Limnological Review

1 pages, 144 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Prado et al. Dam Impact on Fish Assemblages Associated with Macrophytes in Natural and Regulated Floodplains of Pandeiros River Basin. Limnol. Rev. 2024, 24, 437–449

by Ivo Gavião Prado, Marcela Alves de Souza, Flávia Freitas Coelho and Paulo Santos Pompeu

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030037 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

There was an error in the original publication [...] Full article

17 pages, 9909 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Hypoxia and Salinity Regimes on Planktonic Crustaceans

by Kacper Nowakowski and Łukasz Sługocki

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030036 - 7 Jul 2026

Abstract

Hypoxia and salinization increasingly co-occur in freshwater and estuarine ecosystems, yet their combined effects under fluctuating oxygen regimes remain poorly resolved. We experimentally quantified survival responses of four planktonic crustaceans (Daphnia magna, Daphnia longispina, Eurytemora velox, and Thermocyclops crassus) [...] Read more.

Hypoxia and salinization increasingly co-occur in freshwater and estuarine ecosystems, yet their combined effects under fluctuating oxygen regimes remain poorly resolved. We experimentally quantified survival responses of four planktonic crustaceans (Daphnia magna, Daphnia longispina, Eurytemora velox, and Thermocyclops crassus) along a salinity gradient expressed as conductivity (0.6–7.7 mS cm⁻¹) under two oxygen regimes: sustained hypoxia and repeated short-term hypoxia over 120 h, under standardized food-deprived conditions to isolate abiotic stress effects. Under sustained hypoxia, survival declined monotonically with decreasing oxygen in all species, with marked interspecific differences at ≤2 mg L⁻¹. Under fluctuating oxygen conditions, survival peaked at low to intermediate salinity and declined sharply at elevated salinity, indicating a strong combined effect of oxygen limitation and salinity-related stress. Multivariate analysis identified a significant salinity × oxygen interaction, indicating that the effect of oxygen depletion on survival depended on salinity. Daphnia magna showed the highest tolerance, whereas D. longispina and E. velox were highly sensitive to elevated salinity; T. crassus showed intermediate tolerance. These results indicate that elevated salinity is associated with negative effects under both sustained and episodic hypoxia and that fluctuating oxygen regimes elicit strong combined stress responses. Our findings highlight the importance of combined abiotic stress effects when predicting zooplankton responses in oxygen-depleted and salinizing aquatic ecosystems. Full article

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19 pages, 6738 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal and Spatial Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Groundwater in the Republic of Kosovo

by Florjana Zogaj, Tatjana Blazhevska, Fatbardh Sallaku, Rakesh Ranjan Thakur, Hazir Çadraku, Upaka Rathnayake, Debabrata Nandi, Vesna Knights, Gorica Pavlovska, Pajtim Bytyçi, Osman Fetoshi, Erinda Lika, Valentina Velkovski and Bojan Đurin

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030035 - 7 Jul 2026

Abstract

Groundwater is vital to subsurface ecosystems and to maintaining water supplies for human and environmental needs. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies poses a significant threat to environmental health and human well-being. In this paper, a detailed spatiotemporal analysis of heavy metal pollution [...] Read more.

Groundwater is vital to subsurface ecosystems and to maintaining water supplies for human and environmental needs. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies poses a significant threat to environmental health and human well-being. In this paper, a detailed spatiotemporal analysis of heavy metal pollution at a network of 35 sampling sites is presented for the summer, autumn, and winter seasons. The water samples were analyzed based on the concentration (μg/L) of eight priority metals, such as Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Chromium VI (Cr-VI), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), as well as Iron (Fe). Measuring contamination levels, identifying space hotspots, and explaining seasonal variations were the key tasks. The results show that Fe, Zn, and Cu concentrations are consistently high across seasons, with mean values ranging from 234.3 to 253.2 µg/L (Fe), 163.2 to 175.6 µg/L (Zn), and 107.0 to 109.2 µg/L (Cu), indicating a widespread geogenic or diffuse source. The most significant seasonal deviation was observed in the fall when there were unusually high levels of Cd and Hg, with mean concentrations reaching 0.476 µg/L and 0.312 µg/L, respectively, suggesting a strong seasonal contamination event or mobilization process. The spatial analysis showed that the locations (e.g., L6, L8, L10, L28, L29) exhibited common hotspots for different metals, with maximum concentrations reaching up to 793.3 µg/L (Fe), 602.3 µg/L (Zn), and 508 µg/L (Cu). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) effectively separated seasonal trends and classified metals into anthropogenic (Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr (VI)) and geogenic/diffuse (Fe, Zn, Cu) groups. The health risk assessment indicated no significant non-carcinogenic risk, although children are more vulnerable, while arsenic levels in winter approached the upper acceptable carcinogenic limit (up to 1.1 × 10⁻⁴). Overall, the study highlights the importance of multi-seasonal monitoring by capturing temporally abrupt contamination events and provides a novel integrated framework that combines seasonal analysis, spatial hotspot identification, and multivariate techniques, distinguishing it from conventional single-season or non-integrated studies. Full article

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18 pages, 4350 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Subsurface Bacterial Carbon Stock in Seven Tropical Reservoirs of Brazil

by Alessandro Del’Duca, Layla Mayer Fonseca, Amanda Lemos de Melo, Raiza dos Santos Azevedo, Hanna Turetti Cardinot, Fábio Roland and Dionéia Evangelista Cesar

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030034 - 3 Jul 2026

Abstract

Bacterial density, cell morphology, and carbon stock (C stock) were quantified in seven Brazilian reservoirs (Serra da Mesa, Manso, Itumbiara, Corumbá, Furnas, Mascarenhas de Moraes, and Luis Carlos Barreto) to evaluate spatial and seasonal patterns in these tropical freshwater systems. Subsurface water samples [...] Read more.

Bacterial density, cell morphology, and carbon stock (C stock) were quantified in seven Brazilian reservoirs (Serra da Mesa, Manso, Itumbiara, Corumbá, Furnas, Mascarenhas de Moraes, and Luis Carlos Barreto) to evaluate spatial and seasonal patterns in these tropical freshwater systems. Subsurface water samples were collected before, during, and after the rainy season. Bacterial density, cell volume, elongation, and biomass were determined using epifluorescence microscopy, and bacterial C stock was estimated from biomass integrated over the 0.5 m sampling depth. C stock varied among reservoirs and sampling periods, with the highest values consistently observed in the largest reservoir (Serra da Mesa, 1.9·10⁻⁵ g C). Although bacterial densities showed limited temporal variation, biomass peaked before the rainy season. Density and biomass were negatively correlated with water transparency and positively correlated with turbidity, suggesting that particle-associated organic and inorganic matter influences bacterial biomass accumulation. These findings highlight how environmental conditions shape bacterial biomass and carbon storage in tropical reservoirs, contributing to a broader understanding of microbial carbon pools in these ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Freshwater Microbiology and Public Health)

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22 pages, 12961 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Evaluation of Groundwater Recharge Potential Using GIS and the Analytical Hierarchy Process: The Case of the Oued Cherrat Basin (Morocco)

by Oumaima Zerdeb, Allal Labriki, Yasmina Bouchatta, Karima Labriki, Mohamed Sadiki, Raja Moussaoui, Soukaina El Idrissi, Amal Saidi and Saïd Chakiri

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030033 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

In arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater recharge is a key process controlling the sustainability of subsurface water resources. This study aims to assess and map the groundwater recharge potential of the Oued Cherrat watershed (Morocco) using an integrated approach combining Geographic Information Systems [...] Read more.

In arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater recharge is a key process controlling the sustainability of subsurface water resources. This study aims to assess and map the groundwater recharge potential of the Oued Cherrat watershed (Morocco) using an integrated approach combining Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Six controlling factors were considered: lithology, lineament density, drainage network density, slope, land use/land cover derived from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and rainfall. The relative weights of these factors were determined through pairwise comparisons using the Saaty fundamental scale, and the consistency of the judgments was verified (CR < 0.1). The reclassified thematic layers were integrated into a GIS-based weighted overlay model to generate the groundwater recharge potential map. Five recharge classes were identified, ranging from very low to very high. The results show that areas with moderate recharge potential are the most widespread (approximately 37% of the watershed), while high and very high potential zones account for about 25% of the total area. These zones are mainly associated with permeable lithologies, high densities of structural discontinuities, gentle slopes, and low drainage density. In contrast, low to very low recharge potential areas are related to low-permeability formations, steep slopes, and dense drainage networks. The resulting recharge potential map provides a useful decision-support tool for sustainable groundwater management and for identifying priority areas for aquifer protection and artificial recharge planning in the Oued Cherrat watershed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Water Management in the Age of Climate Change)

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22 pages, 20109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Proximal Hyperspectral Sensing and Machine Learning for Chlorophyll-a Retrieval in Optically Complex Urban Freshwaters

by Tiago A. Figueiredo, Bernardo T. A. Souza, Daniel H. C. Salim, Caio C. S. Mello, Gabriel Pereira and Camila C. Amorim

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030032 - 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Urban freshwater ecosystems affected by eutrophication and recurrent algal blooms require monitoring approaches capable of representing optical complexity and spatial heterogeneity. This study evaluated an integrated workflow combining proximal in situ hyperspectral sensing, radiometric calibration, spectral filtering, predictor-band selection, data transformation, and machine-learning [...] Read more.

Urban freshwater ecosystems affected by eutrophication and recurrent algal blooms require monitoring approaches capable of representing optical complexity and spatial heterogeneity. This study evaluated an integrated workflow combining proximal in situ hyperspectral sensing, radiometric calibration, spectral filtering, predictor-band selection, data transformation, and machine-learning regression to estimate chlorophyll-a (chl-a) in a tropical eutrophic urban reservoir. Monthly field campaigns were conducted from September 2022 to February 2023, with simultaneous chl-a measurements and hyperspectral image acquisition. After preprocessing, noise removal, and exclusion of anomalous spectra, 82 matched hyperspectral–chl-a observations were retained for model development. Predictor bands were selected using Pearson correlation and F-test analysis, identifying five relevant wavelengths: 530, 535, 682, 687, and 732 nm. Multiple Linear Regression, Random Forest Regressor, Support Vector Regressor, and XGBoost Regressor were tested under different data transformations. The Support Vector Regressor with logarithmic transformation achieved the best performance, with R² = 0.86 and RMSE = 6.89 µg L⁻¹. The selected wavelengths correspond to spectral regions associated with green reflectance, red chl-a absorption, and red-edge/NIR responses in productive waters. The results indicate that proximal hyperspectral sensing combined with machine learning can support chl-a estimation in optically complex urban reservoirs and provide complementary information for eutrophication monitoring and bloom-management strategies. Full article

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14 pages, 1094 KB

Open AccessData Descriptor

A Dataset Trichoptera (Insecta) in Selected Regions of European Russia

by Alexander B. Ruchin, Natalia V. Borisova, Leonid V. Egorov, Mikhail N. Esin, Evgeniy A. Lobachev, Sergei V. Lukiyanov, Gennadiy B. Semishin, Irina G. Esina and Anna M. Nikolaeva

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030031 - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

The study of aquatic biota is of particular interest in view of the considerable anthropogenic impact on freshwater ecosystems in recent decades. Information on regional Trichoptera faunas remains fragmented and scattered in many areas. The present paper provides data from a dataset that [...] Read more.

The study of aquatic biota is of particular interest in view of the considerable anthropogenic impact on freshwater ecosystems in recent decades. Information on regional Trichoptera faunas remains fragmented and scattered in many areas. The present paper provides data from a dataset that includes results of Trichoptera studies conducted since 1981 (primarily during 2018–2025) in 15 regions of European Russia. In total, the dataset contains records from 295 localities. The database includes information on 7759 specimens representing 134 species from 15 families. Eleven Trichoptera species are reported for the first time from the Nizhny Novgorod Region, seven species from the Penza Region, five species each from the Vladimir and Ryazan regions, three species each from the Samara Region, the Republic of Mordovia, and the Volgograd Region, and one species each from the Voronezh, Tambov, and Lipetsk regions, as well as the Chuvash Republic. Hydroptila angulata is recorded for the first time in the Middle Volga Region. The most abundant taxa in the collections belong to the families Limnephilidae, Phryganeidae, and Leptoceridae. Eight species are represented in the dataset by more than 300 specimens each. Hand-held sweep nets were used at 109 localities and yielded 109 species and 3308 specimens. The use of light traps at 45 localities resulted in the collection of 90 species represented by 2651 specimens. Full article

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13 pages, 1689 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wind-Driven Circulation in a Shallow Polymictic Lake: The Case of Lake Wolsztyńskie

by Remigiusz Tritt

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26030030 - 24 Jun 2026

Abstract

Wind forcing is a primary driver of lake circulation, yet in shallow basins it is strongly constrained by morphometry, limited depth, and aquatic vegetation. We quantified the velocity and direction of horizontal wind-driven currents in Lake Wolsztyńskie (western Poland) and assessed their spatial [...] Read more.

Wind forcing is a primary driver of lake circulation, yet in shallow basins it is strongly constrained by morphometry, limited depth, and aquatic vegetation. We quantified the velocity and direction of horizontal wind-driven currents in Lake Wolsztyńskie (western Poland) and assessed their spatial and vertical variability in relation to depth, wind speed, and effective fetch. Monthly field measurements (June 2019–May 2020) at eight sites showed a consistent, monotonic decline in current speed with depth across the lake. Mean circulation speed increased with wind, but the relationship was weak, indicating that local controls and non-linear response dominate over simple wind–current scaling. In macrophyte-covered littoral zones, currents were substantially attenuated relative to unvegetated sites of comparable depth. Directional analysis revealed that surface flow aligns with wind-driven transport in fewer than half of observations, while compensating (return) currents with opposing directions near the bottom are frequent. Clockwise veering of current direction with depth—expected under a classical Ekman spiral—was only intermittent, consistent with truncation of Ekman dynamics in a shallow water column and a prevailing two-layer circulation pattern. Full article

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28 pages, 1708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aquatic Vegetation Assemblages in Ozark Ponds, Arkansas and Missouri, USA

by David E. Bowles

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020029 - 18 Jun 2026

Abstract

Aquatic and semi-aquatic plant assemblages, water quality, riparian habitat, and landscape conditions were assessed for 140 ponds located in the Ozarks region in Arkansas and Missouri in order to better describe their occurrences and distributional patterns. Local environmental and landscape-level determinants that shape [...] Read more.

Aquatic and semi-aquatic plant assemblages, water quality, riparian habitat, and landscape conditions were assessed for 140 ponds located in the Ozarks region in Arkansas and Missouri in order to better describe their occurrences and distributional patterns. Local environmental and landscape-level determinants that shape their diversity and influence their respective distributions, particularly in light of urbanization, were also assessed. Ozark ponds are highly variable in terms of physical structure, habitat quality, and plant diversity. Urban ponds were generally of lower quality in terms of environmental attributes compared to those in non-urban areas, but they had similar plant taxa richness as well as numbers of non-native species compared to their non-urban counterparts. Ponds had high plant diversity (N = 204 taxa,

\bar{x}

= 9.89, range = 0–33). Taxa richness increased with increasing pond size, and urban ponds had slightly more species on average compared to non-urban ponds (10.38 vs. 9.58, respectively). Spatial beta diversity of plants showed a high dissimilarity among ponds, with turnover being the dominant fraction. Beta diversity also followed a significant distance-decay model. These findings show that urban Ozark ponds serve as important habitats for a broad variety of aquatic plants. Full article

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39 pages, 9118 KB

Open AccessReview

Radioisotopic Approaches to Understanding Lake Sediment History

by Noha Imam

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020028 - 17 Jun 2026

Abstract

Radioisotopic techniques provide powerful tools for reconstructing the history of lake sediments, offering critical insights into past environmental changes and human impacts. These techniques have contributed significantly to our understanding of past environmental change and have implications for current environmental management practices. This [...] Read more.

Radioisotopic techniques provide powerful tools for reconstructing the history of lake sediments, offering critical insights into past environmental changes and human impacts. These techniques have contributed significantly to our understanding of past environmental change and have implications for current environmental management practices. This review comprehensively examines various radiometric dating techniques used for lake sediments, with a focus on natural, cosmogenic, and artificial radionuclides, including ²¹⁰Pb, ¹³⁷Cs, ²⁴¹Am, ⁷Be, ³H, and ¹⁴C. The review highlights the widespread use of radionuclides in establishing sediment chronologies across different time scales, from short-term processes (days to decades) to long-term environmental reconstructions spanning thousands of years. Moreover, applications in limnological research are explored, including sedimentation rate estimation, reconstruction of pollution history of trace elements, nutrients, microplastics, and organic compounds, and assessment of anthropogenic impacts and catchment changes. The integration of radioisotopic methods with multiproxy paleolimnological approaches is emphasized as a powerful framework for reconstructing past environmental and ecological conditions. Despite their effectiveness, radioisotopic methods are exposed to several sources of uncertainty, including dispersion in atmospheric isotope flux, post-depositional processes, reservoir effects, and model assumptions. These challenges highlight the importance of careful methodological selection, site-specific evaluation, and rigorous uncertainty assessment in radioisotopic studies of lake sediments. Future research should emphasize refining sediment age-model calibration using region-specific sedimentation parameters and standardized validation procedures, and integrating radiometric techniques with geochemical, biological, and paleolimnological proxies to improve the reconstruction of environmental change in lacustrine systems. Such developments would enhance the interpretation of historical pollution records, sediment accumulation patterns, eutrophication history, and ecological variability, thereby providing scientifically robust information to support evidence-based lake management, restoration programs, and long-term conservation strategies. Full article

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15 pages, 7106 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aquatic Macrophyte Community Composition as an Indicator of Habitat Conditions and Anthropogenic Disturbance in Tropical Wetlands

by Jesús Antonio Quintero Cardozo, Juan Diego Lozano Castro, Armando Aguilar, Efraín Carvajal Carvajal, Alejandro Zuluaga Gómez, Kelly Cristina Torres Angulo and Oscar Orlando Porras Atencia

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020027 - 16 Jun 2026

Abstract

Tropical wetlands are highly sensitive to climatic and anthropogenic disturbances, and their macrophyte communities provide valuable information about environmental conditions and habitat structure. This study evaluated the relationship between aquatic macrophyte richness, community composition, and habitat vulnerability to climate change in aquatic ecosystems [...] Read more.

Tropical wetlands are highly sensitive to climatic and anthropogenic disturbances, and their macrophyte communities provide valuable information about environmental conditions and habitat structure. This study evaluated the relationship between aquatic macrophyte richness, community composition, and habitat vulnerability to climate change in aquatic ecosystems of the San Luis rural district, Barrancabermeja municipality (Santander, Colombia). Macrophyte communities were characterized at 47 monitoring sites distributed across six mesohabitats: floodplain depressions, swamp, wetland, artificial ponds, naturalized ponds, and stream riparian zones. A total of 63 species belonging to 30 families and 51 genera were recorded. Contrary to theoretical expectations, correlation analyses showed no significant relationship between macrophyte species richness and habitat vulnerability indices (Spearman ρ = −0.118, p = 0.428; Pearson r = −0.069, p = 0.646). However, species richness differed significantly among mesohabitats (Kruskal–Wallis, p < 0.05), indicating strong spatial heterogeneity in aquatic plant distribution. In addition, multivariate analyses using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that macrophyte community composition was strongly structured by local anthropogenic activities, including livestock farming, oil palm cultivation, and wastewater inputs. Floodplain depressions and artificial ponds were dominated by disturbance-tolerant and eutrophication-resistant species such as Urochloa plantaginea and Salvinia minima, reflecting higher levels of environmental pressure. These results demonstrate that macrophyte community composition, rather than species richness alone, is a more reliable indicator of habitat conditions and anthropogenic disturbance in tropical wetland systems. Overall, this study highlights that taxonomic richness is not a robust predictor of climate-related vulnerability in highly disturbed wetlands and emphasizes the importance of considering species composition and environmental context when assessing ecosystem conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetland Ecology: Plant Adaptations to Changing Wetland Environments)

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41 pages, 4994 KB

Open AccessReview

Microbial Communities in Natural Mineral Waters of Bulgaria: Diversity and Biotechnological Potential

by Aleksandar Slavov, Ilia Tamburadzhiev and Bogdan Goranov

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020026 - 12 Jun 2026

Abstract

Mineral waters represent unique limnological ecosystems with stable physicochemical conditions and specialised microbial communities adapted to extreme environments. Bulgarian mineral waters remain comparatively underexplored despite their considerable ecological and biotechnological significance. These studies present a systematic narrative review of microbial diversity, ecological functions, [...] Read more.

Mineral waters represent unique limnological ecosystems with stable physicochemical conditions and specialised microbial communities adapted to extreme environments. Bulgarian mineral waters remain comparatively underexplored despite their considerable ecological and biotechnological significance. These studies present a systematic narrative review of microbial diversity, ecological functions, and biotechnological potential of microbial communities from Bulgarian mineral springs. A total of 233 scientific sources published between 1990 and 2026 were analysed, of which 33 focused on Bulgarian sites. Data were retrieved from major scientific databases, regional reports and grey literature. Due to strong methodological heterogeneity, a qualitative synthesis was conducted, supported by bibliometric summaries of research focus and environmental context. The available evidence demonstrates that microbial communities in Bulgarian mineral waters include diverse bacteria, archaea, cyanobacteria, and microalgae that adapt to broad thermal and geochemical gradients. These microorganisms actively participate in element cycles, form complex biofilms, and show numerous physiological adaptations to oligotrophic and extreme temperature conditions. Bulgarian systems broadly reflect global microbial patterns but exhibit additional variability linked to contrasting hydrogeological settings. Many taxa produce thermostable enzymes, antimicrobial compounds, and exopolysaccharides with significant biotechnological potential. The review identifies significant research gaps and emphasises the importance of integrated multi-omics approaches for future exploration of Bulgarian mineral water ecosystems. Full article

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35 pages, 5398 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Seasonal Drought Risk Assessment Under Climate and Land Use Changes for Agricultural Areas Upstream of Pasak Reservoir, Thailand

by Thanasit Promping and Tawatchai Tingsanchali

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020025 - 11 Jun 2026

Abstract

Most previous drought risk assessments have been done on monthly or annual time-scales, which do not directly correspond to crop conditions during wet and dry seasons. To address this limitation, this study introduces a novel framework for seasonal drought risk assessments. The analysis [...] Read more.

Most previous drought risk assessments have been done on monthly or annual time-scales, which do not directly correspond to crop conditions during wet and dry seasons. To address this limitation, this study introduces a novel framework for seasonal drought risk assessments. The analysis is conducted across multiple temporal periods, including the past (2020s: 2001–2020), near future (2030s: 2021–2040) and far future periods (2050s–2090s: 2041–2100) while considering the combined impacts of land use and climate change scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. Multi-drought hazard indices were developed to characterize drought conditions and evaluated for dry seasons (November to April) and wet seasons (May to October). Groundwater storage outflow was incorporated into the analysis to reflect its critical role as an alternative water source. Under RCP8.5 in dry seasons, the results show a decrease in drought risks from very high to high from the 2030s to the 2070s followed by an increase toward the 2090s. Meanwhile, in wet seasons under RCP8.5, the results exhibit an increase from very low to low for the 2030s–2090s. Adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and improvement of irrigation systems in irrigated areas, as well as adaptive irrigation management in non-irrigated areas, were found to reduce drought damage in the future. Full article

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23 pages, 2295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Seasonal Shoreline Distribution of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria

by Satyam Shah

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020024 - 6 Jun 2026

Abstract

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is among the world’s most invasive aquatic macrophytes, yet quantitative models of shoreline preference remain absent for Lake Victoria. This study developed a distance-based quantitative framework for spatial distribution and decay modelling to quantify seasonal nearshore accumulation [...] Read more.

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is among the world’s most invasive aquatic macrophytes, yet quantitative models of shoreline preference remain absent for Lake Victoria. This study developed a distance-based quantitative framework for spatial distribution and decay modelling to quantify seasonal nearshore accumulation dynamics in Winam Gulf, Kenya, using Sentinel-2 imagery. A Support Vector Machine classifier with polygon-mean feature extraction achieved 94–96% accuracy, supported by strong spectral separability (Jeffries–Matusita distance > 1.9 in six bands). During peak dry season, water hyacinth covered 405.81 km² (27.1% of gulf area) and occurred significantly closer to shore than open water (mean preference = 687.9 m; 95% CI: 616.6–753.7 m; p < 0.001). Water hyacinth was 3.10 times more likely than open water to occur within 100 m of shoreline, with 48% of biomass concentrated within 2 km. A power-law decay model of odds ratio with shoreline distance provided superior fit (R² = 0.870, F = 10.06, p = 0.047) compared to exponential decay (R² = 0.477, p = 0.378). Critically, pronounced nearshore preference occurred only during dry-season conditions (+687.9 m to +1946.6 m), while wet–dry transition periods showed no significant preference (−124.2 m; p = 1.00), supporting wind-driven Stokes drift as the dominant transport mechanism and enabling seasonal prioritization of nearshore management interventions. Full article

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32 pages, 3353 KB

Open AccessReview

Towards Sustainability and Development in the Complex South African Water Supply and Distribution System: A Systematic Review and Impact of Predictive Analytics

by Ann Maria Najjuma and Gbeminiyi John Oyewole

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020023 - 5 Jun 2026

Abstract

Although South Africa has an extensive water infrastructure, it continues to face significant water scarcity due to its semi-arid climate, increasing urbanisation, ageing infrastructure, and pollution. These challenges, coupled with climate change and increasing water demand, have led to inefficiencies across the water [...] Read more.

Although South Africa has an extensive water infrastructure, it continues to face significant water scarcity due to its semi-arid climate, increasing urbanisation, ageing infrastructure, and pollution. These challenges, coupled with climate change and increasing water demand, have led to inefficiencies across the water value chain, particularly in rural areas. This review paper evaluates the current adoption of predictive analytics in South Africa’s water management system through a systematic literature review. It identifies the current applications, implementation gaps, and key system components that are suitable candidates to enhance efficiency, resource planning, and long-term sustainability in the sector. The findings show that while predictive models are being applied in urban systems for demand forecasting and proactive maintenance, only 15% of the reviewed studies address their actual adoption in rural or under-resourced contexts. This underscores the need for more inclusive development strategies to ensure equitable water service delivery. Although strides have been made in research and innovation, a major barrier is the slow transition from research to operational deployment, which hinders the full realisation of these technologies’ benefits that are essential for water supply sustainability and availability. Full article

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23 pages, 7764 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Vegetation and Water Stress in the Trichonida Basin Using Remote Sensing and Climatic Drought Indicators

by Fatima Daide, Eleni Ioanna Koutsovili, Mohammed Mouad Mliyeh, Abderrahim Lahrach, Isavela N. Monioudi and Ourania Tzoraki

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020022 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Freshwater lakes in Mediterranean regions are highly sensitive to climatic variability, particularly to droughts intensified by rising temperatures and increasing atmospheric evaporative demand. This study investigates drought variability and ecosystem responses in the Trichonida basin, the largest natural freshwater system in Greece, using [...] Read more.

Freshwater lakes in Mediterranean regions are highly sensitive to climatic variability, particularly to droughts intensified by rising temperatures and increasing atmospheric evaporative demand. This study investigates drought variability and ecosystem responses in the Trichonida basin, the largest natural freshwater system in Greece, using an integrated approach that combines the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) at multiple time scales with satellite-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI), and lake surface water temperature. SPEI analysis revealed increasingly recurrent and persistent drought conditions in recent years, especially at medium- and long-term scales. NDVI exhibited pronounced seasonal variability and a moderate long-term increase at the basin scale, largely associated with agricultural activity and irrigation practices, while sharp declines were observed during severe drought episodes. CWSI showed strong seasonal patterns characterized by recurrent summer water stress events, but no significant long-term trend. Correlation analysis indicated positive relationships between NDVI and SPEI at medium- to long-term time scales, and significant negative correlations between CWSI and SPEI at short and medium time scales. A strong relationship between NDVI and CWSI further suggests the sensitivity of vegetation greenness to water stress, particularly during summer and autumn. Lake surface water temperature exhibited seasonal warming trends that coincided with periods of increased vegetation water stress. Drought-related water risks arise for calcareous fens dominated by Cladium mariscus in the Lake Trichonida system, a habitat of high conservation value, whose productivity is strongly seasonally controlled and closely linked to thermal dynamics. Overall, the combined multi-indicator analysis provides valuable insights into drought impacts and seasonal ecosystem vulnerability in Mediterranean lake basin environments, highlighting the importance of integrated monitoring frameworks for sustainable freshwater ecosystem management under increasing climatic variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Remote Sensing Research and Application of Agricultural Drought and Water Management)

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32 pages, 13904 KB

Open AccessArticle

Paleolimnological Analysis of Lakes in Central Mexico: Regional Comparisons, Human Forcing, and Teleconnections During the Late Quaternary

by Rubén Hernández-Morales, Isabel Israde Alcantara, Nicolás Waldmann and Gabriela Ana Zanor

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020020 - 16 May 2026

Abstract

This article analyzes the information provided by the sedimentary sequences of 29 lakes in central Mexico, 10 of which are currently paleolakes. During the Late Quaternary, the lakes of central Mexico experienced environmental changes driven by global and local climatic and geological processes, [...] Read more.

This article analyzes the information provided by the sedimentary sequences of 29 lakes in central Mexico, 10 of which are currently paleolakes. During the Late Quaternary, the lakes of central Mexico experienced environmental changes driven by global and local climatic and geological processes, showing regional trends of wet and dry periods. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions are based on the use of 20 indicators, including diatoms, pollen, geochemistry, mineralogy, granulometry, magnetic susceptibility, and isotopes. Seven major episodes are recognized in the historical evolution of the lakes of central Mexico: i. Late Miocene–Pliocene: A period that includes the formation of large lakes in central Mexico by volcano tectonic activity under a regime of continuous humidity. ii. Pleistocene–Drought and climatic variability of the interglacial period. iii. Drying and successive lacustrine transgression during the Last Glacial Maximum. iv. Spatial climate variability in the Heinrich 1 period. v. Lake regression and expansion of terrestrial vegetation in the Bølling–Allerød period. vi. Transgression of lakes of central Mexico during the Younger Dryas and mid-Holocene periods. vii. Late Holocene: A period that includes lake desiccation influenced by the impact of human activities. The analysis of the data allows us to propose six challenges for the scientific community in future research of central Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Geological Processes: A Key to Understand Water Quality Issues)

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32 pages, 1310 KB

Open AccessReview

Key Structural and Operational Factors for the Efficient Removal of Iron and Manganese from Mining Effluents in Constructed Wetlands

by Isabela da Silva Pedro Rochinha, Tamara Daiane de Souza, Múcio André dos Santos Alves Mendes and Aníbal da Fonseca Santiago

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020021 - 15 May 2026

Abstract

Mining activities can generate effluent contamination with potentially toxic elements such as iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), posing environmental and technological challenges, particularly during mine closure and the decommissioning of mining structures. Constructed wetlands have been proposed as a nature-based, passive, and low-cost [...] Read more.

Mining activities can generate effluent contamination with potentially toxic elements such as iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), posing environmental and technological challenges, particularly during mine closure and the decommissioning of mining structures. Constructed wetlands have been proposed as a nature-based, passive, and low-cost alternative for treating mining effluents; however, the mechanisms, controlling factors, and performance patterns governing Fe and Mn removal remain insufficiently synthesized across different wetland configurations and effluent types. This study performs a systematic review combined with a meta-analysis to synthesize Fe and Mn removal mechanisms, quantify removal performance, and identify the operational, hydraulic, physicochemical, and biological factors influencing system performance. A total of 55 primary studies were analyzed, comprising 155 observations for Fe and 96 for Mn. The results indicate that Fe removal is generally high (median ln(RR)ln(RR) = −1.89), whereas Mn removal is more variable and less efficient (median ln(RR)ln(RR) = −0.59), highlighting the greater complexity of Mn removal processes. Fe removal was mainly associated with hydraulic retention time and pH, while Mn removal was more strongly influenced by redox conditions and the type of support material, particularly mineral substrates. Overall, wetland performance is governed by the interaction among hydraulic retention time, pH buffering, redox conditions, support media reactivity, vegetation-mediated rhizosphere processes, and influent geochemistry. A significant research gap remains regarding neutral mine drainage (NMD), since this effluent category was not explicitly reported in the primary studies and could not be robustly isolated as an independent subgroup, especially in relation to Mn removal efficiency. Full article

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27 pages, 2483 KB

Open AccessReview

Estimation of Water Quality in Lakes and Rivers Using Remote Sensing and Artificial Intelligence: A Review of Image Processing and Validation Strategies

by Virgilio Zúñiga-Grajeda, Jennifer Aleysha Lomeli, Freddy Hernán Villota-González, César Alejandro García-García and Belkis Sulbarán-Rangel

Limnol. Rev. 2026, 26(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev26020019 - 10 May 2026

Cited by 2

Abstract

Freshwater ecosystems are increasingly affected by eutrophication, sediment loading, and other anthropogenic pressures, creating a growing need for monitoring frameworks that are spatially extensive, temporally consistent, and methodologically robust. Although in situ sampling remains essential, its limited spatial coverage and operational constraints have [...] Read more.

Freshwater ecosystems are increasingly affected by eutrophication, sediment loading, and other anthropogenic pressures, creating a growing need for monitoring frameworks that are spatially extensive, temporally consistent, and methodologically robust. Although in situ sampling remains essential, its limited spatial coverage and operational constraints have accelerated the use of satellite remote sensing combined with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) for water quality assessment. This review critically examines recent studies published between 2020 and March 2026 on the estimation of physicochemical water quality parameters in lakes and rivers using remote sensing, with particular attention to the methodological structure of image processing workflows rather than performance metrics alone. The synthesis shows that predictive performance is strongly conditioned by three interrelated stages: atmospheric correction (AC), spectral feature construction, and validation design. Across the reviewed studies, substantial variation is observed in atmospheric correction processors, spectral engineering strategies, and model architectures, leading to differences in the spectral inputs and analytical conditions used for model development. Validation approaches remain highly heterogeneous and often rely on internal data splits without geographically independent testing, which weakens claims of model generalizability. In addition, few studies explicitly distinguish algorithmic, matchup, and preprocessing uncertainties, revealing a persistent gap in uncertainty reporting. Overall, the review suggests that improvements attributed to newer ML models may partly reflect upstream preprocessing choices rather than algorithmic superiority alone. Future research should prioritize transparent reporting of atmospheric correction pipelines, structured uncertainty decomposition, standardized validation protocols, and cross-site transferability assessments. By synthesizing these methodological patterns, this review provides a consolidated methodological synthesis that supports improved reproducibility, comparability, and operational reliability of remote-sensing-based freshwater quality monitoring. Full article

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