang and Fei Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080817 - 16 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 639

Abstract

Chrysanthemum contains numerous active compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, with its dried capitula widely used for tea and medicinal applications. The content of functional compounds is readily influenced by environmental factors, and the use of varieties with high-level and stable bioactive compounds [...] Read more.

Chrysanthemum contains numerous active compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, with its dried capitula widely used for tea and medicinal applications. The content of functional compounds is readily influenced by environmental factors, and the use of varieties with high-level and stable bioactive compounds is essential for sustainable cultivation. However, a key challenge is identifying genotypes that consistently perform well for functional-component traits in contemporary breeding activities. This study aimed to evaluate the performance and stability of functional components in tea chrysanthemums across multiple years. Total flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and isochlorogenic acid A were investigated in 24 tea chrysanthemum accessions across three growing years of 2018, 2021, and 2022. The additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) model analysis revealed significant genotype (G), environment (E), and genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI) effects for all functional traits across three growing years. The GEI accounted for 63.58% to 80.82% of the variation across the four components in the AMMI model. Based on the AMMI stability value (ASV) parameter, the tea chrysanthemums showing the most stable concentrations of total flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and isochlorogenic acid A were identified. Based on phenotypic values and stability results, Suju-6, Hongxinju, Wangongju, and Baixiaoxiangju performed relatively well across the functional components investigated, making them promising candidates for future breeding and promotion programs. These findings provide valuable insights into the genetic basis of functional elements in tea chrysanthemum and will contribute to further genetic improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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29 pages, 6215 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mobile Application for Signal Processing and Abnormality Detection of Ambient Environmental Sensors in a Smart Greenhouse

by Emmanuel Bicamumakuba, Md Nasim Reza, Hongbin Jin, Hyeunseok Choi and Sun-Ok Chung

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080820 - 16 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 759

Abstract

IoT-based smart greenhouse sensing, real-time signal conditioning and abnormality detection are still predominantly executed at gateway or cloud levels, limiting responsiveness and increasing vulnerability to noise-induced false alarms. This study proposes and experimentally validates a mobile-edge signal processing and abnormality detection framework executed [...] Read more.

IoT-based smart greenhouse sensing, real-time signal conditioning and abnormality detection are still predominantly executed at gateway or cloud levels, limiting responsiveness and increasing vulnerability to noise-induced false alarms. This study proposes and experimentally validates a mobile-edge signal processing and abnormality detection framework executed entirely within an Android-based smartphone application, eliminating dependence on continuous cloud-side analytics. Environmental data from 27 wireless sensor nodes measuring temperature, relative humidity, CO₂ concentration, and light intensity were processed in real time using a sliding-window moving-average filter (N = 6) implemented with O(1) computational complexity. Abnormal conditions were determined via thresholding combined with temporal majority voting validation to suppress transient violations. Performance was also evaluated with direct threshold-based detection on raw signals to assess the effect of mobile-side filtering and temporal majority validation on abnormal sample counts, event fragmentation, and detection consistency. Mobile application side signal conditioning reduced short-term variance by 35–55% while maintaining an effective delay below two sampling intervals. Event-level analysis demonstrated substantial consolidation of noise-induced detections, reducing abnormal event frequency by up to 69% and increasing median event duration from 5 to 38 min for temperature, with negligible detection bias (±1.1%). End-to-end processing latency remained bounded under sustained multi-node streaming, with median delays of 1.0–1.6 s and 95th-percentile delays below 4.0 s. These results demonstrate that lightweight mobile-edge signal conditioning can significantly enhance detection robust-ness, reduce false alarms, and achieve low-latency environmental monitoring in green-houses. The proposed framework provides scalable and computationally efficient architecture for real-time abnormality detection in precision agriculture systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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18 pages, 11011 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Low-Cost Design Proposal of a Modular Telescopic Autonomous Agricultural Robot

by Durga Prasad Babu Nasika, Joel Rafael Romero Muńoz, Ali Hamedy, Tobias Redlich and Ralf Otterpohl

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080818 - 16 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1129

Abstract

The application of autonomous robotics in food production is still in its infancy but bears significant potential, especially in the sector of precision farming. Here we present the results of a survey conducted during the years 2022–2023 with local farmers in Northern Germany [...] Read more.

The application of autonomous robotics in food production is still in its infancy but bears significant potential, especially in the sector of precision farming. Here we present the results of a survey conducted during the years 2022–2023 with local farmers in Northern Germany to identify the challenges that are being faced by both conventional and organic farming practices due to climate change and increased food production regulations in the EU region. Additionally, a pilot study with a medium-sized (Demeter) farm is presented, identifying the real needs and problems organic farmers face during their food production chain from seeding, weeding, and maintaining the equipment till bringing in the harvest. The results indicate a strong demand for modular, autonomous, and digitized solutions to address key challenges in agricultural production. To address these challenges we propose a novel mechanical robotic platform design that has been developed in accordance with the Fab City principles of open and local production resulting in a low-cost open-source solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advances of Agricultural Robotics in Sustainable Agriculture 4.0)

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38 pages, 2768 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sulla coronaria, a Multifunctional Legume for Climate-Smart Agriculture and the Green Economy: A Review

by Roberta Rossi, Giovanna Piluzza and Leonardo Sulas

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080813 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 823

Abstract

Climate change threatens crop yields and farming profitability, especially in drought-prone regions, requiring a transition to climate-resilient farming systems. Concurrently, growing demand for health-promoting and bio-based materials is creating new market opportunities for farmers. Sulla (Sulla coronaria Medik; syn. Hedysarum coronarium L.), [...] Read more.

Climate change threatens crop yields and farming profitability, especially in drought-prone regions, requiring a transition to climate-resilient farming systems. Concurrently, growing demand for health-promoting and bio-based materials is creating new market opportunities for farmers. Sulla (Sulla coronaria Medik; syn. Hedysarum coronarium L.), a Mediterranean forage crop, may represent a strategic resource for sustainable intensification by simultaneously providing high-value commodities and a wide range of ecosystem services. This review explores the multifunctional potential of sulla following a holistic approach and is structured in thematic chapters, exploring: i. agronomy, ii. ecosystem services and agroecological value, iii. plant biochemical profile, iv. emerging applications for the bio-based industry, v. genetic diversity (including rhizobia diversity) and breeding perspectives for target environments and end-use. A SWOT analysis synthesizes strengths, research gaps and bottlenecks hindering large-scale adoption and valorization. The review proposes a strategic framework matching research priority with specific, actionable goals. The review aims to increase awareness of the multifaceted value of sulla as a promising model legume to increase sustainability in agriculture, promote product diversification and farming profitability, while assuring important ecosystem benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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36 pages, 8259 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental and Economic Evaluation of Combined Conservation and Precision Agriculture for Winter Cereals in Greece

by Chris Cavalaris, Myrto Kosti, Michail Moraitis, Christos Karamoutis, Sofia Koukou, Vasilis Giouvanis, Aris Kyparissis and Athanasios T. Balafoutis

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080812 - 15 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 687

Abstract

Improving environmental sustainability while maintaining economic viability is a major challenge for Mediterranean cereal production, where conventional systems are associated with high input use, elevated greenhouse gas emissions, and strong cost pressures. Although Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Precision Agriculture (PA) are widely promoted [...] Read more.

Improving environmental sustainability while maintaining economic viability is a major challenge for Mediterranean cereal production, where conventional systems are associated with high input use, elevated greenhouse gas emissions, and strong cost pressures. Although Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Precision Agriculture (PA) are widely promoted as promising solutions, evidence on their combined environmental and economic performance under real farming conditions remains limited. This study evaluated CA, PA, and their combined application (CPA) in winter cereal systems in Greece, using three years of farmer-managed field data from four representative sites. Agronomic and environmental performance and economic outcomes were assessed under actual farm sizes and a scaled 300 ha scenario. Across sites and years, no systematic yield differences were observed among CA, PA, and CPA, indicating that alternative systems can maintain yield stability under real farmer-managed conditions. Environmental performance was driven primarily by tillage intensity: CA reduced CO₂eq emissions by 212–238 kg ha⁻¹ relative to conventional tillage, while CPA achieved the largest reductions (262–332 kg ha⁻¹), accompanied by surface-layer SOM increases of 0.30–0.56% over three years. PA applied within conventional tillage resulted in only modest emission reductions (41–82 kg ha⁻¹), but consistently improved NUE, with variable-rate fertilization increasing NUE by approximately 5–7% relative to uniform application. Despite these environmental benefits, economic performance remained constrained due to high fixed machinery costs, high input prices, and low grain values resulting in negative net profits across all systems. CA reduced total costs by 3.8–11.8%, PA delivered only marginal improvements, while CPA achieved the largest cost reductions (5.0–12.6%) delivering also the most stable net profit mitigation. Carbon credit revenues increased profitability by only 2–3%. Scaling to 300 ha improved competitiveness through fixed-cost dilution, but profitability remained unattainable. Overall, integrated CA–PA systems offer substantial environmental benefits but require targeted policy support, cooperative machinery use, and service-based solutions to enable economically viable adoption in Mediterranean cereal systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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24 pages, 4123 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimizing Regional Rice Management Prescriptions Under Future Climate Scenarios Using a Generalized Additive Model: A Case Study in Jiangsu Province, China

by Jiawei Qiu, Yufei Ling, Yangjie Shi, Shi Qiu, Xiaobo Xi, Zhipeng Xing, Hui Gao, Haiyan Wei, Hongcheng Zhang and Qun Hu

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080806 - 14 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 622

Abstract

A comprehensive management framework integrating environmental and agronomic factors is critical for stable and resource-efficient rice production. The primary objective of this study was to develop an optimization framework for transplanted rice in Jiangsu Province, China, using a Generalized Additive Model (GAM). The [...] Read more.

A comprehensive management framework integrating environmental and agronomic factors is critical for stable and resource-efficient rice production. The primary objective of this study was to develop an optimization framework for transplanted rice in Jiangsu Province, China, using a Generalized Additive Model (GAM). The framework was used to quantify the inter-annual stability of optimized management schemes and assess their sensitivity to future climate scenarios. The study evaluated the model’s generalization capability using two cross-validation strategies: Leave-One-Year-Out (LOYO) and Leave-One-Site-Out (LOSO). By predicting the yield of each candidate, the scheme maximizing yield was selected as the annual optimal management practice. Validation results demonstrated robust generalization capabilities across both spatial and temporal dimensions, with the model achieving an R² of 0.66 and an RMSE of 836 kg ha⁻¹ in LOSO validation, and an R² of 0.61 and an RMSE of 848 kg ha⁻¹ in LOYO validation. Analysis of the optimized schemes revealed that transplanting date and seedling age functioned as relatively stable planning benchmarks across years, whereas inter-annual adaptation was achieved primarily through adjustments in planting density and nitrogen inputs. Beyond yield prediction alone, this framework translates interpretable GAM response surfaces into spatially differentiated management prescriptions and highlights both soil-conditioned variable-rate strategies and the distinction between stable and adaptive management components under future climate scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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19 pages, 3478 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Bibliometric Analysis of Machine and Deep Learning in Remote Sensing for Precision Agriculture

by Dorijan Radočaj, Mladen Jurišić, Ivan Plaščak and Lucija Galić

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080807 - 14 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 926

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the literature on the integration of remote sensing data and machine learning or deep learning algorithms in precision agriculture. The analysis covers 1056 publications, included in the Web of Science Core Collection, and identifies the [...] Read more.

This review provides a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the literature on the integration of remote sensing data and machine learning or deep learning algorithms in precision agriculture. The analysis covers 1056 publications, included in the Web of Science Core Collection, and identifies the temporal patterns of research, the most frequently used algorithms, the prominent remote sensing technologies, and the geographical distribution of research output. Increased research output during the period of 2013–2025 is attributed to the availability of high-level computing, satellites, and UAV imagery. The earlier studies in machine learning primarily involved the use of the Random Forest and Support Vector Machine algorithms, whereas in the past few years, deep learning, and especially Convolutional Neural Networks, have become more dominant. The most widely used data sources in remote sensing are the imagery from UAVs and the Sentinel satellite missions. The evaluation revealed that most of the geographical research activity was centered in the United States and China, but there is a trend of increasing research activity in most of the other developed countries. Research in Africa and South America remains particularly underdeveloped. Considering the rapid development of research, data fusion of optical and radar satellite imagery, UAV imagery, weather and soil datasets are expected to further improve the representation of agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digitalization and Robotics as a Key Support Toward Sustainable Management of Agriculture)

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31 pages, 15275 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigation of Sample Numbers Needed to Map Spatial Changes in Soil Moisture Using Random Forests and Z-Score Calibration for Precision Irrigation of Turfgrass

by Ruth Kerry, Eliza Hammari, Ben Ingram, Kirsten Sanders, Neil Hansen and Bryan Hopkins

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080794 - 13 Apr 2026

Viewed by 699

Abstract

In the USA, agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater resources, and precision irrigation (PI) can conserve water significantly while maintaining crop yield. Current approaches to soil volumetric water content (VWC) mapping for PI rely on installing a costly soil moisture sensor within [...] Read more.

In the USA, agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater resources, and precision irrigation (PI) can conserve water significantly while maintaining crop yield. Current approaches to soil volumetric water content (VWC) mapping for PI rely on installing a costly soil moisture sensor within each of 4–5 management zones per field. Although this strategy provides temporally dense data, it is spatially sparse. Alternatively, spatially dense remotely sensed data require calibration with in situ soil moisture measurements, which are expensive and labor intensive to obtain. Previous research indicates that soil VWC zones must be regularly reassessed, a process that is impractical without low-cost soil VWC sensors. In anticipation of deploying dense networks of inexpensive soil moisture sensors for PI in large turfgrass fields, we investigate the mapping errors and optimal sampling density required for accurate soil VWC mapping using random forests (RFs) and z-score calibration in two turfgrass sports fields in Utah. Dense sampling of soil VWC was undertaken at 101 and 103 points in each field with a theta probe. These data were systematically sub-sampled to quantify errors in z-score soil moisture maps generated with varying sample sizes. A jack-knife procedure was employed to determine the optimum number of sensors required to produce accurate RF-based soil moisture maps. The RF approach also allows identification of the most influential covariates for soil VWC prediction. For RFs, 21–79 samples were needed to characterize changing spatial patterns in fields with mean absolute errors (MAEs) of 1.39–9.71%, but for most dates only 25–40 samples were needed. The z-score calibration produced MAEs of 1.38–10.44% with as few as 10–15 samples, but the spatial patterns remain static and only the magnitude of values changes. Therefore, using RFs with 40–60 sensors was recommended to allow for accurate mapping despite dropped signals and broken sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Turfgrass Management for Enhanced Sustainability and Conservation)

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17 pages, 1377 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantifying Socioeconomic Potential Losses Under Water Scarcity Using the WIOLP Model

by Youngseok Song, Moojong Park, Sangdan Kim and Cheolhee Jang

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080799 - 13 Apr 2026

Viewed by 534

Abstract

The increasing frequency and severity of extreme droughts caused by climate change has emerged as a key risk factor exerting complex effects on the overall national economy through a structure of interconnected industries. The Water Input–Output Linear Programming (WIOLP) model was applied to [...] Read more.

The increasing frequency and severity of extreme droughts caused by climate change has emerged as a key risk factor exerting complex effects on the overall national economy through a structure of interconnected industries. The Water Input–Output Linear Programming (WIOLP) model was applied to data from 2015 to 2018 to quantitatively assess the effects of drought-induced water use constraints on production and socioeconomic potential losses. By modeling scenarios in which water use decreased by 10% from 100%, changes in the gross output, the value added, the socioeconomic potential loss, and the shadow price by industry were evaluated. Results showed that socioeconomic potential losses increased nonlinearly, with maximum potential losses of 311,118 billion Korean Won (KRW) in 2015 and 355,260 billion KRW in 2018. The shadow price rose from 7311 to 73,186 KRW/m³ in 2015 and from 3291 to 89,586 KRW/m³ in 2018, confirming that the marginal productivity of water increased exponentially under stricter constraints. Industry-level analysis revealed the largest losses in high water use industries (e.g., agriculture, forestry, fisheries, chemicals, and non-metals), whereas electricity, electronics, and machinery sectors maintained relatively stable production. This study demonstrates that the WIOLP model can empirically analyze nonlinear economic ripple effects under resource constraints, overcoming limitations of conventional input–output and computable general equilibrium models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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33 pages, 7834 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Frequency-Domain Decoupling and Multi-Dimensional Spatial Feature Reconstruction for Occlusion-Aware Apple Detection in Complex Semi-Structured Orchard Environments

by Long Gao, Pengfei Wang, Lixing Liu, Hongjie Liu, Jianping Li and Xin Yang

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080790 - 12 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 838

Abstract

Apple detection is a core perception task for harvesting robots operating in complex orchard environments. Targets are frequently affected by branch–foliage occlusion, alternating front/side/back lighting, and strong local illumination fluctuations, which blur object boundaries against background textures and substantially increase detection difficulty. To [...] Read more.

Apple detection is a core perception task for harvesting robots operating in complex orchard environments. Targets are frequently affected by branch–foliage occlusion, alternating front/side/back lighting, and strong local illumination fluctuations, which blur object boundaries against background textures and substantially increase detection difficulty. To improve target perception under these conditions, we propose an improved detector, YOLOv11-CBMES. First, based on YOLOv11, we replace the original neck with a weighted BiFPN to enhance cross-scale feature fusion under occlusion. Second, we introduce a Contrast-Driven Feature Aggregation (CDFA) module at the P5 stage, using Haar wavelet decomposition to decouple low-frequency illumination components from high-frequency structural components. Third, we reconstruct spatial feature learning and the upsampling pathway using CSP-based multi-scale blocks and efficient upsampling blocks, and embed a zero-parameter Shift-Context strategy to strengthen local neighbourhood interaction. Finally, we formulate apple detection as a three-class occlusion classification task (No Occlusion, Soft Occlusion, and Hard Occlusion) to support occlusion-aware target recognition. On the apple occlusion dataset, YOLOv11-CBMES achieves

{m A P}_{N O}

= 83.50%,

{m A P}_{S O}

= 67.36%, and

{m A P}_{H O}

= 51.90% at IoU = 0.5. Compared with YOLOv11n under the same training protocol, the gains are +2.16 pp (NO), +3.68 pp (SO), and +5.31 pp (HO), with the largest improvement observed in Hard Occlusion (HO). The results indicate that introducing frequency-domain structural processing into the detection framework improves apple occlusion classification and object detection performance, and provides a theoretical basis for designing perception modules for end-effector operations in apple harvesting robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Detection and Classification of External Traits in Crop Plants, Fruits, and Vegetables)

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17 pages, 2394 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Epistasis Effects of Chalkiness and Application Using Marker-Assisted Recurrent Selection in Indica Rice

by Wenbin Gu, Lumei Fu, Xinjian Wang, Jiahui Qi, Chenyu Rong, Feifei Li and Xiangqian Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080792 - 12 Apr 2026

Viewed by 734

Abstract

Chalkiness is a complex quantitative trait regulated by both genetic and environmental factors. Reducing chalkiness has long been a research focus in rice genetics and breeding. A total of 108 markers on/closely linked to starch biosynthesizing genes, grain shape and chalkiness QTLs were [...] Read more.

Chalkiness is a complex quantitative trait regulated by both genetic and environmental factors. Reducing chalkiness has long been a research focus in rice genetics and breeding. A total of 108 markers on/closely linked to starch biosynthesizing genes, grain shape and chalkiness QTLs were used to detect interactions affecting chalkiness. A total of 30 and 39 marker pairs with significant bigenic epistasis were identified for percentage of grain with chalkiness (PGWC) and degree of endosperm chalkiness (DEC), respectively, of which 16 were commonly found in both traits. Using markers associated with chalkiness and marker pairs with significant epistatic effects as candidate predictors increased the coefficient of determination (R²) of the best multiple regression models for predicting both traits. GBSSI, SSIIa and the interaction between GBSSI and GBSSII were consistently identified in optimal models, indicating their critical roles in regulating rice chalkiness. R² for DEC and PGWC ranged from 36.5% to 42.7% and from 52.9% to 73.8% in two environments, respectively. PGWC decreased significantly from 38.9% to 15.10% after three cycles using marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS). This study suggests that epistasis contributes substantially to the regulation of chalkiness, and demonstrates that MARS can effectively improve chalkiness without imposing obvious negative impacts on eating quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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18 pages, 737 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhancing Olive Oil Functional Properties by Pre-Harvest Foliar Application of Chitosan and Harpin Elicitors on ‘Megaritiki’ Olive Cultivar Grown Under Rainfed Conditions in Greece

by Asimina-Georgia Karyda, Georgios Roubis, Stefania Komninou, Aikaterini Mpelimpasaki, Maria Zoti and Petros Anargyrou Roussos

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080788 - 11 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1390

Abstract

Climate change-induced abiotic stress, particularly heat and drought during olive oil accumulation, significantly threatens the productivity and oil quality of olive trees (Olea europaea L.). This study investigated the efficacy of pre-harvest elicitation using the biostimulants harpin and chitosan (both as commercially [...] Read more.

Climate change-induced abiotic stress, particularly heat and drought during olive oil accumulation, significantly threatens the productivity and oil quality of olive trees (Olea europaea L.). This study investigated the efficacy of pre-harvest elicitation using the biostimulants harpin and chitosan (both as commercially available products) under summer conditions in Greece, in commercially productive rainfed groves of cv. ‘Megaritiki’. Multivariate analysis (PCA and factor analysis) revealed that pre-harvest application of these elicitors successfully balanced the trade-off between oil yield and quality. Both harpin and chitosan maintained hydrolytic (free acidity—0.25 and 0.29 g oleic acid 100 g⁻¹, respectively, compared to 0.56 g oleic acid 100 g⁻¹ in the control) and primary oxidative markers (peroxides—4.16 and 4.16 meq O₂ kg⁻¹, respectively, compared to 5.20 meq O₂ kg⁻¹ in the control) at exceptionally low levels compared to untreated trees. The treatments induced a distinctive metabolic shift regarding volatile compounds governed by the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway. Harpin application was strongly associated with complex floral and fruity volatile compounds (2-hexen-1-ol and trans-2-hexenal) and a high α-tocopherol concentration (38.58 mg kg⁻¹ compared to 23.12 mg kg⁻¹ in the control), suggesting an enhanced physiological response in favor of oil quality attributes. Conversely, chitosan elevated the oxidative stability of the oil by increasing total phenol concentration (by almost 97% compared to the control) and prioritizing the accumulation of the stable monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid—increased by 12.5% compared to the control) over polyunsaturated ones (linoleic acid), while endowing the oil with desirable “green freshness” aromas (cis-3-hexenal). These results demonstrate that elicitation with harpin and chitosan is a potent tool for sustainably enhancing extra virgin olive oil quality under rainfed conditions in Greece, steering fruit metabolism toward a premium nutraceutical and sensory profile and enhancing the functional properties of the oil (phenol content, antioxidant capacity, monounsaturated fatty acids, α-tocopherol and squalene). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Nutritional and Functional Quality of Horticultural Crops Through Biofortification Approaches)

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15 pages, 760 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sex-Specific Effects of Protein Limitation and Mating on Longevity in Bactrocera oleae

by Evangelia I. Balampekou, Thomas M. Koutsos, Dimitrios S. Koveos and Nikos A. Kouloussis

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080787 - 11 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1080

Abstract

Longevity in the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, is a plastic trait shaped by the synergistic interaction between reproductive effort, sex, and protein availability. This study investigated how the survival of 800 individuals is affected by protein limitation and mating status. Results [...] Read more.

Longevity in the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, is a plastic trait shaped by the synergistic interaction between reproductive effort, sex, and protein availability. This study investigated how the survival of 800 individuals is affected by protein limitation and mating status. Results from Cox proportional hazards analysis demonstrate that mating and protein deprivation significantly increase mortality risk. Under protein-deprived conditions, mating increased the mortality hazard by 146.5% for males and 121.5% for females compared to virgins. Notably, a significant Sex × Diet interaction (p = 0.022) confirmed that among virgin individuals, the relative mortality hazard increase under protein scarcity was nearly double for males (97.5%) compared to females (51.1%), indicating a higher statistical tolerance for nutritional stress in females. Furthermore, statistical validation confirmed that diet exhibited a significant time-dependent effect (p = 0.029), indicating that nutritional deficits act cumulatively over the fly’s lifespan. These findings suggest that B. oleae longevity is governed by dynamic, synergistic pressures, with females exhibiting a lower hazard of death under resource-limited conditions, an insight essential for refining demographic models in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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19 pages, 2209 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Aquatic Ecotoxicity Risk Assessment of Difenoconazole and Its Transformation Residues Using Experimental–In Silico Integrated Approach

by Constantina-Bianca Vulpe, Cosmina-Alecsia Cosma, Andrijana Pujicic, Bianca-Vanesa Agachi, Adriana Isvoran and Adina-Daniela Iachimov-Datcu

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080774 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1044

Abstract

Difenoconazole is a triazole fungicide used to ensure sustainable agricultural, although it may also affect the aquatic environment. This study assessed the effects of this fungicide by both an experimental and a computational approach. The experimental assessment involved the acute exposure of Lemna [...] Read more.

Difenoconazole is a triazole fungicide used to ensure sustainable agricultural, although it may also affect the aquatic environment. This study assessed the effects of this fungicide by both an experimental and a computational approach. The experimental assessment involved the acute exposure of Lemna minor to different concentrations of difenoconazole and the determination of main endpoints such as number of fronds and colony, as well as secondary endpoints represented by gravimetric, morphometrical and biochemical parameters. The in silico analysis consisted of the testing of difenoconazole and 14 of its transformation residues (TRs), using three computational tools (admetSAR, ADMETlab and T.E.S.T.) to assess either their toxicological endpoints (EC₅₀, IGC₅₀) or their probability of affecting a range of model aquatic organisms. The results highlighted a concentration-dependent effect of difenoconazole on both main and secondary endpoints. The calculated EC₅₀ value was 2.47 mg/L (data validated by EC₅₀ on Lemna gibba from Pesticides Properties DataBase), which categorizes difenoconazole as moderately toxic in the aquatic environment. The in silico assessment showed that two of the TRs showed lower toxicity, with these having only one aromatic ring compared to the others analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticide Residues Abatement: A Central to Regenerative Agriculture)

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15 pages, 1016 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stem Electrical Conductivity of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenk) Under Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fertilizer Deficiency

by Jeong Yeon Kim, Su Kyeong Shin, Ye Eun Lee and Jin Hee Park

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080778 - 9 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 645

Abstract

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential nutrients that play critical roles in plant physiological processes and the accumulation of N and P in broccoli head was significantly correlated with yield. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid, non-destructive diagnosis of crop [...] Read more.

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential nutrients that play critical roles in plant physiological processes and the accumulation of N and P in broccoli head was significantly correlated with yield. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid, non-destructive diagnosis of crop status by detecting deficiencies in essential nutrients. This study evaluated the effects of N and P deficiency on field grown broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenk) using a plant-induced electrical signal (PIES) sensor, in which needle electrodes are inserted into the stem to measure electrical conductivity reflecting plant water and ion status. Four treatments were established, including the control (N100P100) with sufficient N and P supply, N deficiency (N0P100), P deficiency (N100P0), and combined N–P deficiency (N0P0). For sufficient supply, urea and fused phosphate (FP) were applied at rates of 122 kg N ha⁻¹ and 71 kg P ha⁻¹, respectively. Soil, stem, and leaf nutrient contents, growth parameters, and stress related indicators were analyzed and their relationship with PIES values were evaluated. PIES was highest in control (N100P100) and lowest under N–P deficiency (N0P0). Higher PIES values were observed during the vegetative stage, whereas values declined during the reproductive stage, reflecting changes in physiological activity. Growth parameters such as shoot and root weight and stem diameter were generally superior in the control (N100P100) treatment, while leaf calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) concentrations showed no significant differences among treatments. Total N content in leaves was higher in N fertilized treatments (control and P deficiency). Photosynthesis-related parameters, including soil plant analysis development (SPAD), Fv/Fm, and chlorophyll content, were lowest under N–P deficiency, which was reflected in the PIES. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the PIES was closely associated with growth and photosynthetic parameters and clearly distinguished N sufficient treatments (control and P deficiency) from N deficient treatments (N0P100, N0P0). Overall, these findings suggest that PIES monitoring can serve as a sensitive physiological indicator of nutrient stress and may be applied as an early diagnostic tool before visible growth inhibition occurs in broccoli cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensing and Sustainable Crop Management Strategies for Agriculture in Arid and Semiarid Regions)

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42 pages, 10717 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Towards Stress-Resilient Canola via Genetic Engineering Approaches

by Ali Ijaz Ahmed, Aldrin Y. Cantila and Sheng Chen

Agronomy 2026, 16(8), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16080769 - 8 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1494

Abstract

Climate change has adversely affected grain production and quality of canola, the second-largest oilseed crop, which contributes 13–16% of total vegetable oil. Multiple biotic and abiotic stresses significantly limit canola production due to rapid climate change, and conventional breeding alone is insufficient to [...] Read more.

Climate change has adversely affected grain production and quality of canola, the second-largest oilseed crop, which contributes 13–16% of total vegetable oil. Multiple biotic and abiotic stresses significantly limit canola production due to rapid climate change, and conventional breeding alone is insufficient to meet global demand. Therefore, several advanced biotechnologies have been developed to cope with this change. Among these, genetic modification, gene editing, and RNA interference are particularly significant for rapid cultivar development in a cost-effective, efficient, and convenient way. Recent findings in gene editing applications have revealed “prospective sites”, highlighting regions amenable to precise editing without compromising canola plant growth or development. Pan-genome analyses have further guided gene editing target selection, enabling the validation of key stress-resilience genes across diverse canola cultivars, while the CRISPR-epigenetic regulatory connection enables targeted control of gene expression and trait modulation. A hypothetical application of genomic selection is also suggested, which could complement gene editing to accelerate the development of superior cultivars. Accordingly, this review focuses on the latest studies of genetic modification, gene editing, and RNA interference to strengthen canola resilience under rapid climate change and discusses the major concerns. Taken together, these genome-editing strategies offer precise approaches for improving biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, although careful consideration of both off-target effects and regulatory compliance remains essential for their practical implementation in canola improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Agronomic Traits and Performances Under Stress)

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10 pages, 377 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Predicting Soil Organic Carbon in Lower Depths from Surface Soil Features Using Machine Learning Methods

by Lawrence Aula, Milena Maria Tomaz de Oliveira, Amanda C. Easterly and Cody F. Creech

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070758 - 4 Apr 2026

Viewed by 915

Abstract

Topsoil features within a depth of 0–10 cm are vital for making soil management decisions that affect crop production. However, the use of these soil features to predict soil organic carbon (SOC) at 10–20 cm requires further investigation. The study aims to predict [...] Read more.

Topsoil features within a depth of 0–10 cm are vital for making soil management decisions that affect crop production. However, the use of these soil features to predict soil organic carbon (SOC) at 10–20 cm requires further investigation. The study aims to predict SOC at 10–20 cm using total nitrogen (total N), pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and SOC at 0–10 cm and select a suitable model for predicting SOC. This study was conducted using data from a long-term tillage, winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-fallow experiment established in autumn 1970. Treatments included moldboard plow, stubble mulch, no-till, and native sod, each replicated three times. Soil samples were collected from each plot at depths of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm in April of 2010 and 2011. Models were fit using ordinary least squares (OLS), least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), random forests, and Bayesian additive regression trees (BART). Using root mean square error (RMSE), SOC was predicted with an accuracy of 1.44 g kg⁻¹ or relative RMSE (rRMSE) of 13.5%. This was achieved with the OLS model that used total N, pH, and CEC as predictors. The good performance of the OLS model over more flexible machine learning approaches suggests that the information predictors provide about the response variable (SOC) is approximately linear. As the agricultural dataset was small (n = 24), the less complex model reduced the chances of overfitting while keeping the variance relatively low. Random forests and BART had an rRMSE greater than 21%. Statistical models could be used to estimate SOC at 10–20 cm and reduce destructive soil analysis methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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31 pages, 4567 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhancing Maize Tolerance to Naturally Occurring Water Deficit and Biotic Stress Through Brassinolide and Silicon Application

by Larissa Pacheco Borges, Alessandro Guerra da Silva, Fábio Santos Matos, Marconi Batista Teixeira, Wilker Alves Morais, Guilherme Braga Pereira Braz, Itamar Rosa Teixeira, Fernando Nobre Cunha, Layara Alexandre Bessa and Luciana Cristina Vitorino

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070757 - 3 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 973

Abstract

Stressful effects on agriculture are of paramount importance in the 21st century. Water deficiency is considered a major constraint in crop succession, particularly for maize. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential roles of brassinolide (BL) and silicon (Si) in mitigating biotic [...] Read more.

Stressful effects on agriculture are of paramount importance in the 21st century. Water deficiency is considered a major constraint in crop succession, particularly for maize. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential roles of brassinolide (BL) and silicon (Si) in mitigating biotic (incidence of pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (naturally occurring water deficit) in maize grown after soybean harvest. The field experiments were conducted over two growing seasons on a Rhodic Haplustox in the Cerrado, Goiás, Brazil. A randomized complete block design was employed in a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement, with five BL doses (0.000, 0.050, 0.100, 0.150, and 0.200 mg L⁻¹) and two Si treatments (absence and presence), each with four replicates. BL was applied immediately when the soil moisture in the 0–0.20 m layer reached 16.25%, corresponding to the crop’s critical water threshold. This specific phenological point corresponded to the R₂ stage in the first off-season and the V₁₀ stage in the second off-season. Si applications were performed at the V₃ and V₈ stages. BL application enhanced growth, as well as physiological and metabolic performance by increasing protein synthesis and sugar content, thereby maintaining relative water content, sustaining antioxidant enzyme activity, and reducing lipid peroxidation under water-deficit conditions. The BL doses that achieved the highest yields were 0.149 mg L⁻¹ (R₂ stage) in the first off-season and 0.134 mg L⁻¹ (V₁₀ stage) in the second off-season. Si application effectively reduced pest damage and disease severity while improving plant water status. However, in the second off-season, a significant BL × Si interaction was limited to carotenoids, pheophytinization index, and disease severity. These results indicate that the combined use of BL and Si provides a promising strategy to enhance maize resilience by integrating BL-mediated yield promotion with Si-driven physical and biotic protection under adverse environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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20 pages, 1102 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genetic Variations and Epistatic Interactions for Agronomic and Yield Traits in Winter Wheat Population Derived from ‘TAM 204’ and ‘Iba’ Cultivars

by Yahya Rauf, Jorge Luis Valenzuela-Antelo, Mehmet Dogan, Chenggen Chu, Shannon A. Baker, Jason A. Baker, Daniel Hathcoat, Geraldine Opena, Qingwu Xue, Jackie C. Rudd, Amir M. H. Ibrahim, Junli Zhang and Shuyu Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070755 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 940

Abstract

Background: Improving grain yield in wheat remains a top priority, requiring integrated breeding and genetic strategies. This complexity poses a major challenge, driven by quantitative polygenic inheritance, environmental influence, and intricate genetic interactions. We investigated genetic factors and their interactions for agronomic and [...] Read more.

Background: Improving grain yield in wheat remains a top priority, requiring integrated breeding and genetic strategies. This complexity poses a major challenge, driven by quantitative polygenic inheritance, environmental influence, and intricate genetic interactions. We investigated genetic factors and their interactions for agronomic and yield traits in two high-yielding winter wheat cultivars adapted to the US Southern Great Plains. Methods: A bi-parental mapping population consisting of 221 F₇ recombinant inbred lines (RIL) derived from ‘TAM 204’ and ‘Iba’ was evaluated for three years in 11 Texas environments. Both parents and RIL population were genotyped on Illumina NovaSeq 6000 and sequences were aligned to IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 using Bowtie2 for SNP calling. For QTL analyses, each trait was analyzed by individual environment, across multiple environments and mega-environments. Results: A total of 86 QTL were mapped for five traits and among them 32 were consistent in more than one environment or analysis. Among consistent QTL, four were pleiotropic to more than one agronomic or yield traits mapped on chromosomes 2B (57.18, 59.47 Mb) and 2D (29.34, 40.64 Mb). The consistent QTL on chromosome 2D (29.34 Mb) was pleiotropic to GYLD, DTH, TW, TKW and explained maximum phenotypic variation for all traits, representing photoperiod gene (Ppd-D1). Another QTL on chromosome 2D (40.64 Mb) was pleiotropic to GYLD and TW and based on the physical position comparisons it likely reflects a unique locus in Iba. The pleiotropic consistent QTL Qgyld.tamu.2B.59 from TAM 204 represents Ppd-B1 gene. Moreover, it is more likely that Qdth.tamu.5B.575 represents the Vrn-B1 gene in Iba. A total of 23 digenic epistatic interactions involved consistent QTL for all traits. Amongst these, epistatic interactions between the consistent QTL on 2B (57.18 Mb) and 2D (29.34 Mb) were observed for GYLD, DTH and TKW. Conclusions: Our findings revealed key allelic diversity and interaction effects in elite wheat cultivars, paving the way for marker development for identified pleiotropic loci and implementation in marker-assisted selection and recombination breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilizing Genetic Resources for Agronomic Traits Improvement: 3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 5642 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Spatial Heterogeneity of Soil C-N-P Stoichiometry and Its Controlling Factors in Agricultural Soils Across the Songnen Plain, Northeast China

by Shihan Qin, Bingjie Wang, Xingnuo Liu, Yingde Xu, Wenyou Hu, Jun Jiang, Jiuming Zhang, Chao Zhang, Enjun Kuang and Jingkuan Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070753 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 775

Abstract

Soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry is essential for maintaining fertility and ecosystem functioning, yet its spatial patterns and drivers in large-scale agricultural regions remain unclear. We collected 225 topsoil samples across the Songnen Plain, Northeast China, and used geostatistical [...] Read more.

Soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry is essential for maintaining fertility and ecosystem functioning, yet its spatial patterns and drivers in large-scale agricultural regions remain unclear. We collected 225 topsoil samples across the Songnen Plain, Northeast China, and used geostatistical methods to map the spatial distributions of soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and their ratios (C:N, C:P, N:P). Feature importance and correlation analyses were employed to assess the relative influence of environmental factors. Results revealed significant spatial heterogeneity, with a consistent north-high, south-low pattern for all elements and ratios. Mean C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios were 11.6, 32.8, and 2.8, respectively. SOC was the dominant controlling factor (importance: 0.5–0.6), showing strong positive correlations with all ratios. Mean annual temperature exerted significant negative effects, while precipitation had limited influence, primarily on C:N. Soil type also mattered, with black soils exhibiting the highest C:N and C:P ratios (11.8 and 36.7). We conclude that soil C:N:P stoichiometry in the Songnen Plain is governed by hierarchical interactions of SOC, climate, and soil type. These findings provide a mechanistic framework for understanding regional nutrient patterns and support the development of spatially targeted management strategies for sustainable soil health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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18 pages, 1997 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nutrient Management Strategies for Enhancing Maize Yield and Improving Soil Fertility in the Changbai Mountains—Liaodong Hilly Region: A Meta-Analysis

by Junjie Ruan, Jiahao Huang, Yinghua Juan and Meng Mao

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070752 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1011

Abstract

To further enhance nutrient use efficiency for maize cultivation in the Changbai Mountains—Liaodong Hilly Region and to safeguard both grain production and soil quality, 2441 pairs of data points extracted from 47 publicly published papers were selected for analysis to investigate the effects [...] Read more.

To further enhance nutrient use efficiency for maize cultivation in the Changbai Mountains—Liaodong Hilly Region and to safeguard both grain production and soil quality, 2441 pairs of data points extracted from 47 publicly published papers were selected for analysis to investigate the effects of different fertilizer types, their application rates, and field management practices on spring maize yield enhancement, crop growth, and soil physicochemical properties. According to the subgroup analysis of the above indicators, the results demonstrated that various fertilization management practices can effectively increase maize yield and soil nutrient content. Specifically, applications of nitrogen fertilizer (39.78%) and top-dressing (34.10%) had the best effect on increasing maize yield. The combination of organic–inorganic application (22.93%) and straw returning (20.46%) had the best effect on increasing soil organic matter. Based on grain yield and its components, crop physiology and soil physicochemical properties, we recommend an optimal nutrient management strategy for this region: an application rate of 180 kg/ha for nitrogen and 70–100 kg/ha for both phosphorus and potassium, and the field management practice of combined application of chemical fertilizers and manure based on full-amount straw returning in the field. This study provides a reference for nutrient management of maize fields in the Changbai Mountains—Liaodong Hilly Region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Net-Zero Emissions for Sustainable Food Production and Land Management—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1909 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Spatial Proximity to Perennial Groundcover Triggers Shade Avoidance Responses in Corn

by Amina Moro, A. Susana Goggi, Ken J. Moore, Shui-zhang Fei and Amy Kaleita

Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070729 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 972

Abstract

Perennial groundcover (PGC) systems integrate perennial grasses with annual crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) to provide continuous soil cover and enhance soil health. However, the proximity to groundcover vegetation can alter light quality perceived by developing seedlings, inducing shade avoidance [...] Read more.

Perennial groundcover (PGC) systems integrate perennial grasses with annual crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) to provide continuous soil cover and enhance soil health. However, the proximity to groundcover vegetation can alter light quality perceived by developing seedlings, inducing shade avoidance response (SAR), a phytochrome-mediated developmental response that modifies plant architecture and may compromise yield. Identifying the distance at which SAR is initiated and the extent to which management practices modulate this response is critical for optimizing PGC systems. This growth chamber study aimed to (1) identify the distance at which SAR occurs in corn seedlings, (2) determine whether the thiamethoxam seed treatment mitigates SAR expression, and (3) compare hybrid physiological responses to PGC-induced SAR. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications across three periods and included two corn hybrids (P1185, P1197), two seed treatments (untreated and thiamethoxam at 0.25 mg seed⁻¹), and four perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) distances [0, 6, 25 cm, and a control (no-grass)]. Reduced red to far-red light ratios associated with closer proximity to ryegrass induced SAR responses. Corn plants at 6 cm from PGC exhibited significant stem and height elongation beginning at 8 days after planting (DAP), followed by reduced growth by 14 DAP, confirming an early SAR response. Plants grown at 0 cm exhibited reduced height and growth compared to other distances at all growth stages. Hybrid responses differed, and Hybrid P1197 showed enhanced stem elongation, a characteristic SAR response. The thiamethoxam seed treatment did not mitigate SAR. These results indicate that SAR causes stem elongation without altering root or shoot biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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