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Agronomy
Special Issues
Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment
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Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Soil and Plant Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2025) | Viewed by 13238

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Eugenija Bakšienė

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Guest Editor
Voke Branch, Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Žalioji a. 2, LT 02232 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: Ecology; organic fertilizers; soil science; agrochemistry; production of agricultural and bioenergy crops; plants phenological observations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Audrius Kačergius

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Voke Branch, Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Žalioji a. 2, LT 02232 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: soil properties and microbiology; plants pathology; molecular biology; biomass conversion process
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Healthy soil is the foundation of sustainable and productive agroecosystems.

The soil must perform a variety of agronomic and ecosystem functions, support biological productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health.

Anthropogenic factors, the use of agricultural technologies and systems have a significant impact on soil health, as well as on environmental protection and climate change. As civilization grows, waste accumulates, the mess of which greatly affects the quality of the environment. Therefore, they are increasingly used to fertilize the soil. That's not always a good thing. To reduce this negative impact, more attention should be paid to the interaction of growing plants with various physicochemical, biological soil properties.

Specific scientific information collected in the special issue "Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment" will fill knowledge gaps and allow a broader understanding of the problem as a whole and ways to solve it. Original research (full articles or brief reports), reviews or opinions on soil properties in changing conditions will be published here. Articles that should improve our knowledge on this topic, especially those that reflect indicators of soil health and properties, are welcome.

Dr. Eugenija Bakšienė
Dr. Audrius Kačergius
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • soil health
  • properties
  • environment

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 1191 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Residue Management: Influence on Soil Chemical Properties Across Different Application Technologies
by Urte Mecione, Modupe Olufemi Doyeni and Vita Tilvikiene
Agronomy 2025, 15(5), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051121 - 30 Apr 2025
Abstract
The use of crop residues is increasing across farming systems as part of climate change mitigation efforts and agricultural management practices to improve soil health. Hemp residues offer valuable potential in these efforts due to their rich nutrient composition. However, the complex chemical [...] Read more.
The use of crop residues is increasing across farming systems as part of climate change mitigation efforts and agricultural management practices to improve soil health. Hemp residues offer valuable potential in these efforts due to their rich nutrient composition. However, the complex chemical composition of hemp residue could pose a significant challenge by slowing the decomposition rate if not adequately managed. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of different timings of hemp residue incorporation, soil tillage practices, and mode of application on the rate of mineralization and soil chemical parameters. A complete randomized design field trial was conducted on hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) residue incorporation across different seasonal periods and modes of application. The results showed that the fastest mineralization occurred when hemp residue was incorporated in autumn, while the slowest mineralization was observed when the residue was left on the surface of the soil as mulch. The application of hemp residues over three years led to a slight increase in soil pH from an initial value of 4.9; however, this change was not statistically significant. Similarly, nitrogen content did not change significantly between the different periods after applying hemp residues. In contrast, hemp residues contributed to an increase in soil carbon content. Overall, this study emphasizes the need to optimize hemp residue management to maximize its benefits for enhancing soil chemical properties and promoting sustainable agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
15 pages, 1242 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Converting Native Grassland into Arable Land and an Avocado Orchard on Soil Hydraulic Properties at an Experimental Farm in South Africa
by Jestinos Mzezewa
Agronomy 2025, 15(5), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051039 - 25 Apr 2025
Viewed by 146
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the changes in soil water retention curve (WRC) and pore size distribution in the 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm layers following grassland conversion into arable land and an avocado orchard. Undisturbed soil cores were [...] Read more.
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the changes in soil water retention curve (WRC) and pore size distribution in the 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm layers following grassland conversion into arable land and an avocado orchard. Undisturbed soil cores were sampled using cylindrical metal cores to determine WRCs. The RETC program was used to fit the van Genuchten equation to the measured water retention data. The maximum equivalent radius (r) of soil pores retaining water at various matric potentials was calculated using the capillary rise equation. Significant differences between treatments were observed mainly in the 10–20 cm layers. Greater θs, n, and α in grassland were attributed to low bulk density and high soil organic carbon. Soil compaction in arable land and an avocado orchard was attributed to soil disturbance. The grassland had a greater share of macro- and mesopore volumes and large air capacity than the arable and avocado orchard. Overall, the results indicated that the conversion of native grassland causes substantial changes in soil hydraulic properties that could impact crop growth and the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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14 pages, 3183 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Cereal and Legume Cultivation on Soil Properties and Microbial Communities in the Mu Us Desert
by Lirong He, Lei Shi, Yang Wu, Guoliang Wang and Guobin Liu
Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 968; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040968 - 16 Apr 2025
Viewed by 153
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different crop cultivation practices on soil chemical properties and microbial communities in the Mu Us Desert, with the goal of optimizing land management and promoting ecological restoration. A one-way randomized block design was used to [...] Read more.
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different crop cultivation practices on soil chemical properties and microbial communities in the Mu Us Desert, with the goal of optimizing land management and promoting ecological restoration. A one-way randomized block design was used to establish experimental plots for a cereal (Setaria italica, SI), a legume (Glycine max, GM), and a control group with no crops (CK) in the central Mu Us Desert. Soil samples were collected to assess physicochemical properties and to analyze microbial community structures via high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results showed that crop cultivation decreased soil pH while increasing soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and available phosphorus (AP), indicating improved soil fertility and reduced soil alkalinity. The composition of soil bacterial communities varied significantly among treatments. Both SI and GM treatments increased the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs), enhancing bacterial richness and diversity. Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria increased with crop cultivation, whereas Chloroflexi declined. These shifts were largely attributed to changes in pH and nutrient availability. Notably, SI treatment had a stronger positive effect on bacterial richness. Correlation analyses between soil chemical properties and microbial community composition highlighted the potential of crop cultivation to influence soil ecosystem services. These findings provide a scientific basis for sustainable agricultural practices and ecological restoration in arid regions such as the Mu Us Desert. Further studies are warranted to investigate the functional roles of microbial communities under different cropping patterns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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16 pages, 2592 KiB  
Article
Responses of Soil Organic/Inorganic Carbon Concentrations in the Lower Yangtze River to Soil Development and Land Use
by Baowei Su, Chao Gao, Shuangshuang Shao and Yalu Zhang
Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040850 - 28 Mar 2025
Viewed by 210
Abstract
Understanding the evolution and regulation of soil carbon (C) across different stages of geological development is essential for elucidating soil’s role in C storage and release processes. In this study, 1029 soil samples were collected from the alluvial layers of the lower Yangtze [...] Read more.
Understanding the evolution and regulation of soil carbon (C) across different stages of geological development is essential for elucidating soil’s role in C storage and release processes. In this study, 1029 soil samples were collected from the alluvial layers of the lower Yangtze River. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) was employed to establish a gradient sequence of soil development, facilitating an investigation into the evolution of organic carbon (OC) and inorganic carbon (IC) in both surface and deep layers across various development stages, as well as their influencing factors. The results demonstrated that as soil develops, surface OC content increases significantly, while the deep layer exhibits no substantial changes. Notably, IC loss was particularly pronounced in surface soils, decreasing from 4.90 g/kg to 0.07 g/kg. Furthermore, the impacts of land use were more evident during the early stages of soil development. Paddy–dryland rotation (paddies) was found to enhance OC sequestration while maintaining IC levels comparable to those of drylands. Soil development directly influenced IC content, whereas its effect on OC content at different depths was primarily mediated by changes in the zirconium-to-rubidium (Zr/Rb) ratios and metal cation concentrations. This study highlights that OC accumulation during soil development predominantly occurs in surface layers, while IC leaching can also be detected at greater depths. At highly developed sites, paddies are recommended as beneficial for preserving C reserves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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19 pages, 6873 KiB  
Article
High-Resolution Mapping of Cropland Soil Organic Carbon in Northern China
by Rui Wang, Wenbo Du, Ping Li, Zelong Yao and Huiwen Tian
Agronomy 2025, 15(2), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15020359 - 30 Jan 2025
Viewed by 722
Abstract
Mapping the high-precision spatiotemporal dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) in croplands is crucial for enhancing soil fertility and carbon sequestration and ensuring food security. We conducted field surveys and collected 1121 soil samples from cropland in Changzhi, northern China, in 2010 and [...] Read more.
Mapping the high-precision spatiotemporal dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) in croplands is crucial for enhancing soil fertility and carbon sequestration and ensuring food security. We conducted field surveys and collected 1121 soil samples from cropland in Changzhi, northern China, in 2010 and 2020. Random Forest (RF) models combined with 19 environmental covariates were used to map the topsoil (0–20 cm) SOC in 2010 and 2020, and uncertainty maps were used to calculate the dynamic changes in cropland SOC between 2010 and 2020. Finally, RF and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were employed to explore the effects of climate, vegetation, topography, soil properties, and agricultural management on SOC variation in croplands. Compared to the prediction model using only natural variables (RF_C), the model incorporating agricultural management (RF_A) significantly improved the simulation accuracy of SOC. The coefficient of determination (R2) increased from 0.77 to 0.85, while the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) decreased from 1.74 to 1.53 g kg−1, and the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) was reduced from 1.10 to 0.94 g kg−1. The uncertainty in our predictions was low, with an average value of only 0.39–0.66 g kg−1. From 2010 to 2020, SOC in the Changzhi croplands exhibited an overall increasing trend, with an average increase of 1.57 g kg−1. Climate change, agricultural management, and soil properties strongly influence SOC variation. Mean annual precipitation (MAP), drainage condition (DC), and net primary productivity (NPP) were the primary drivers of SOC variability. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of agricultural management for predicting SOC in croplands. Overall, the study confirms that improved agricultural management has great potential to increase soil carbon stocks, which may contribute to sustainable agricultural development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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27 pages, 5193 KiB  
Article
Advanced Efficient Feature Selection Integrating Augmented Extreme Learning Machine and Particle Swarm Optimization for Predicting Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Yield in Corn
by Josselin Bontemps, Isa Ebtehaj, Gabriel Deslauriers, Alain N. Rousseau, Hossein Bonakdari and Jacynthe Dessureault-Rompré
Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010244 - 20 Jan 2025
Viewed by 817
Abstract
Efficient nitrogen management is crucial for improving corn productivity while minimizing environmental impacts. This study evaluates the response of corn to nitrogen fertilization using three key metrics: yield; nitrogen harvest index (NHI); and agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE). This experiment was conducted over [...] Read more.
Efficient nitrogen management is crucial for improving corn productivity while minimizing environmental impacts. This study evaluates the response of corn to nitrogen fertilization using three key metrics: yield; nitrogen harvest index (NHI); and agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE). This experiment was conducted over three years (2021–2023) across 84 sites in Quebec, Canada, with five nitrogen treatments applied post-emergence (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 kg N/ha) and initial nitrogen applied at seeding (30 to 60 kg/ha). In addition, various soil health indicators, including physical, chemical, and biochemical properties, were monitored to understand their interaction with nitrogen use efficiency. Machine learning techniques, such as augmented extreme learning machine (AELM) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), were employed to optimize nitrogen recommendations by identifying the most relevant features for predicting yield and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). The results highlight that integrating soil health indicators such as enzyme activities (β-glucosidase [BG] and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase [NAG]) and soil proteins into nitrogen management models improves prediction accuracy, leading to enhanced productivity and environmental sustainability. These findings suggest that advanced data-driven approaches can significantly contribute to more precise and sustainable nitrogen fertilization strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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29 pages, 4666 KiB  
Article
Land Suitability Assessment and Crop Water Requirements for Twenty Selected Crops in an Arid Land Environment
by Salman A. H. Selmy, Raimundo Jimenez-Ballesta, Dmitry E. Kucher, Ahmed S. A. Sayed, Francisco J. García-Navarro, Yujian Yang and Ibraheem A. H. Yousif
Agronomy 2024, 14(11), 2601; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14112601 - 4 Nov 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2496
Abstract
Expanding projects to reclaim marginal land is the most effective way to reduce land use pressures in densely populated areas, such as Egypt’s Nile Valley and Delta; however, this requires careful, sustainable land use planning. This study assessed the agricultural potential of the [...] Read more.
Expanding projects to reclaim marginal land is the most effective way to reduce land use pressures in densely populated areas, such as Egypt’s Nile Valley and Delta; however, this requires careful, sustainable land use planning. This study assessed the agricultural potential of the El-Dabaa area in the northern region of the Western Desert, Egypt. It focused on assessing land capability, evaluating crop suitability, mapping soil variability, and calculating crop water requirements for twenty different crops. In this work, we evaluated land capability using the modified Storie index model and assessed soil suitability using the land use suitability evaluation tool (LUSET). We also calculated crop water requirements (CWRs) utilizing the FAO-CROPWAT 8.0 model. Additionally, we employed ArcGIS 10.8 to create spatial variability maps of soil properties, land capability classes, and suitability classes. Using a systematic sampling grid, 100 soil profiles were excavated to represent the spatial variability of the soil in the study area, and the physicochemical parameters of the soil samples were analyzed. The results indicated that the study area is primarily characterized by flat to gently sloping surfaces with deep soils. Furthermore, there are no restrictions on soil salinity or alkalinity, no sodicity hazards, and low CaCO3 levels. On the other hand, the soils in the study area are coarse textured and have low levels of CEC and organic matter (OM), which are the major soil limiting factors. As a result, the land with fair capability (Grade 3) accounted for the vast majority of the study area (87.3%), covering 30599.4 ha. Land with poor capability (Grade 4) accounted for 6.5% of the total area, while non-agricultural land (Grade 5) accounted for less than 1%. These findings revealed that S2 and S3 are the dominant soil suitability classes for all the studied crops, indicating moderate and marginal soil suitabilities. Furthermore, there were only a few soil proportions classified as unsuitable (N class) for fruit crops, maize, and groundnuts. Among the crops studied, barley, wheat, sorghum, alfalfa, olives, citrus, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, sunflowers, safflowers, and soybeans are the most suitable for cultivation in the study area. The reference evapotranspiration (ETo) varied between 2.6 and 5.9 mm day−1, with higher rates observed in the summer months and lower rates in the winter months. Therefore, the increase in summer ETo rates and the decrease in winter ones result in higher CWRs during the summer season and lower ones during the winter season. The CWRs for the crops we studied ranged from 183.9 to 1644.8 mm season−1. These research findings suggest that the study area is suitable for cultivating a variety of crops. Crop production in the study area can be improved by adding organic matter to the soil, choosing drought-resistant crop varieties, employing effective irrigation systems, and implementing proper management practices. This study also provides valuable information for land managers to identify physical constraints and management needs for sustainable crop production. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights to aid investors, farmers, and governments in making informed decisions for agricultural development in the study region and similar arid and semiarid regions worldwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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18 pages, 6043 KiB  
Article
Response of Soil Moisture to Precipitation at Different Smash-Ridging Tillage Depths in Typical Sugarcane Fields in Guangxi, China
by Yu Zhang, Song Wang, Lei Gan, Benhui Wei and Jinlian Zhang
Agronomy 2024, 14(11), 2576; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14112576 - 1 Nov 2024
Viewed by 752
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the optimal smash-ridging tillage depth in sugarcane fields in Guangxi, China, in order to improve soil moisture conditions. Three treatments were implemented in sugarcane cultivation areas, with smash-ridging tillage depths of 20 cm, 40 cm, [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to identify the optimal smash-ridging tillage depth in sugarcane fields in Guangxi, China, in order to improve soil moisture conditions. Three treatments were implemented in sugarcane cultivation areas, with smash-ridging tillage depths of 20 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm. The dynamics of soil moisture were monitored at depths of 5 cm, 20 cm, and 40 cm to investigate their response to precipitation. The results indicated that the F40 treatment had the highest mean soil moisture content. The F40 treatment exhibited a 29.85% increase in percent area of significant coherence (PASC) compared to the F20 treatment and an 8.23% increase in PASC compared to the F60 treatment. These results indicated that the F40 treatment exhibited the most significant vertical exchange. Under the same precipitation conditions, the F20 and F40 treatments exhibited a quicker soil moisture response to precipitation than the F60 treatment. The mean soil moisture replenishment (SMR) of the F40 treatment was 0.94% and 11.02% higher than that of the F20 and F60 treatments, respectively. Following the torrential rainfall event, the F40 treatment exhibited the slowest recession rate of soil moisture, indicating a greater capacity for water retention. Therefore, the smash-ridging tillage depth of 40 cm resulting in the best responsiveness to precipitation was recommended for sugarcane cultivation in Guangxi, China, which effectively improved soil moisture exchanges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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11 pages, 1435 KiB  
Article
Influence of Hemp Residues on Soil Chemical Parameters and Spring Wheat Productivity
by Urte Stulpinaite, Vita Tilvikiene and Modupe Olufemi Doyeni
Agronomy 2024, 14(8), 1829; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081829 - 19 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1214
Abstract
The utilization of hemp residues, obtained after the harvest of hemp flowers, is a potential soil amendment in crop cultivation that might enhance soil health, nutrient availability, and crop productivity. However, more research is required to choose the best agricultural practice for optimizing [...] Read more.
The utilization of hemp residues, obtained after the harvest of hemp flowers, is a potential soil amendment in crop cultivation that might enhance soil health, nutrient availability, and crop productivity. However, more research is required to choose the best agricultural practice for optimizing hemp residue degradations. This study aimed to determine the integrated effects of hemp residues in different soil tillage systems on spring wheat yield. The results of the two-year experiment show that under favorable climatic conditions and soil moisture contents, the highest spring wheat grain yield (6.0 t ha−1) is achieved in plots where hemp residues are plowed in autumn. Similar results are obtained in dry weather conditions, but the yield is lower by more than half—2.3 t ha−1. The influence of residues increases the C content in the soil. The findings advance our understanding of integrated agricultural practices through the utilization of hemp residues for promoting resilient and sustainable crop production systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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Review

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21 pages, 3649 KiB  
Review
How Can Soil Quality Be Accurately and Quickly Studied? A Review
by Radwa A. El Behairy, Hasnaa M. El Arwash, Ahmed A. El Baroudy, Mahmoud M. Ibrahim, Elsayed Said Mohamed, Dmitry E. Kucher and Mohamed S. Shokr
Agronomy 2024, 14(8), 1682; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081682 - 30 Jul 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5275
Abstract
Evaluating soil quality is crucial for ensuring the sustainable use of agricultural lands. This review examines the definition, evaluation methods, indicator selection, and relevant case studies. The concept of soil quality supplements soil science research by deepening our understanding of soils and aiding [...] Read more.
Evaluating soil quality is crucial for ensuring the sustainable use of agricultural lands. This review examines the definition, evaluation methods, indicator selection, and relevant case studies. The concept of soil quality supplements soil science research by deepening our understanding of soils and aiding in the allocation of resources as agriculture intensifies to meet rising global demand. Soil quality provides a framework for educating stakeholders about the essential functions of soils and offers a tool for assessing and comparing different management techniques. Regular evaluation of soil quality is vital for maintaining high crop yields and addressing the gap between production and consumption. Nowadays, many researchers have explored machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques and various algorithms to model and predict soil quality with satisfactory results. These chosen indicators can be influenced by chemical, biological, or physical features. This paper compares ML and DL with traditional methods, examining their features, limitations, different categories of machine learning, and their applications in soil quality assessment. Finally, we show that predicting soil quality has the potential to be extremely accurate and efficient with ML and DL. This distinguishes the application of DL and ML from other approaches since they can anticipate the soil quality index without the need for more intricate computations. Our suggestion for future studies is to evaluate soil quality over broader regions and predict it by using more accurate, modern, and faster methods, using a variety of activation functions and algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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Other

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16 pages, 2933 KiB  
Perspective
New Approach to Experimental Soil Health Definition Using Thermogravimetric Fingerprinting
by Ina Krahl, David Tokarski, Jiri Kučerík, Elisabeth Schwitzky and Christian Siewert
Agronomy 2025, 15(2), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15020487 - 18 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 487
Abstract
Degradation and sealing are still frequent in soil management today despite intensive research. An unsatisfactory assessment of soil key components and soil health still limits sustainable land use. For the future evaluation of soil health, soils under productive use have been compared with [...] Read more.
Degradation and sealing are still frequent in soil management today despite intensive research. An unsatisfactory assessment of soil key components and soil health still limits sustainable land use. For the future evaluation of soil health, soils under productive use have been compared with natural and semi-natural soils using thermogravimetric fingerprinting of air-dried soil samples. This approach has led to a more precise quantification of known relationships and the discovery of several new ones between soil components that have evolved over thousands of years of soil formation without human intervention, each changing in a specific way due to land use. The use-related deviations from the natural soil condition allow a distinction between natural soils, disturbed soils, and soil-like carbon-containing mineral mixtures (e.g., compost, horticultural substrates). Carbon added to soils with fresh organic residues or from anthropogenic (soot, slag) or geological (coal) sources can be distinguished from soil organic matter (humus) accumulated during soil genesis, regardless of extreme chemical heterogeneity. The degree of carbon sequestration in soils is easy to quantify. Using near-natural soils as a reference, considering bound water seems to be a suitable starting point for the experimental definition of soil health. An elucidation of the causal relationships between the soil components used should accompany it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
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