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Particulate and Dissolved Metals in the Pearl River Estuary, China—Part 1: Spatial Distributions and Influencing Factors
Assessing the Relationship Between Groundwater Availability, Access, and Contamination Risk in Arizona’s Drinking Water Sources
Predicting Surface Stokes Drift with Deep Learning
Flood Susceptibility Analysis with Integrated Geographic Information System and Analytical Hierarchy Process

Journal Description

Water

Water is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Aquatic Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards.

Impact Factor: 3.0 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4441

Latest Articles

23 pages, 8845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Unit Stream Power Dissipation Equation for Unlined Spillways: Incorporating Geometrical Parameters and Surface Irregularities

by Yavar Jalili Kashtiban, Ali Saeidi, Marie-Isabelle Farinas and Javier Patarroyo

Water 2025, 17(12), 1751; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121751 (registering DOI) - 10 Jun 2025

The unit stream power dissipation (USPD) equation is widely used to predict water flow characteristics over spillways. However, the current formulation of the USPD equation may not provide accurate predictions of the energy dissipation rates of water flowing over unlined spillways, particularly when [...] Read more.

The unit stream power dissipation (USPD) equation is widely used to predict water flow characteristics over spillways. However, the current formulation of the USPD equation may not provide accurate predictions of the energy dissipation rates of water flowing over unlined spillways, particularly when geometrical parameters and surface irregularities are considered. To address this issue, we modify the USPD equation to improve its accuracy. We determine how geometrical parameters and surface irregularities affect the accuracy of the USPD when applied to unlined spillways. Our modifications to the USPD equation account for these factors and improve predictions of the energy dissipation rate of water flowing over unlined spillways. We demonstrate that incorporating geometrical parameters and surface irregularities into the USPD equation improves the accuracy of estimated energy dissipation rates. Improved prediction accuracy has important implications for spillway design and maintenance, favoring safer and more effective water management systems. Our study highlights the need to consider geometrical parameters and surface irregularities when estimating USPD in unlined spillways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

25 pages, 5306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges of Urban Water Cycle Management in Small Spanish Municipalities: The Case of the Province of Granada

by Francisco Javier García-Martínez, Francisco Osorio and Francisco González-Gómez

Water 2025, 17(12), 1750; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121750 (registering DOI) - 10 Jun 2025

Urban water service management in Spain presents two very distinct realities: populated service areas and small population centres. Despite the professionalised management of resources to provide a comprehensive, high-quality service in the largest service areas, small population centres face significant deficits and shortcomings [...] Read more.

Urban water service management in Spain presents two very distinct realities: populated service areas and small population centres. Despite the professionalised management of resources to provide a comprehensive, high-quality service in the largest service areas, small population centres face significant deficits and shortcomings that pose a major challenge for the Spanish public administration. This article reviews the existing problems surrounding the management of urban water cycle services in small-population municipalities in the province of Granada. This case study describes a reality that can be extrapolated to a significant number of small municipalities in the rest of Spain, where the management of urban water cycle services is directly assumed by City Councils. Having reviewed the problems, the article concludes with a series of recommendations for improving urban water cycle management in small municipalities. The conclusions emphasise the study and creation of optimal service areas, as well as the creation of an independent regulatory body. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Management and Optimization of Urban Water Networks)

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25 pages, 1534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

River Resilience: Assessment Using Empirical Fish Assemblage Traits

by Paulina Vega, Konrad Górski and Evelyn Habit

Water 2025, 17(12), 1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121749 - 10 Jun 2025

The Andean river basins of central–southern Chile face multiple anthropogenic disturbances, including water extraction, hydropower, mining, and industrial discharges, which affect their ability to adapt to new disturbances. Disturbance intensity forms a gradient from high (Maipo, Rapel, Biobío, Maule) through medium (Mataquito, Itata) [...] Read more.

The Andean river basins of central–southern Chile face multiple anthropogenic disturbances, including water extraction, hydropower, mining, and industrial discharges, which affect their ability to adapt to new disturbances. Disturbance intensity forms a gradient from high (Maipo, Rapel, Biobío, Maule) through medium (Mataquito, Itata) to low (Imperial, Toltén). This study evaluated resilience in these eight river basins based on fish assemblages, using taxonomic and functional trait indices within the framework of the three Rs of resilience: resources, recruitment, and refugia. Taxonomic indices captured changes in species richness, abundance, diversity, evenness, and beta diversity, while functional traits reflected the fish species characteristics promoting resilience. Statistical tests revealed significant differences in resilience indices among basins. Recruitment was the most impacted resilience mechanism, with beta diversity revealing effects from river fragmentation in the Maipo, Rapel, and Biobío basins. The resources mechanism was also affected, primarily by land-use changes and water pollution, leading to low species richness in the Maipo, Rapel, Mataquito, and Maule river basins. Interestingly, basins with medium disturbance levels showed high resilience, indicating adaptive responses to moderate impacts. This study emphasizes the importance of multiple indicators to assess ecosystem resilience and calls for integrated strategies to address the complex challenges impacting freshwater biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity and Functionality of Aquatic Ecosystems)

30 pages, 2545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Decision Support Systems to Water Management: The Case of Iraq

by Hayder AL-Hudaib, Nasrat Adamo, Katalin Bene, Richard Ray and Nadhir Al-Ansari

Water 2025, 17(12), 1748; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121748 - 10 Jun 2025

Iraq has faced escalating water scarcity over the past two decades, driven by climate change, upstream water withdrawals, and prolonged economic instability. These factors have caused deterioration in irrigation systems, inefficient water distribution, and growing social unrest. As per capita water availability falls [...] Read more.

Iraq has faced escalating water scarcity over the past two decades, driven by climate change, upstream water withdrawals, and prolonged economic instability. These factors have caused deterioration in irrigation systems, inefficient water distribution, and growing social unrest. As per capita water availability falls below critical levels, Iraq is entering a period of acute water stress. This escalating water scarcity directly impacts water and food security, public health, and economic stability. This study aims to develop a general framework combining decision support systems (DSSs) with Integrated Comprehensive Water Management Strategies (ICWMSs) to support water planning, allocation, and response to ongoing water scarcity and reductions in Iraq. Implementing such a system is essential for Iraq to alleviate its continuing severe situation and adequately tackle its worsening water scarcity that has intensified over the years. This integrated approach is fundamental for enhancing planning efficiency, improving operational performance and monitoring, optimizing water allocation, and guiding informed policy decisions under scarcity and uncertainty. The current study highlights various international case studies that show that DSSs integrate real-time data, artificial intelligence, and advanced modeling to provide actionable policies for water management. Implementing such a framework is crucial for Iraq to mitigate this critical situation and effectively address the escalating water scarcity. Furthermore, Iraq’s water management system requires modifications considering present and expected future challenges. This study analyzes the inflows of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from 1933 to 2022, revealing significant reductions in water flow: a 31% decrease in the Tigris and a 49.5% decline in the Euphrates by 2021. This study highlights the future 7–20% water deficit between 2020 and 2035. Furthermore, this study introduces a flexible, tool-based framework supported by a DSS with the DPSIR model (Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impacts, and Responses) designed to address and reduce the gap between water availability and increasing demand. This approach proposes a multi-hazard risk matrix to identify and prioritize strategic risks facing Iraq’s water sector. This matrix links each hazard with appropriate DSS-based response measures and supports scenario planning under the ICWMS framework. The proposed framework integrates hydro-meteorological data analysis with hydrological simulation models and long-term investment strategies. It also emphasizes the development of institutional frameworks, the promotion of water diplomacy, and the establishment of transboundary water allocation and operational policy agreements. Efforts to enhance national security and regional stability among riparian countries complement these actions to tackle water scarcity effectively. Simultaneously, this framework offers a practical guideline for water managers to adopt the best management policies without bias or discrimination between stakeholders. By addressing the combined impacts of anthropogenic and climate change, the proposed framework aims to ensure rational water allocation, enhance resilience, and secure Iraq’s water strategies, ensuring sustainability for future generations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transboundary River Management)

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22 pages, 984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Social Effects of Wetland Ecological Restoration in China: From the Perspective of the Satisfaction and Perception of Residents Around Poyang Lake in Jiangxi Province

by Changhai Wang, Junting Guo, Wei Zhang, Mengling Xie, Haifei Liu, Xin’an Yin and Jun Sun

Water 2025, 17(12), 1747; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121747 - 10 Jun 2025

This paper focuses on the social effect assessment of the ecological governance of Poyang Lake wetland in Jiangxi Province. By distributing 1098 valid questionnaires to the surrounding residents and collecting them, this paper deeply explores the feedback on residents’ satisfaction and recognition regarding [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the social effect assessment of the ecological governance of Poyang Lake wetland in Jiangxi Province. By distributing 1098 valid questionnaires to the surrounding residents and collecting them, this paper deeply explores the feedback on residents’ satisfaction and recognition regarding the effectiveness of wetland governance measures. Through the comprehensive use of the Order Logit model and descriptive statistical methods such as the mean and standard deviation, this paper deeply discusses the impact of the ecological management measures of Poyang Lake wetland on residents’ life quality, environmental protection awareness, and community well-being. The study found that the wetland ecological management project was widely praised, and the overall satisfaction of residents was as high as 87.5%, reflecting a significant social effect. Further analysis revealed that satisfaction was affected by multiple factors, including age, education, quality of life (including increased leisure and recreational space and enhanced regional identity), and improvement in environmental quality (including increased bird species diversity, improved water and air quality, and improved infrastructure). Residents’ cognition of wetland function is multi-dimensional and profound, but they still need to strengthen standard science education in deep-level ecological functions such as species protection. Based on the research conclusion, three policy suggestions are proposed: first, the government should strengthen ecological education and enhance the public awareness of environmental protection; second, the government should pay attention to the win–win of ecology and people’s livelihoods and promote the harmonious coexistence of wetland protection and community development; and third, the government should improve the relevant infrastructure, strengthen environmental protection facilities, scientific research monitoring and legal construction, and lay a solid foundation for the sustainable protection and utilization of wetland resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecohydrological Processes, Environmental Effects, and Integrated Regulation of Wetland Ecosystems, 3rd Edition)

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23 pages, 2716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphorus Retention in Treatment Wetlands? A Field Experiment Approach: Part 2, Water Quality

by Mohamed Z. Moustafa and Wasantha A. M. Lal

Water 2025, 17(12), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121746 - 10 Jun 2025

In this study, we hypothesized and tested that physical parameters (flow, transport, and water depth) have a significantly greater influence on phosphorus (P) retention in wetlands than biogeochemical factors. Specifically, we evaluated the null hypothesis (H₀), that no significant difference exists [...] Read more.

In this study, we hypothesized and tested that physical parameters (flow, transport, and water depth) have a significantly greater influence on phosphorus (P) retention in wetlands than biogeochemical factors. Specifically, we evaluated the null hypothesis (H₀), that no significant difference exists between the influence of physical and biogeochemical parameters on phosphorus retention, against the alternative hypothesis (H₁), that physical parameters are more influential. We investigated two large wetlands (stormwater treatment areas, STAs) in south Florida: STA34C2A, which is dominated by emergent aquatic vegetation (EAV), and STA2C3, which is dominated by submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV). Building on Part 1, which mapped spatial flow resistance (K) as a vegetation-type-independent proxy for hydraulic resistance, this study (Part 2) applied a novel high-frequency (hourly) data approach with time-lagged regression modeling to estimate total phosphorus (TP) outflow concentrations. The key variables included inflow TP concentration, vegetation volume, water depth, nominal hydraulic residence time (HRT), hydraulic loading rate (HLR), phosphorus loading rate (PLR), and time lag (“P-spiral”). Multi-linear regression models for each STA identified inflow TP and water depth, a controllable physical parameter, as the most significant predictors of TP outflow, while the hour of day (a temporal proxy) contributed the least. Optimal model performance occurred with lag times of 8 and 9 days, producing R² values of 0.5788 (STA34C2A) and 0.5354 (STA2C3). In STA34C2A, high TP retention was linked to shallow water depth, dense EAV, and low K values, indicating high hydraulic resistance and reduced short circuiting. In contrast, lower TP retention in STA2C3 was associated with longer flow paths, sparse SAV, and high K values, suggesting less hydraulic control despite similar nominal HRTs. These results provide empirical support for rejecting the null hypothesis (H₀) in favor of the alternative (H₁): physical parameters, especially water depth, hydraulic resistance, and inflow dynamics, consistently exert a stronger influence on P removal than biogeochemical factors such as PLR. The findings highlight the importance of optimizing flow and depth controls in wetland design and management to enhance phosphorus removal efficiency in large, constructed wetland systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetland Conservation and Ecological Restoration)

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18 pages, 1440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Performance on Spiral Fluidic Sprinkler Using Different Nozzle Sizes Under Indoor Conditions

by Joseph Kwame Lewballah, Xingye Zhu, Alexander Fordjour and Simin Yao

Water 2025, 17(12), 1745; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121745 (registering DOI) - 10 Jun 2025

Sprinkler system performance enhancement has been a key area of research due to concerns about water shortages and rising energy costs. This study evaluated the hydraulic performance of the newly designed Spiral Fluidic Sprinkler (SFS) with various nozzles under different operating pressures. MATLAB [...] Read more.

Sprinkler system performance enhancement has been a key area of research due to concerns about water shortages and rising energy costs. This study evaluated the hydraulic performance of the newly designed Spiral Fluidic Sprinkler (SFS) with various nozzles under different operating pressures. MATLAB R2020b software was used to simulate sprinkler uniformities under various operating pressures and the droplet diameter, velocity, and kinetic energy were measured using a 2DVD video raindrop spectrometer. The results showed that larger nozzle sizes generally improved application uniformity and efficiency. The 4 mm nozzle at 200 kPa achieved the lowest coefficient of variation (CV) at 6.2%, while the 3 mm nozzle showed a higher CV of 10.4%. Under 200 and 250 kPa of pressure, a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed between the CVs for the 4 mm nozzle. Droplet size distributions revealed that over 90% of droplets produced by the 4 mm nozzle were under 3 mm in diameter across all pressures. Kinetic energy analysis indicated that droplet momentum increased with pressure, enhancing coverage but potentially increasing drift at higher levels. Overall, the SFS demonstrated strong potential for water conservation and improved irrigation efficiency in controlled agricultural environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Agricultural Irrigation Management and Technology)

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25 pages, 5000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extreme Droughts in the Peruvian Amazon Region (2000–2024)

by Daniel Martínez-Castro, Ken Takahashi, Jhan-Carlo Espinoza, Alejandro Vichot-Llano, Miguel Octavio Andrade and Fey Yamina Silva

Water 2025, 17(12), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121744 (registering DOI) - 10 Jun 2025

Droughts in the Amazon region are expected to increase in frequency and intensity, which would negatively affect the tropical forest, leading to a positive climate–forest feedback loop that could potentially result in the collapse of this ecosystem. In this study, extreme drought conditions [...] Read more.

Droughts in the Amazon region are expected to increase in frequency and intensity, which would negatively affect the tropical forest, leading to a positive climate–forest feedback loop that could potentially result in the collapse of this ecosystem. In this study, extreme drought conditions were identified in the Peruvian Amazon region for the period 2000–2024 using the maximum cumulative water deficit (MCWD) index, which is related to the tropical forest water stress. The ERA5, CHIRPS, and MSWEP datasets were used to estimate precipitation, while ERA5 data were used for evapotranspiration. This study focuses on the specificities of droughts and the differences across study areas. Six study areas were specified, three of them located in the Loreto department (northern Peruvian Amazon), another centered in Moyobamba city (western Peruvian Amazon), another in Ucayali, in the central Peruvian Amazon, and the other in Madre de Dios (southern Peruvian Amazon). It was found that the drought events are more frequent and intense in the central and southern regions of the basin. Based on the combined effect of the regional severity of the drought and its spatial extent, estimated from averaging across study areas and precipitation datasets, we identified the hydrological years of 2023-24, 2022-23, 2009-10, and 2004-05 as extreme droughts and 2015-16 and 2006-07 as moderate droughts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Climate Change and Land Use on Water Resources—an Issue of Environmental Global Safety)

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16 pages, 1329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Exposure to Arsenic Following the Installation of an Arsenic Removal Treatment in a Small Community Water System

by Lorraine Backer, Dorothy Stearns, Johnni Daniel, Rebecca Tomazin, David Harvey, Tad Williams, Laurie Peterson-Wright, Heather Strosnider, Mark Freedman and Fuyuen Yip

Water 2025, 17(12), 1743; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121743 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

Arsenic in drinking water poses a threat to public health world-wide. In March 2001, the EPA revised the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic in drinking water downward from 50 µg/L to 10 µg/L and required all U.S. small community water systems (CWSs) [...] Read more.

Arsenic in drinking water poses a threat to public health world-wide. In March 2001, the EPA revised the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic in drinking water downward from 50 µg/L to 10 µg/L and required all U.S. small community water systems (CWSs) and non-community water systems (NCWSs) to comply by 23 January 2006. Much of the financial burden associated with complying with and maintaining this new drinking water MCL was shouldered by local community governments. For example, the Walker River Paiute Tribe operated a CWS on the Walker River Paiute Indian Reservation that needed upgrading to meet the new arsenic MCL. In collaboration with the Walker River Paiute Tribe, we conducted a study to assess whether reducing the arsenic concentration in drinking water to meet the new MCL reduced the arsenic body burden in local community members who drank the water. Installing a drinking water treatment to remove arsenic dramatically reduced both the drinking water concentrations (to below the current EPA MCL of 10 µg/L) and the community members’ urinary concentrations of total As, AsIII, and AsV within a week of its full implementation. Additional assistance to small water systems to sustain new drinking water treatments may be warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quality and Human Health Risk, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 3471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Assessment of the Reliability of Water Treatment Plant as an Example of Anthropotechnical System

by Jakub Żywiec, Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak and Janusz Rak

Water 2025, 17(12), 1742; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121742 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

The anthropotechnical system is a system of human–technical object–environment. In addition to the reliability of technical objects, the reliability of humans is also important in the proper functioning of such a system. The water supply system is an example of an anthropotechnical system. [...] Read more.

The anthropotechnical system is a system of human–technical object–environment. In addition to the reliability of technical objects, the reliability of humans is also important in the proper functioning of such a system. The water supply system is an example of an anthropotechnical system. The operator of such a system is responsible, among other things, for the proper functioning of the water treatment plant, in which the production of water takes place. The operator’s task is to control individual subsystems and technological objects in order to supply water of the right quality, in the right quantity, at the required pressure to the consumer at any time, without making an error. The work shows the reliability of the anthropotechnical system assessment using the example of a water treatment plant located in south-eastern Poland. The single-parameter method and the reliability index were used to analyze the reliability. The reliability of the tested object was analyzed for the technical and anthropotechnical variant. The results indicate that after taking into account the influence of the operator on the reliability of the tested system, a decrease in the reliability index of 11% is observed. In order to minimize the negative influence of human factor on the reliability of the anthropotechnical system, it is recommended to duplicate the system operator, which allows for increasing the level of reliability of the anthropotechnical system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Resilience, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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22 pages, 1628 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems: A Global Review of Distribution, Ecotoxicological Impacts, and Human Health Risks

by Atiqur Rahman Sunny, Sharif Ahmed Sazzad, Mohammed Ariful Islam, Mahmudul Hasan Mithun, Monayem Hussain, António Raposo and Md Khurshid Alam Bhuiyan

Water 2025, 17(12), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121741 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

Microplastics (MPs), defined as synthetic polymer particles less than 5 mm in diameter, are widely acknowledged as ubiquitous contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, including freshwater, marine, and polar environments. Global concern with MPs has significantly increased; nevertheless, much of the current knowledge remains fragmented [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs), defined as synthetic polymer particles less than 5 mm in diameter, are widely acknowledged as ubiquitous contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, including freshwater, marine, and polar environments. Global concern with MPs has significantly increased; nevertheless, much of the current knowledge remains fragmented and, at times, limited to specific regions or ecological compartments. This study emphasizes the necessity of a thorough synthesis by critically analyzing global microplastics’ dispersion patterns, ecological consequences, and associated human health concerns. A systematic approach was employed, integrating specific search terms and establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria across various scientific databases to obtain a representative collection of literature. The study covers important topics such as the classification of MPs, their distribution, environmental impacts, and interactions with other pollutants, including heavy metals, pharmaceuticals and endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Particular emphasis is placed on comparing ecosystem-specific vulnerabilities, such as those found in tropical wetlands, marine gyres, and polar systems. The review examines potential human exposure pathways, via contaminated seafood, water, and air, while also compiling new information about cellular and physiological damage, including oxidative stress, inflammation, hormone disruption, and possible genetic effects. This investigation highlights the value of collaborative monitoring, the adoption of biodegradable alternatives, policy development, and interdisciplinary research by integrating knowledge from ecology and public health. The primary objective is to advance ecosystem-specific mitigation techniques and promote evidence-based policy development in addressing this intricate environmental issue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Microplastic Pollution on Soil and Groundwater Environment)

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20 pages, 3584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Optimization of Reservoir Operations Under Climate Variability in the Chao Phraya River Basin

by Luksanaree Maneechot, Jackson Hian-Wui Chang, Kai He, Maochuan Hu, Wan Abd Al Qadr Imad Wan-Mohtar, Zul Ilham, Carlos García Castro and Yong Jie Wong

Water 2025, 17(12), 1740; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121740 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

Reservoir operations play a pivotal role in shaping the flow regime of the Chao Phraya River Basin (CPRB), where two major reservoirs exert substantial hydrological influence. Despite ongoing efforts to manage water resources effectively, current operational strategies often lack the adaptability required to [...] Read more.

Reservoir operations play a pivotal role in shaping the flow regime of the Chao Phraya River Basin (CPRB), where two major reservoirs exert substantial hydrological influence. Despite ongoing efforts to manage water resources effectively, current operational strategies often lack the adaptability required to address the compounded uncertainties of climate change and increasing water demands. This research addresses this critical gap by developing an optimization model for reservoir operation that explicitly incorporates climate variability. An Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) was employed using four fundamental inputs: reservoir inflow, storage, rainfall, and water demands. Daily resolution data from 2000 to 2012 were used, with 2005–2012 selected for training due to the inclusion of multiple extreme hydrological events, including the 2011 flood, which enriched the model’s learning capability. The period 2000–2004 was reserved for testing to independently assess model generalizability. Eight types of membership functions (MFs) were tested to determine the most suitable configuration, with the trapezoidal MF selected for its favorable performance. The optimized models achieved Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) values of 0.43 and 0.47, R² values of 0.59 and 0.50, and RMSE values of 77.64 and 89.32 for Bhumibol and Sirikit Dams, respectively. The model enables the evaluation of both dam operations and climate change impacts on downstream discharges. Key findings highlight the importance of adaptive reservoir management by identifying optimal water release timings and corresponding daily release-storage ratios. The proposed approach contributes a novel, data-driven framework that enhances decision-making for integrated water resources management under changing climatic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

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23 pages, 2163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Characteristics and Source Contribution Analysis of Nutrients in Water Bodies of Small Watersheds in the Pearl River Delta

by Yi Wang, Qian Xiao, Bin He and Bam Haja Nirina Razafindrabe

Water 2025, 17(12), 1739; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121739 - 9 Jun 2025

With the rapid development of urbanization in rural areas of China, various environmental issues have become increasingly prominent, particularly the water pollution problems in small rural watersheds, which have garnered considerable attention. Comprehensive management of small watersheds requires an initial analysis of the [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of urbanization in rural areas of China, various environmental issues have become increasingly prominent, particularly the water pollution problems in small rural watersheds, which have garnered considerable attention. Comprehensive management of small watersheds requires an initial analysis of the sources and characteristics of water pollution. This study focuses on small rural watersheds in the Pearl River Delta. Based on the characteristics of the watersheds, 35 water quality monitoring stations were set up to collect water quality data. Cluster analysis was used to study the spatial distribution characteristics of water quality indicators at each monitoring point. Further, factor analysis methods (PCA/FA) and Absolute Principal Component Scores-Multiple Linear Regression (APCS-MLR) models were employed to identify water quality influencing factors and quantify pollution source contributions. Finally, the comprehensive index method for eutrophication assessment was used to evaluate and analyze the potential eutrophication pollution risk in the watersheds. The results indicate significant pollution in the water quality of rural small watersheds in the study area, with varying degrees of pollution over time and space. During the wet season, water quality is mainly influenced by agricultural nutrients, followed by biochemical factors. In the normal and dry seasons, water quality is primarily affected by oxygen-consuming organic pollutants, followed by eutrophication factors. The comprehensive eutrophication evaluation shows that the overall water quality in the watershed is better during the wet season, with a lower risk of eutrophication; during the normal season, the overall water quality is poorer, with the highest eutrophication risk in the midstream; during the dry season, the upstream and midstream water quality is better, while the downstream water quality is poorer. In contrast, the pond water exhibits a higher risk of eutrophication during the wet season compared to the normal and dry seasons. This is mainly due to the peak of fish farming during the wet season, which results in a heavier load on the water body. This study provides effective data support for the water environment management of rapidly developing rural small watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Modeling and Impacts of Climate Change on Hydrological Cycle)

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14 pages, 31754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Ridge Planting on the Distribution of Soil Water-Salt-Nitrogen, Crop Growth, and Water Use Efficiency of Processing Tomatoes Under Different Irrigation Amounts

by Ruyue Zheng, Junwei Tan, Zailin Huo and Guanhua Huang

Water 2025, 17(12), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121738 - 9 Jun 2025

Ridge tillage practice can enhance water storage capacity and crop production, but its integrated effects with different irrigation amounts and mechanisms to regulate crop growth remain little known. In this study, a two-year field experiment was conducted to explore the integrated impacts of [...] Read more.

Ridge tillage practice can enhance water storage capacity and crop production, but its integrated effects with different irrigation amounts and mechanisms to regulate crop growth remain little known. In this study, a two-year field experiment was conducted to explore the integrated impacts of irrigation and tillage practices on soil environment, crop growth, and water productivity of processing tomatoes. Three irrigation levels (full irrigation, mild water deficit, and moderate water deficit) and two tillage practices (ridge planting and flat planting) were considered in the treatments. Results indicated that ridge planting increased soil water, nitrogen, and salt content in the 0–30 cm soil layer compared to flat planting. However, the substantial increase in soil water content induced a dilution effect on salinity, which enhanced crop growth and yield production under different irrigation levels. Ridge planting improved the leaf area index (LAI), total yield, and water use efficiency (WUE) by 26.55~68.25%, 49.45~122.50%, and 54.19~124.15%, respectively. The highest total yield was achieved under ridge planting combined with mild water deficit conditions, whereas the lowest was recorded under flat planting with moderate water deficit. These findings suggest that ridge cropping optimizes the redistribution of water, nitrogen, and salt in the soil, which improves crop growth and yield. Overall, ridge planting represents a viable strategy for improving soil fertility and yield production, and promoting efficient resource utilization, particularly in water-limited regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water, Agriculture and Aquaculture)

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12 pages, 2036 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between the Structural-Activity of Sulfidated Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron and Its Enhanced Reactivity for Cr(VI) Reduction

by Min Zhang, Wenhao Wang, Zherui Fan, Ziwei Bao and Jinxiang Li

Water 2025, 17(12), 1737; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121737 - 9 Jun 2025

Sulfidation has gained increasing attention due to its merits to improve the structural-activity of nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI) and thus enhance its reactivity toward contaminants. Few studies have been conducted to elucidate the correlation between the structural-activity and reactivity of nZVI, which is [...] Read more.

Sulfidation has gained increasing attention due to its merits to improve the structural-activity of nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI) and thus enhance its reactivity toward contaminants. Few studies have been conducted to elucidate the correlation between the structural-activity and reactivity of nZVI, which is important for up-scaling such a decontamination strategy. Taking chromate (Cr(VI)) as the targeted contaminant, this study found that sulfidation enhanced the reactivity of nZVI toward Cr(VI) to varying extents, which was closely related to the degree and order of sulfidation. Particularly, the optimal rate constants of S-nZVI for Cr(VI) removal were 9.79 and 1.48 times higher than that of nZVI in the batch and column systems, respectively. In addition, this study suggested that sulfidation enhanced the electrical conductivity of nZVI by forming conductive iron sulfides (FeSx), while simultaneously reducing the particle aggregation and thus attenuating the settling rate of nZVI in water. More importantly, the reactivity of S-nZVI toward Cr(VI) exhibited negative correlations with its sedimentation activity and electrical conductivity. These relationships can be potentially used to predict the decontamination reactivity of S-nZVI if its sedimentation or conductivity activity was known in advance. Finally, this study clarified the sulfidation-induced improvement in reactivity of nZVI toward Cr(VI), which should be primarily associated with the improved reactive site of S-nZVI due to excellent dispersion and excellent conductivity due to FeSx introduction, ultimately facilitating the reduction of Cr(VI) by nZVI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interfacial Engineering Solutions for Enhanced Degradation of Toxic Contaminants in Water Systems)

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22 pages, 25970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Diversion Dike to Mitigate Debris Flow Blocking River Disaster

by Xing Gao, Liang Li, Longyang Pan, Xingguo Yang, Hongwei Zhou, Jian Liu, Mingyang Wang and Peimin Rao

Water 2025, 17(12), 1736; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121736 - 8 Jun 2025

Barrier lakes formed by debris flows blocking rivers can burst rapidly, posing significant threats to downstream areas. Mitigating the risk of barrier lake breaches caused by debris flow blockages is crucial for ensuring safety in affected regions. This study employed physical experiments to [...] Read more.

Barrier lakes formed by debris flows blocking rivers can burst rapidly, posing significant threats to downstream areas. Mitigating the risk of barrier lake breaches caused by debris flow blockages is crucial for ensuring safety in affected regions. This study employed physical experiments to investigate the influence of connection angles between the main flume and the tributary flume, as well as the installation of diversion dikes, on the morphological characteristics of debris flow deposits and the resulting barrier lake breach behavior. The findings reveal that when the debris flow enters the main flume at an intersection angle of 60°, compared to vertical entry (90°), the deposit’s height and volume are significantly reduced, while its length is increased. However, with the installation of a diversion dike, the height, volume, and length of the deposits are minimized, achieving the smallest values observed. Specifically, compared to vertical entry and a 60° connection angle without a diversion dike, the deposit volume decreased by 31.54~56.26%, height by 10.81~34.75%, and length by 2.33~25.05%. Post-breach observations indicate that the installation of a diversion dike results in the widest breach, the smallest peak flow, and the earliest occurrence of the peak flow. These findings demonstrate that diversion dikes effectively mitigate the barrier lake breach disaster caused by debris flow by altering the deposit morphology. The results provide valuable insights for the prevention and management of debris flow-induced river blockages and associated disasters in mountainous regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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13 pages, 2844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Distribution Spacing on Intraspecific Competition in the Brown Seaweed Sargassum thunbergii Along the Luhua Coast, China

by Fukun Gui, Kai Zong, Jinhuai Ni, Sunzhaocong Lan, Jianpeng Lu, Tumusenge Daniel, Dejun Feng, Xu Yang, Guangyang Zhang, Lili Mei, Jun Li, Xueping Lin, Xunmeng Li, Hongzhou Chen and Qingping Zou

Water 2025, 17(12), 1735; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121735 - 8 Jun 2025

Sargassum thunbergii is a dominant seaweed species in the intertidal zone along the coast of China. It provides various ecological services, such as primary productivity, marine carbon sequestration, and water purification. To investigate the population structure characteristics of Sargassum thunbergii, the Hegyi [...] Read more.

Sargassum thunbergii is a dominant seaweed species in the intertidal zone along the coast of China. It provides various ecological services, such as primary productivity, marine carbon sequestration, and water purification. To investigate the population structure characteristics of Sargassum thunbergii, the Hegyi competition model was employed to quantify intraspecific competition within populations in the intertidal zone of Luhua Island, China. The results showed that the competition intensity decreased as a power function (y = 1.93x^−0.89, R² = 0.28) with increasing seaweed height. Intraspecific competition had minimal effects on seaweeds taller than 50 cm. Seaweeds at lower population levels exhibited more stable competition indices. Therefore, the model can reliably predict intraspecific competition intensity in Sargassum thunbergii. The sample circle method was applied to identify an optimal intraspecific competitive range of 50 cm for intertidal populations of Sargassum thunbergii. This study provides scientific guidance for seaweed spacing and rational harvesting during ecological restoration. Moreover, it offers valuable insight for conserving other macroalgae, such as Sargassum fusiforme, and restoring seaweed beds ecologically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algae Distribution, Risk, and Prediction)

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24 pages, 3847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Water-Inrush Risk and Water-Preserved Mining Under Goaf Water

by Hao Jiao, Zhijiang Lun, Yanxiao Ni, Zhiguo Chang, Limin Fan and Liqiang Ma

Water 2025, 17(12), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121734 - 8 Jun 2025

In coal seam mining operations, the presence of overlying water bodies presents persistent challenges, particularly during multi-seam extraction, where water accumulation in upper seam goafs requires careful management. This study examined the Lingzhida Coal Mine, focusing on the geological conditions of the 3# [...] Read more.

In coal seam mining operations, the presence of overlying water bodies presents persistent challenges, particularly during multi-seam extraction, where water accumulation in upper seam goafs requires careful management. This study examined the Lingzhida Coal Mine, focusing on the geological conditions of the 3# seam (upper) and the 15# seam (lower), as well as the distribution of water accumulation in the corresponding goafs. The mechanism of water inrush from the upper goaf was studied, and the role of the water-resisting belt (WRB) is suggested. By utilizing empirical equations and field measurements, a method for calculating the floor fracture depth of the 3# seam and the roof fracture height of the 15# seam was derived through multi-linear regression analysis. Based on the relationship between the thickness of the WRB (H_w) and the protective layer (H_p), a classification criterion for the water-inrush risk (the likelihood of water entering the lower seam from the upper goaf) is proposed. The mining area was divided into four risk zones: high-risk (H_w < 0), medium-risk (0 ≤ H_w < 0.5H_p), low-risk (0.5H_p ≤ H_w < H_p), and safe (H_w ≥ H_p). Then, an adaptive zoning approach for water-preserved mining was introduced, considering the spatial distribution of goaf water. This approach incorporates water-preserved mining technologies, including the staggered layout of working faces, reduction in mining height, and the transfer–storage of water resources. These research findings provide crucial insights for ensuring the safe and efficient extraction of the multi-seam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Environmental Impacts and Control Strategies of Coal Mining and Energy Development/Storage Activities)

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11 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Call for Action: Improving Individual Well Management in Slovakia

by Miroslava Sovičová, Tibor Baška, Jana Zibolenová, Henrieta Hudečková, Mária Tatarková, Milada Eštóková, Zuzana Valovičová, Tibor Záborský and Mária Marušiaková

Water 2025, 17(12), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121733 - 8 Jun 2025

Background: While public water supplies are regulated by Directive (EU) 2020/2184, inconsistencies in member state legislation for individual wells pose health risks. The study investigates the management of Slovak wells, providing insights to inform and potentially strengthen national water policies. Methods: The survey-based [...] Read more.

Background: While public water supplies are regulated by Directive (EU) 2020/2184, inconsistencies in member state legislation for individual wells pose health risks. The study investigates the management of Slovak wells, providing insights to inform and potentially strengthen national water policies. Methods: The survey-based study collected data via online and in-person questionnaires during March 2024. It collected retrospective information on well characteristics, usage, stewardship practices, and water quality concerns. Results: We received 251 responses from 52 Slovak districts. The well water for drinking was used by 122 (48.6%) households, with notable regional variations. Only 41.0% of the respondents conducted a proper technical inspection of their wells within the past year. There has been an increase in the use of wells since the millennium. Individuals who drank well water were significantly more likely to conduct water quality tests (p < 0.05). The recommended frequency of technical inspections and annual testing was not reached in either well owners who drink well water or those with wells who drink water from other sources. Conclusions: The amendment of legislation specifically targeting individual wells, along with educational campaigns, appears crucial for well stewardship in Slovakia. The study provides data for further research and public health interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)

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23 pages, 4704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hierarchical Water Supply–Demand Regulation Model Coupling System Dynamics and Feedback Control Mechanisms: A Case Study in Wu’an City, China

by Renlong Wang, Shiwei Zhang, Jinxia Sha, Bin Liu, Dasheng Zhang and Boxin Wang

Water 2025, 17(12), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121732 - 8 Jun 2025

Water scarcity has become a critical global challenge, particularly in rapidly developing regions where water demand often exceeds sustainable supply capacities. Traditional “demand-driven” water management approaches have proven inadequate to address this imbalance, necessitating the development of more sophisticated “supply-driven” solutions. This study [...] Read more.

Water scarcity has become a critical global challenge, particularly in rapidly developing regions where water demand often exceeds sustainable supply capacities. Traditional “demand-driven” water management approaches have proven inadequate to address this imbalance, necessitating the development of more sophisticated “supply-driven” solutions. This study presents a groundbreaking System Dynamics (SD)-Feedback-Hierarchical Water Demand (SD-F-HWD) model that advances water resources management through three contributions. First, the model substantially extends conventional water demand hierarchy methods by developing a comprehensive classification framework with enhanced sector-specific criteria for industrial, agricultural, and ecological needs. Second, the innovative feedback regulation mechanism resolves persistent challenges from previous studies, including ambiguous control parameters and system instability. Third, the model establishes a unified analytical platform that effectively integrates these components for robust supply–demand equilibrium analysis. Validation in Wu’an City, Hebei Province—a representative water-stressed industrial region in northern China—demonstrated the model’s effectiveness. Under low-flow conditions (P = 75%), total water demand decreased by 11.24% while rigid demand was reduced by 8.50%. For normal flow conditions (P = 50%), corresponding reductions reached 9.88% and 6.99%, respectively. Crucially, all adjustments remained within practical policy implementation boundaries, demonstrating the model’s real-world applicability. The SD-F-HWD model offers a practical and scalable solution for sustainable water allocation in water-stressed regions through its integrated methodological framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)

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