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Particulate and Dissolved Metals in the Pearl River Estuary, China—Part 1: Spatial Distributions and Influencing Factors
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Assessing the Relationship Between Groundwater Availability, Access, and Contamination Risk in Arizona’s Drinking Water Sources
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Predicting Surface Stokes Drift with Deep Learning
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Flood Susceptibility Analysis with Integrated Geographic Information System and Analytical Hierarchy Process
Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards.
Impact Factor:
3.0 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.3 (2023)
Latest Articles
Hydrogeochemical and Geospatial Insights into Groundwater Contamination: Fluoride and Nitrate Risks in Western Odisha, India
Water 2025, 17(10), 1514; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101514 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025
Abstract
Fresh groundwater is essential for sustaining life and socio-economic development, particularly in regions with limited safe drinking water alternatives. However, contamination from natural and anthropogenic sources poses severe health and environmental risks. This research examines the health risks linked to groundwater quality in
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Fresh groundwater is essential for sustaining life and socio-economic development, particularly in regions with limited safe drinking water alternatives. However, contamination from natural and anthropogenic sources poses severe health and environmental risks. This research examines the health risks linked to groundwater quality in the agroeconomic region of Boudh district, Odisha, India, where residents depend on untreated groundwater due to limited access to alternative sources. A total of 82 groundwater samples were analyzed during pre- and post-monsoon of the year 2023 using multivariate statistical methods (PCA, correlation analysis) to determine pollutant sources and regulatory factors, while XRD was employed to characterize fluoride-bearing minerals in associated rock samples. Fluoride concentrations range from 0.14 to 4.6 mg/L, with 49% of samples exceeding the WHO limit of 1.5 mg/L, which raises significant health concerns. Nitrate levels fluctuate between 1.57 and 203.51 mg/L, primarily due to agricultural fertilizers. A health risk assessment (hazard quotient and hazard index) indicates that 63% of samples fall into the low-risk category, 21% into moderate-risk, and 16% into high-risk. Children (HI = 29.23) and infants (HI = 19.51) are at the greatest health risk, surpassing that of adult males (HI = 12.2) and females (HI = 11.2). Findings provide scientific evidence for policymakers to implement groundwater protection and remediation strategies. Immediate interventions, including water quality monitoring, defluoridation measures, and community awareness programs, are essential for ensuring long-term water security and public health.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Qualitative and Quantitative Management of Groundwater Resources in Urban Areas)
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Open AccessArticle
Mountain Flood Risk: A Bibliometric Exploration Across Three Decades
by
Qian Li, Yuanbin Tang, Shuai Wang, Xiuguang Wu and Yong Luan
Water 2025, 17(10), 1513; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101513 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025
Abstract
Climate change, intensified human activities, and ecological shifts have markedly increased mountain flood risks, threatening communities in vulnerable highland regions. This study used CiteSpace (6.2R6) and VOSviewer (1.6.20) to analyze 1841 Web of Science Core Collection articles (1995–2024), mapping publication and citation trends,
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Climate change, intensified human activities, and ecological shifts have markedly increased mountain flood risks, threatening communities in vulnerable highland regions. This study used CiteSpace (6.2R6) and VOSviewer (1.6.20) to analyze 1841 Web of Science Core Collection articles (1995–2024), mapping publication and citation trends, leading countries and institutions, co-citation networks, and keyword dynamics. We found an exponential increase in output (CAGR 15.8%), peaking at 211 articles in 2024. China (23.7%, 436 articles), the United States (17.8%, 328), Italy (8.6%, 159), India (5.5%, 101), and Japan (4.2%, 77) are leading research countries in the field, which is underpinned by extensive international collaboration. The research spans diverse domains with robust interdisciplinary integration. Keyword timeline and burst analyses reveal emerging topics—machine learning-enhanced risk assessment, climate-driven flood dynamics in the Himalayas and Alps, hydrological process modeling, and socio-economic impact evaluation—pointing toward advanced, region-tailored solutions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
Open AccessArticle
Adaptive PID Control of Hydropower Units Based on Particle Swarm Optimization and Fuzzy Inference
by
Dong Liu, Shichao Zhao and Jingjing Zhang
Water 2025, 17(10), 1512; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101512 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025
Abstract
Currently, fixed-parameter proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control is widely adopted by the governor of hydropower units (HPUs), which causes regulation performance to deteriorate during variable operating conditions. To solve this problem, a novel particle swarm optimization-based fuzzy PID (PSO-FPID) is proposed for the frequency regulation
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Currently, fixed-parameter proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control is widely adopted by the governor of hydropower units (HPUs), which causes regulation performance to deteriorate during variable operating conditions. To solve this problem, a novel particle swarm optimization-based fuzzy PID (PSO-FPID) is proposed for the frequency regulation of HPUs. The segment linearization model of HPU is first established to reflect the changes in the operating conditions. On this basis, FPID is designed based on expert experience. The PID control parameters are optimized using PSO under different operating conditions to determine the optimal initial values of the FPID controller. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed PSO-FPID, its performance is compared and analyzed with the actual PID, FPID, and particle swarm optimization-based PID (PSO-PID) in the MATLAB/Simulink platform. The results show that the average adjust time of PSO-FPID is 16.60 s less than that of PID, 18.05 s less than that of FPID, and 0.23 s less than that of PSO-PID. PSO-FPID can maintain better control performance than the other methods under most operating conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
Open AccessArticle
Advancing Ion Constituent Simulations in California’s Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta Using Machine Learning Tools
by
Peyman Namadi, Minxue He and Prabhjot Sandhu
Water 2025, 17(10), 1511; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101511 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025
Abstract
This study extends previous machine learning work on ion constituent simulation in California’s Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta (Delta) to include three critical water intake locations. The developed Artificial Neural Network models demonstrate exceptional accuracy (R2 > 0.96) in predicting chloride, bromide, and sulfate
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This study extends previous machine learning work on ion constituent simulation in California’s Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta (Delta) to include three critical water intake locations. The developed Artificial Neural Network models demonstrate exceptional accuracy (R2 > 0.96) in predicting chloride, bromide, and sulfate concentrations at these strategically important facilities. Water intake location models show substantial improvements in prediction accuracy, with MAE reductions of 60.7–74.0% for chloride, 63.3–72.5% for bromide, and 70.4–87.9% for sulfate, compared to existing methods for the Interior Delta. Performance evaluation through comprehensive cross-validation confirms robust model stability across varied conditions, with remarkably consistent metrics (standard deviation in R2 ≤ 0.006). Four complementary interactive dashboards were developed, enabling users, regardless of programming expertise, to simulate ion constituents throughout the Delta system. A Model Interpretability Dashboard specifically addresses the complexity of machine learning models by visualizing parameter sensitivity and prediction behavior, thereby enhancing transparency and building stakeholder trust in the modeling approach. For the first time, spatial coverage limitations are addressed through hybrid modeling that combines DSM2 hydrodynamic simulation with machine learning to enable continuous prediction of ion distributions across several points in the Interior Delta. These advancements provide water managers with accessible, accurate tools for informed decision-making regarding agricultural operations, drinking water treatment, and ecosystem management in this vital water resource.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Applications in the Water Domain)
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Open AccessArticle
A Tombolo Alternating Between a Double Tombolo and a Salient on the West Coast of Honghai Bay, Guangdong, China, Driven by Dynamic Fluvial and Coastal Interactions
by
Mingkun Qiu and Wei Wang
Water 2025, 17(10), 1510; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101510 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
A small tombolo on the west coast of Guangdong’s Honghai Bay was investigated using over a decade of satellite imagery. Occasionally, this stream forms a lagoon behind the island, giving the appearance of a double tombolo. However, analysis of satellite imagery reveals that
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A small tombolo on the west coast of Guangdong’s Honghai Bay was investigated using over a decade of satellite imagery. Occasionally, this stream forms a lagoon behind the island, giving the appearance of a double tombolo. However, analysis of satellite imagery reveals that the double tombolo was not consistently formed and that the tombolo tip was not always attached to the leeward side of the island. This suggests that the tombolo was in a transitional state between the formation of a tombolo and a salient. The beaches on both sides of the tombolo are headland-bay beaches. Therefore, MEPBAY and XBeach, coupled with grain size analysis, were utilized to investigate the dynamic geomorphological processes of the tombolo. This study shows that the headlands at both ends of the beaches, along with waves approaching perpendicular to the shore, inhibit longshore drift on either side of the tombolo. The sediment sustaining the tombolo originates from the stream sands and offshore sands transported onshore by waves. When wave-driven sediment transport exceeds stream sediment supply, a tombolo forms. Conversely, only a salient develops. This specific case study reveals previously undocumented phenomena, thereby offering valuable insights into the mechanisms of double tombolo formation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study on Environmental Hydrology and Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Basins, Estuaries and Offshore)
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Open AccessArticle
Sustainable Bioremediation of Lipid-Rich Wastewater Using a Lipase from Penicillium rubens LBM 081
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Laura Ester Ortellado, Alan Rolando Ayala Schimpf, Silvana Florencia Benítez, Laura Lidia Villalba, Pedro Darío Zapata and María Isabel Fonseca
Water 2025, 17(10), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101509 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
The improper discharge of wastewater has increased the presence of pollutants, among which lipids are particularly problematic. These compounds form oily layers that hinder oxygen transfer and sunlight penetration, negatively impacting aquatic ecosystems. Conventional methods for treating such effluents are often costly and
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The improper discharge of wastewater has increased the presence of pollutants, among which lipids are particularly problematic. These compounds form oily layers that hinder oxygen transfer and sunlight penetration, negatively impacting aquatic ecosystems. Conventional methods for treating such effluents are often costly and environmentally unfriendly. In this context, bioremediation using lipases, such as those produced by Penicillium rubens LBM 081, represents an effective and sustainable alternative. This study evaluated the biotechnological potential of the lipase from P. rubens LBM 081 for the hydrolysis of lipid-rich wastewater. Lipase activity was influenced by the carbon and nitrogen sources in the culture medium, reaching maximum activity (2780 U mL⁻1) under optimal conditions of 2% meat peptone, 4% olive oil, a spore concentration of 1 × 106, incubation at 30 °C, and agitation at 140 rpm. The optimized enzymatic supernatant significantly reduced COD, oils, and total fats in the effluents. Furthermore, GC-MS analysis revealed a significant increase in free fatty acids, confirming triglyceride hydrolysis. These results highlight the potential of P. rubens LBM 081 lipase as an effective and environmentally sustainable biotechnological alternative for the treatment of lipid-rich wastewater.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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Open AccessArticle
Water Inrush Mechanism During Mining Adjacent to Large Water-Conducting Faults
by
Xiaofei Gong, Dan Ma, Luyuan Wu, Qiang Li, Zhenhua Li, Feng Du, Rui Qiao and Jiufang Han
Water 2025, 17(10), 1508; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101508 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
In mining operations, the rock mass located between the water-conducting fault fracture zone and the waterproof protective coal column is highly susceptible to damage, which may result in sudden water inrush disasters. This paper first employs indoor experiments and on-site rock sample analysis
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In mining operations, the rock mass located between the water-conducting fault fracture zone and the waterproof protective coal column is highly susceptible to damage, which may result in sudden water inrush disasters. This paper first employs indoor experiments and on-site rock sample analysis to determine the macroscopic mechanical parameters of rocks and rock masses, as well as the microscopic mechanical parameters of block contacts. The fracture and seepage evolution mechanisms in the mining-induced rock mass adjacent to major faults were analyzed utilizing the discrete element-fluid coupling theory in Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC). The results identified three primary pathways for water hazards caused by mining: the calculated stress field and seepage field indicated that the formation of the water-inrush channels was determined by the parameters of coal seam mining. Different waterproof protective coal columns were set up for the three geological conditions under study. Additionally, a “claw-shaped” detection and flow monitoring method has been proposed for small water-conducting faults. These findings are important and provide valuable guidance for understanding and managing water inrush hazards in mining operations near major faults.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Geo-Disaster Reduction in the Context of Climate Change: Hydrology, Management Strategies, and Ecological Geological Engineering)
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Open AccessArticle
Assessment of Future Drought Characteristics Using Various Temporal Scales and Multiple Drought Indices over Mekong Basin Under Climate Changes
by
Vo Quang Tuong, Bui Anh Kiet and Thu T. Pham
Water 2025, 17(10), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101507 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
This study evaluates the performance of CMIP6 models in simulating drought characteristics in the Mekong region, including drought duration, intensity, and severity, using the SPI and SPEI indices. The results show that CMIP6 models are capable of accurately reproducing past drought conditions, with
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This study evaluates the performance of CMIP6 models in simulating drought characteristics in the Mekong region, including drought duration, intensity, and severity, using the SPI and SPEI indices. The results show that CMIP6 models are capable of accurately reproducing past drought conditions, with a high agreement between model data and actual data from ERA5. This study projects that future droughts will become more prolonged and severe which could lead to long-term agricultural and hydrological droughts tending to increase. In the SSP585 scenario, drought intensity will increase sharply in the southern and central regions by the end of the century. The SSP245 and SSP585 climate scenarios have distinct differences in drought trends, with SSP245 showing a strong drought trend, while SSP585 indicates a potential increase in precipitation. The SPEI indices show a clear improvement in wet conditions, with the highest drought variability in zone 2 and stable trends across scenarios. Ecosystems influence drought impacts and management needs. These results highlight the importance of accurately assessing drought characteristics to develop effective water resource and agricultural management measures, especially in the context of climate change. However, this study also points out some limitations, including the imperfect accuracy in future projections and the use of only SPI and SPEI indices without combining them with other indices which may reduce the comprehensiveness of drought impact assessment. This requires future studies to improve and expand to overcome the above limitations, thereby enhancing the reliability of drought forecasts and water resource management strategies.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Water Management in the Age of Climate Change)
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Research and Application Analysis of Intelligent Control Strategy for Water Injection Pump in Offshore Oil and Gas Field
by
Weizheng An, Yingyi Ma, Haibo Xu, Erqinhu Ke, Xianjie Liao and Ruijie Zhao
Water 2025, 17(10), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101506 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
This paper discusses the energy-saving control method of a pipeline network system based on reinforcement learning and a genetic algorithm and compares it with traditional control methods such as constant-pressure control and non-frequency conversion control. The purpose is to improve the operational efficiency
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This paper discusses the energy-saving control method of a pipeline network system based on reinforcement learning and a genetic algorithm and compares it with traditional control methods such as constant-pressure control and non-frequency conversion control. The purpose is to improve the operational efficiency of an offshore oil and gas field water injection system. This paper simulates and verifies the experimental platform of a water injection system pipe network in offshore oil and gas fields and evaluates the optimization effect of different control strategies under different flow rates. The experimental results reveal that under a varying flow rate, the water injection system harnessing the GA and RL exhibits a remarkable energy-saving advantage over traditional control methods. Specifically, the GA strategy achieves an average energy-saving rate of 22.51%, with a maximum energy-saving rate of 38.14% under low flow rate, while the RL strategy attains an average energy-saving rate of 18.39%. These methodologies not only furnish novel solutions for the real-time optimal scheduling of water injection systems in offshore oil and gas fields but also proffer practical guidance, thereby paving the way for technological advancement and sustainable development in the industry.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Optimization of Fluid Machinery, 3rd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Linkage Analysis Between Coastline Change and Both Sides of Coastal Ecological Spaces
by
Xianchuang Fan, Chao Zhou, Tiejun Cui, Tong Wu, Qian Zhao and Mingming Jia
Water 2025, 17(10), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101505 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
As the first marine economic zone, the coastal zone is a complex and active ecosystem, serving as an important resource breeding area. However, during the process of economic development, coastal zone resources have been severely exploited, leading to fragile ecology and frequent natural
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As the first marine economic zone, the coastal zone is a complex and active ecosystem, serving as an important resource breeding area. However, during the process of economic development, coastal zone resources have been severely exploited, leading to fragile ecology and frequent natural disasters. Therefore, it is imperative to analyze coastline changes and their correlation with coastal ecological space. Utilizing long-time series high-resolution remote sensing images, Google Earth images, and key sea area unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing monitoring data, this study selected the coastal zone of Ningbo City as the research area. Remote sensing interpretation mark databases for coastline and typical coastal ecological space were established. Coastline extraction was completed based on the visual discrimination method. With the help of the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and maximum likelihood classification, a hierarchical classification discrimination process combined with a visual discrimination method was constructed to extract long-time series coastal ecological space information. The changes and the linkage relationship between the coastlines and coastal ecological spaces were analyzed. The results show that the extraction accuracy of ground objects based on the hierarchical classification process is high, and the verification effect is improved with the help of UAV remote sensing monitoring. Through long-time sequence change monitoring, it was found that the change in coastline traffic and transportation is significant. Changes in ecological spaces, such as industrial zones, urban construction, agricultural flood wetlands and irrigation land, dominated the change in artificial shorelines, while the change in Spartina alterniflora dominated the change in biological coastlines. The change in ecological space far away from the coastline on both the land and sea sides has little influence on the coastline. The research shows that the correlation analysis between coastline and coastal ecological space provides a new perspective for coastal zone research. In the future, it can provide technical support for coastal zone protection, dynamic supervision, administration, and scientific research.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Remote Sensing for Coastal System Monitoring and Management)
Open AccessArticle
The Impact of Inundation and Nitrogen on Common Saltmarsh Species Using Marsh Organ Experiments in Mississippi
by
Kelly M. San Antonio, Wei Wu, Makenzie Holifield and Hailong Huang
Water 2025, 17(10), 1504; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101504 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
Sea level rise is an escalating threat to saltmarsh ecosystems as increased inundation can lead to decreased biomass, lowered productivity, and plant death. Another potential stressor is elevated nitrogen often brought into coastal regions via freshwater diversions. Nitrogen has a controversial impact on
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Sea level rise is an escalating threat to saltmarsh ecosystems as increased inundation can lead to decreased biomass, lowered productivity, and plant death. Another potential stressor is elevated nitrogen often brought into coastal regions via freshwater diversions. Nitrogen has a controversial impact on belowground biomass, potentially affecting saltmarsh stability. In this study, we examined the effects of inundation and nitrogen on common saltmarsh plants (Spartina alterniflora and Spartina patens) placed within two marsh organs (a collection of PVC pipes at different levels, the varied elevation levels expose the plants to different inundation amounts) located in the Pascagoula River, Mississippi, USA, with six rows and eight replicates in each row. We randomly fertilized four replicates in each row with 25 g/m2 of NH4+-N every two-three weeks during the growing season in 2021 and 2022. We concurrently collected vegetative traits such as plant height and leaf count to better understand strategies saltmarshes utilize to maximize survival or growth. We harvested half of the vegetation in Year 1 and the remaining in Year 2 to evaluate the impact of inundation and nitrogen on above- and belowground biomass at different temporal scales. We developed Bayesian models that show inundation had a largely positive impact on S. alterniflora and a mostly negative impact S. patens, suggesting that S. alterniflora will adapt better to increasing inundation than S. patens. Additionally, fertilized plants from both species had higher aboveground biomass than non-fertilized plants for both years, with nitrogen addition only showing impact on belowground biomass in the long term. Our results highlight the importance of long-term study to facilitate more-informed restoration and conservation efforts in coastal wetlands while accounting for climate change and sea level rise.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Sea Level Dynamics and Coastal Erosion)
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Open AccessArticle
Design of a Novel Pump Cavitation Valve and Study of Its Cavitation Characteristics
by
Yang Luo, Zhenxing Wu, Zekai Li, Lang Cheng, Peihan Qi and Jiegang Mou
Water 2025, 17(10), 1503; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101503 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
In centrifugal pump open cavitation tests, cavitation regulation valves are indispensable. During valve regulation, the irregular shape of the flow cross-section easily induces cavitation, significantly affecting the test results. This study investigates and designs a novel cavitation regulation valve. The valve core is
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In centrifugal pump open cavitation tests, cavitation regulation valves are indispensable. During valve regulation, the irregular shape of the flow cross-section easily induces cavitation, significantly affecting the test results. This study investigates and designs a novel cavitation regulation valve. The valve core is composed of several identical valve flaps. By restricting the movement direction and distance of the valve flaps, the shape of the flow cross-section remains circular under different valve openings, ensuring optimal fluid flow conditions. This study examines the influence of the number of valve flaps on the flow state. The results indicate that, as the number of valve flaps increases, the flow cross-section approaches a circular shape, reducing the number of bubbles and improving the valve flow state. When the number of valve flaps increases to 20, the flow state shows no significant difference from a circular flow cross-section. Additionally, this study investigates the impact of the valve inlet and outlet shapes on the flow state. The findings reveal that the rounded corner structure experiences severe cavitation inside and at the rear end of the valve. The chamfered corner structure generates bubbles earlier than the initial valve structure but exhibits a stronger ability to resist pressure fluctuations. Both the chamfered inlet and chamfered outlet structures help suppress cavitation, with the chamfered outlet structure exhibiting lower-pressure fluctuations and stronger cavitation resistance. Therefore, the novel cavitation regulation valve with a circular flow cross-section can effectively enhance fluid flow conditions and suppress valve cavitation, demonstrating significant engineering application value.
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(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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Open AccessArticle
Amalgamation of Drainage Area Ratio and Nearest Neighbors Methods for Predicting Stream Flows in British Columbia, Canada
by
Muhammad Uzair Qamar, Courtney Turner and Cameron Stooshnoff
Water 2025, 17(10), 1502; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101502 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
British Columbia, Canada, is recognized for its abundant natural resources, including agricultural and aquaculture products, sustained by its diverse climate and geography. Water resource allocation in BC is governed by the Water Sustainability Act, enacted on 29 February 2016, replacing the historic Water
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British Columbia, Canada, is recognized for its abundant natural resources, including agricultural and aquaculture products, sustained by its diverse climate and geography. Water resource allocation in BC is governed by the Water Sustainability Act, enacted on 29 February 2016, replacing the historic Water Act. However, limited gauging of streams across the province poses challenges for ensuring water allocation while meeting Environmental Flow Needs. Overallocated watersheds and data-scarce watersheds in need of licensing highlight the need for robust streamflow prediction methods. To address these challenges, we developed a methodology that integrates the Drainage Area Ratio and Nearest Neighbors techniques to predict streamflows efficiently, without incurring additional financial costs. We utilized Digital Elevation Models and flow data from provincially and municipally managed hydrometric stations, as well as from the Water Survey of Canada, to normalize streamflows based on area, slope, and elevation. This approach ensures hydrological predictions that account for variability in hydrological processes resulting from differences in lumped-scale watershed characteristics. The method was validated using streamflow data from hydrometric stations maintained by the aforementioned entities. For validation, each station was iteratively treated as ungauged by temporarily removing it from the dataset and then predicting its streamflow using the proposed methodologies. The results demonstrated that the amalgamated Drainage Area Ratio–Nearest Neighbors approach outperformed the traditional Drainage Area Ratio method, offering reliable predictions for diverse watersheds. This study provides an adaptable and cost-effective framework for enhancing water resource management across BC.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Various Hydrological Modeling Techniques and Methods in River Basin Management, 2nd Edition)
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Experimental Study on the Motion Response Characteristics of a Floating Wind Turbine with a Semi-Submersible Foundation
by
Zhipeng Zang, Haoming Zong, Zhuo Fang, Jinfeng Zhang and Cun Hu
Water 2025, 17(10), 1501; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101501 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
In this study, a series of physical model tests were conducted in a three-dimensional wave basin to examine the motion response characteristics and stability of a floating wind turbine with a semi-submersible foundation with four columns under various conditions, including waves, combined wind
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In this study, a series of physical model tests were conducted in a three-dimensional wave basin to examine the motion response characteristics and stability of a floating wind turbine with a semi-submersible foundation with four columns under various conditions, including waves, combined wind and waves, and combined wind, current, and waves. The pitch response amplitude of the floating wind turbine was systematically analyzed to assess the performance of the semi-submersible foundation. The results indicate that utilizing three mooring lines affixed to the three surrounding columns, as opposed to a single mooring line attached to the central column, markedly decreases the pitch response amplitude of the floating wind turbine. Under wind-only conditions, the turbine maintains a stable inclination with a minimal degree of deviation, even when subjected to the maximum design wind load. Across the investigated range of wave periods, the pitch response amplitude shows a rising trend without reaching a peak, suggesting that the natural period of the floating wind turbine is designed to differ from the most prevalent wave periods in real ocean environments. When wave and wind loads are combined, the pitch response amplitude of the floating wind turbine is slightly reduced compared to the amplitude induced by wave load alone. This reduction is likely attributable to the increased spring constant of the mooring lines, resulting from the steady drift under wind. When wave, current, and wind loads are combined, the pitch response amplitude of a floating wind turbine closely aligns with that induced by waves only. This phenomenon occurs predominantly because the current load counterbalances the wind load relative to the center of inertia in terms of pitch response. Furthermore, the combined effect of wind and current induces a steady drift, which subsequently increases the tension in the mooring lines.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wave–Structure Interaction in Coastal and Ocean Engineering)
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Open AccessReview
Methodologies for Locating Suitable Areas for Rainwater Harvesting in Arid Regions: A Review
by
Franco Felix Caldas Silva, Fernando António Leal Pacheco and Luís Filipe Sanches Fernandes
Water 2025, 17(10), 1500; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101500 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
The present review article aims to address what is currently being studied in the field of identifying suitable regions for the implementation of rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems in arid zones. The need for this study is supported by the growing interest in the
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The present review article aims to address what is currently being studied in the field of identifying suitable regions for the implementation of rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems in arid zones. The need for this study is supported by the growing interest in the topic, which has arisen due to growing environmental concerns and the search for sustainable development techniques. Through the application of Methodi Ordinatio, 37 articles produced between 2020 and 2025 were identified. Analyzing the results, it was possible to observe the widespread use of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) as a Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) methodology. To a lesser extent, the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) and the Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) were also used. The selected thematic layers, as well as the weights for the criteria, underwent a sensitive analysis by the researchers and may exhibit significant variation, even in studies conducted in nearby areas. The most commonly used thematic layers were slope (35 articles), land use/land cover (LULC) (28 articles), rainfall (26 articles), drainage (25 articles), and soil (25 articles). This study can be used as a methodological guide for future research and is important for the systematization of RWH studies in arid zones.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Water Reuse and Water Economics)
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Open AccessArticle
Insights to Estimate the Largest 1/3, 1/10, and 1/100 of Offshore Wave Heights and Periods Under Fetch-Limited Conditions in the Central Aegean Sea
by
Serafeim E. Poulos, Stamatina Lesioti and Aikaterini Karditsa
Water 2025, 17(10), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101499 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
The objective of this study is to compare the most common methods for forecasting wave characteristics (height and period) for the maximum in height 1/3, 1/10, and 1/100 of the waves, using available wind and wave datasets. The testing marine region is the
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The objective of this study is to compare the most common methods for forecasting wave characteristics (height and period) for the maximum in height 1/3, 1/10, and 1/100 of the waves, using available wind and wave datasets. The testing marine region is the Central Aegean Sea and, in particular, the east coast of Evia Island that is exposed to N, NE, E, and SE incoming offshore waves. The estimated values of wave characteristics resulting from three different wind datasets and the two wave datasets present differences of 2–60%. These variations are attributed to the different methodological approaches followed, to the different types of raw data in terms of space and time periods, and to the fetch limitations. The proposed methodology for the calculation of wave characteristics for the highest (1/10) and (1/100) waves appears to yield reasonable outcomes when compared to the corresponding significant (highest 1/3) wave heights and periods. Finally, mean values of wave height and period calculated from the five available datasets, considering their standard deviation, seem to be more representative than the values calculated separately from each dataset.
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(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
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Open AccessArticle
The Genetic Mechanism of Fluoride-Enriched Geothermal Groundwater in Southeast Coastal Areas in China: Hydrochemistry, Isotope, and Machine Learning Analysis
by
Lei Liu, Shouchuan Zhang, Jiahui He and Luyao Wang
Water 2025, 17(10), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101498 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
Fluoride-enriched geothermal groundwater poses chronic health risks (e.g., dental and skeletal fluorosis) through prolonged exposure; nevertheless, hydrochemical-driven factors and the genetic mechanism of fluoride enrichment in such systems remain inadequately identified. This study employed hydrochemical characterization, isotopic tracing, and health risk models to
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Fluoride-enriched geothermal groundwater poses chronic health risks (e.g., dental and skeletal fluorosis) through prolonged exposure; nevertheless, hydrochemical-driven factors and the genetic mechanism of fluoride enrichment in such systems remain inadequately identified. This study employed hydrochemical characterization, isotopic tracing, and health risk models to elucidate the genetic mechanism of fluoride-enriched geothermal groundwater. The key findings reveal the following. (1) Geothermal groundwater (Cl-Na type; TDS 90–345 mg/L; pH 6.25–7.42) contrasts with alkaline river water (pH 7.48–8.05; SO4-Na/HCO3-Na) and saline seawater (TDS 23.9–28.2 g/L). Stable isotopes (δD, δ1⁸O) confirm atmospheric precipitation recharge with an elevation of 69–635 m. (2) The Self-Organizing Map algorithm categorized 30 geothermal samples into three groups: Cluster I—low temperature and pH, high TDS; Cluster II—high temperature, low F− concentration; and Cluster III—low TDS, and high pH and F− concentration. (3) Fluoride enrichment in Cluster III originated from the evaporite/fluorite dissolution under alkaline conditions and cation exchange interactions, while the inhibition of CaF2 dissolution by reverse cation exchange limited the accumulation of F− in Cluster II and Cluster III samples. (4) Health risks disproportionately affect children (80% high risk) and women, necessitating pre-use defluorination.
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(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)
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Open AccessArticle
Optimizing Oilfield-Produced Water Reuse for Sustainable Irrigation: Impacts on Soil Quality and Mineral Accumulation in Plants
by
Khaled Al-Jabri, Ahmed Al-Busaidi, Mushtaque Ahmed, Rhonda R. Janke and Alexandros Stefanakis
Water 2025, 17(10), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101497 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
The effective management of produced water (PW), a by-product of oil extraction in Oman, is essential for sustainable water use and environmental protection. PW contains petroleum residues, heavy metals, and salts, which require treatment before safe reuse. In the Nimr oil field, PW
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The effective management of produced water (PW), a by-product of oil extraction in Oman, is essential for sustainable water use and environmental protection. PW contains petroleum residues, heavy metals, and salts, which require treatment before safe reuse. In the Nimr oil field, PW undergoes partial treatment in constructed wetlands vegetated with buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris). This study investigated the reuse potential of treated PW for irrigation through two parallel field experiments conducted at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) and the Nimr wetlands site. At the SQU site, native halophytic plants were irrigated with three water sources: treated municipal wastewater, underground water (from an on-site well), and treated produced water. At the Nimr site, irrigation was conducted using underground water and treated PW. Two soil types were used: well-draining control soil and Nimr soil from southern Oman. The treatments included: (i) PW + control soil, (ii) PW + Nimr soil, (iii) PW + gypsum (3.5 g/kg soil), (iv) PW + biochar (10 g/kg soil), (v) underground water + control soil, and (vi) treated municipal wastewater + control soil. Biochar, produced from locally sourced buffelgrass via low-temperature pyrolysis (300 °C for 3 h), and gypsum (46.57% acid-extractable sulfate) were mixed into the soil before sowing. The impact of each treatment was assessed in terms of soil quality (salinity, boron, major cations), plant physiological responses, and mineral accumulation. PW irrigation (TDS ~ 6500–7000 mg/L) led to a sixfold increase in soil sodium and raised boron levels in plant tissues to over 200 mg/kg, exceeding livestock feed safety limits. Copper remained within acceptable thresholds (≤9.5 mg/kg). Biochar reduced boron uptake, but gypsum showed limited benefit. Neither amendment improved plant growth under PW irrigation. These findings highlight the need for regulated PW reuse, emphasizing the importance of soil management strategies and alternating water sources to mitigate salinity stress.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Hydrology on Soil Erosion and Soil Water Conservation)
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Energy for Water and Food: Assessing the Energy Demand of Jordan’s Main Water Conveyance System Between 2015 and 2050
by
Samer Talozi, Ahmad Al-Kebsi and Christian Klassert
Water 2025, 17(10), 1496; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101496 - 15 May 2025
Abstract
Jordan is a relatively small country with limited natural resources, but it faces a burgeoning demand for water, energy, and food to accommodate a growing population, refugee migration, and the challenges of climate change that will persist through the rest of this century.
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Jordan is a relatively small country with limited natural resources, but it faces a burgeoning demand for water, energy, and food to accommodate a growing population, refugee migration, and the challenges of climate change that will persist through the rest of this century. Jordan’s Main Water Conveyance System is the backbone of distributing scarce water resources to meet domestic and agricultural demands. Therefore, understanding how the future energy requirements of this system may change is critical for managing the country’s water, energy, and food resources. This paper applied a water balance model to calculate the energy consumption of Jordan’s Main Water Conveyance System between 2015 and 2050, and the results point to high energy requirements for the future of distributing Jordan’s water. In the base year of 2015, the unmet water demand was 134.55 MCM, and the supplied water volume delivered was 438.75 MCM, while the energy consumption was 1496.7 GWh. The energy intensities for water conveyance and water treatment were 7.11 kWh/m3 and 0.5 kWh/m3, respectively. We examined five scenarios of future water and energy demand within Jordan: a reference scenario, a continuation of current behavior, two scenarios incorporating improved water management strategies, and a pessimistic scenario with no interventions. According to all scenarios, the energy consumption is expected to be doubled by the year 2050, reaching approximately 3172 GWh. It is recommended that Jordan prioritizes solar-powered conveyance and pumping to reduce the projected doubling of energy demand by 2050. Across all scenarios, the demand for nonrenewable energy associated with water conveyance is projected to rise significantly, particularly in the absence of renewable integration or efficiency interventions. Total water demand is expected to increase by up to 35% by 2050, with urban and agricultural sectors being the primary contributors.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus and Sustainable Development)
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Open AccessArticle
Distribution Patterns and Human Exposure Risks of Microplastics in Dominant Wild Edible Shrimp: A Case Study of Haizhou Bay Marine Ranch
by
Chunmei Gao, Minghe Chen, Baogui Liang, En Cai, Shuo Zhang and Shike Gao
Water 2025, 17(10), 1495; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101495 - 15 May 2025
Abstract
“Edible wild shrimp” play a crucial role in marine ecosystems and food chains, yet research on microplastic (MP) impacts on the dominant shrimp species of the Haizhou Bay Marine Ranch remains scarce. This study examined shrimp from Haizhou Bay, evaluating the distribution, nutritional
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“Edible wild shrimp” play a crucial role in marine ecosystems and food chains, yet research on microplastic (MP) impacts on the dominant shrimp species of the Haizhou Bay Marine Ranch remains scarce. This study examined shrimp from Haizhou Bay, evaluating the distribution, nutritional characteristics, and health risks associated with microplastics in their tissues. Analytical techniques included Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the hot needle method, stable isotope analysis, and microplastic risk assessment. The results revealed that microplastics comprised 40.93% of all particles identified, with Oratosquilla oratoria exhibiting the highest intestinal contamination, followed by Alpheus distinguendus. Most MPs were fibrous (86.3%), predominantly blue (57.32%), and approximately 80% consisted of Polyethylene Terephthalate. Significant interspecies differences were observed in the gastrointestinal distribution of MPs, while individuals of the same species showed no notable differences across body-length groups due to molting. The estimated daily intake and margin of exposure for human consumers remained well below the no-observed-adverse-effect level, suggesting negligible health risks. These findings provide a theoretical and empirical basis for understanding the migration, sources, and ecological implications of microplastics in shrimp, offering valuable insights for assessing nearshore environmental pollution and food web dynamics.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water, Agriculture and Aquaculture)
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