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Edible insects are an important natural commodity in rural areas that is used for household consumption and to generate income through trade. As a result, edible-insect trading is a profitable business that provides employment and improves the livelihoods of impoverished rural people. This study aimed at determining the socioeconomic benefits of and reasons for trading insects, and to assess if edible insects are included in economic development strategies in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province, South Africa. We conducted 72 questionnaire interviews targeting traders in 5 towns across the district. Five insect groups belonging to four insect orders are traded in informal markets of the district. Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) were the most traded (42%) edible insects. Unemployment (45%) and the demand for edible insects (34%) were the major reasons for trading insects. Insect trading has numerous benefits; however, the provision of income (60%) and financial support (35%) were stated as the primary benefits. Despite several benefits associated with trading in insects, there are many challenges such as insect spoilage and a decline in the availability of edible insects in the wild. Edible insects play an important role in food security and the rural economy by generating employment opportunities for unemployed traders. Trading in insects is a traditional practice based on indigenous knowledge, which has persisted as an economic practice that improves rural livelihoods by reducing poverty and increases the human dignity of rural citizens. Only four governmental organisations in Limpopo included edible insects in economic development strategies. Trading insects is primarily an informal activity. The government could stimulate the activity and broaden and deepen the community benefits by providing infrastructure, access to harvest areas, financial support, and business training as part of a rural empowerment strategy to end hunger and poverty while creating employment opportunities in rural areas. Full article

Replacing fossil energy sources with renewable energy sources is a key strategic action to limit environmental issues. To achieve this goal, substitution with biomass is beneficial due to its versatility in various fields. In terms of circular economy and sustainability, the possibility of energy exploitation of residual biomass is particularly desirable in small-medium enterprises. The use of supply chain by-products can improve sustainability and create opportunities for companies. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the suitability of residual biomass of conifers and broad-leaved trees to produce quality pellets using an agri-pellet machine activated by the power take-off of a tractor. This system can be employed at the farm level. Wood biomass of four species was tested; poplar, stone pine, black locust, and oak. Wood chips samples were analyzed to determine their qualitative characteristics following the technical standard ISO 17225-4. Based on the results, different wood blends were created to produce pellets, subsequently characterized according to ISO 17225-2. The analyses carried out on wood chips and pellets were bulk density, moisture, ash content, calorific value, elemental composition, chlorine, sulfur, and heavy metals. In addition, particles size was measured only for wood chips, while the length, diameter, mechanical durability, and ash melting behaviors were determined only for pellets. Some of the analyzed mixtures show acceptable values according to the current ISO technical standards. The values related to the apparent pellet bulk density and the durability test highlight that not all the mixtures are suitable to produce quality pellets. Results also represent a good starting point for future studies. Full article

Bananas are one of the most important crops worldwide. However, a large amount of residual lignocellulosic biomass is generated during its production and is currently undervalued. These residues have the potential to be used as feedstock in bio-based processes with a biorefinery approach. This work is based on the valorization of banana leaf and has the following objectives (i) to determine the effect of certain physical and environmental factors on the concentration of glucose present in banana leaf extract (BLE), using a statistical regression model; (ii) to obtain Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC), using BLE (70% v/v) and kombucha tea as fermentation medium. In addition, the physicochemical properties of BNC were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results indicate that storage time, location, leaf color, and petiole type are factors related to BLE concentration, which is reduced by approximately 28.82% and 64.32% during storage times of five days. Regarding BNC biosynthesis, the results indicate that the highest yield, 0.031 g/g, was obtained at 21 days. Furthermore, it was determined that the highest production rate was 0.11 gL⁻¹h⁻¹ at 11 days of fermentation. By FTIR, it was determined that the purification step with NaOH (3M) should be carried out for approximately two hours. This research supports the development of a circular bioeconomy around the banana value chain, as it presents a way of bioprocessing residual biomass that can be used to produce bioproducts. Full article

The consumption of freshwater in mining accounts for only a small proportion of the total water use at global and even national scales. However, at regional and local scales, mining may result in significant impacts on freshwater resources, particularly when water consumption surpasses the carrying capacities defined by the amount of available water and also considering environmental water requirements. By applying a geographic information system (GIS), a comprehensive water footprint accounting and water scarcity assessment of bauxite, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, uranium and zinc as well as gold, palladium, platinum and silver was conducted to quantify the influence of mining and refining of metal production on regional water availability and water stress. The observation includes the water consumption and impacts on water stress of almost 2800 mining operations at different production stages, e.g., preprocessed ore, concentrate and refined metal. Based on a brief study of mining activities in 147 major river basins, it can be indicated that mining’s contribution to regional water stress varies significantly in each basin. While in most regions mining predominantly results in very low water stress, not surpassing 0.1% of the basins’ available water, there are also exceptional cases where the natural water availability is completely exceeded by the freshwater consumption of the mining sector during the entire year. Thus, this GIS-based approach provides precise information to deepen the understanding of the global mining industry’s influence on regional carrying capacities and water stress. Full article

There is an established link between deforestation and negative hydrological effects which may affect watersheds. The number of the cycads Encephalartos transvenosus Stapf & Burtt Davy in South Africa is drastically reducing, and they are nearly extinct. Additionally, poaching and reduction in the population of cycads in reserves may impact negatively on watersheds in protected and buffer areas since the regeneration of this plant occurs over a long period. This research aimed to study the distributions of poached cycads, evaluate the factors responsible for poaching activity and suggest possible solutions towards conservation of E. transvenosus Stapf & Burtt Davy in some of the nature reserves in Limpopo province. Field observation was used to ascertain and collect locations of poached cycads. Data was obtained through the use of a questionnaire. Questionnaires were administered to rangers for the collection of data on causes of poaching, parts poached, measures taken and challenges of rangers in the nature reserves. Processing of the collected data was done by simple statistical analysis. The total population of rangers available in the reserves was used for the determination of the sample size of rangers by Slovin’s formula. Unemployment (46%) is the leading cause for poaching in Mphaphuli Nature Reserve, while trade is a leading factor in Modjadji and Lekgalameetse (37% and 60%) respectively. Debarked cycads amount to 14 (54%) while 12 of the total (26 poached cycads) were completely removed (46%). The most effective way of stopping the poaching of cycads as perceived by the rangers is by patrolling the nature reserves. The observed poaching of Encephalartos transvenosus is alarming since this plant has a low population size which is currently confined to the Limpopo Province in South Africa only. If poaching continues in the nature reserves, all cycads have the tendency of being removed. Therefore, there is a need to continually develop strategies for the conservation of cycads. The peculiar nature and challenges of each reserve have been established and unique solutions for these nature reserves in Limpopo Province have been proposed. Better conservation of cycad species can positively impact the hydrological process of the concerned area and better help the watersheds. Full article

This study assessed the breakdown of lignocellulosic biomass (LB) with the ionic liquid (IL) 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim][Ac]) as a pretreatment to increase the methane yield. The pretreatment was conducted for wheat straw (WS), barley straw (BS), and grape stem (GS) at 120 °C for 120 min, using several LB to [Emim][Ac] ratios (1:1, 1:3, and 1:5 w/w). Pretreatment significantly disrupted the lignocellulose matrix of each biomass into soluble sugars. GS showed the highest sugar yield, which was followed by WS, while BS was slightly hydrolyzed (175.3 ± 2.3, 158.2 ± 5.2, and 51.1 ± 3.1 mg glucose g^–1 biomass, respectively). Likewise, the pretreatment significantly reduced the cellulose crystallinity index (CrI) of the resulting solid fractions of GS and WS by 15% and 9%, respectively, but slightly affected the CrI of BS (5%). Thus, BMP tests were only carried out for raw and hydrothermally and [Emim][Ac] (1:5) pretreated GS and WS. The untreated GS and WS showed similar methane yields to those achieved for the solid fraction obtained after pretreatment with an LB to [Emim][Ac] ratio of 1:5 (219 ± 10 and 368 ± 1 mL CH₄ g^–1 VS, respectively). The methane production of the solid plus liquid fraction obtained after IL pretreatment increased by 1.61- and 1.34-fold compared to the raw GS and WS, respectively. Full article

Decline of the international price of some minerals, such as coal, has changed the living standards of the Arctic population leading to its considerable out-migration because of the drop in profitability not only in mining, but also in related industries. Being essential for the sustainable economic development, the highly qualified specialists are currently a crucial issue in the Arctic. This research employs demographic and economic indicators to address the gap in the study of demographic challenges for the Arctic administrative-territorial entities. Special attention is paid to the comparative analysis of the population dynamic in the Russian and global Arctic regions. As part of this study, the impact of the demographic factor on the economic indicators of the region was assessed on the basis of GRP data calculation. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the major trends in the Arctic labour market. Based on the results of the assessment, an increase in GRP was determined with the simultaneous decrease in the Arctic population. The current demographic situation in the Arctic regions in the context of gender factors was reviewed. It should be noted that the article contains exceptions and the causes of the phenomena described. The results of the research may contribute to better understanding of regional variation and trends in socio-economic development of the Arctic as well as the stabilisation of the Arctic population. Full article

Despite the commonly observed trend towards mechanization and automation of operational processes, the potential benefits of wooden pallets as an essential element of the infrastructure of logistic processes are often overlooked in considerations related to sustainable development. Aspects that are mentioned more often include the very idea of the economy itself (circular economy), characteristics of logistics (green), features of the supply chain itself (sustainable) or expectations towards transport (ecological). The authors believe that the idea of total cost of ownership (TCO) in relation to wooden pallets can be a key component of holistic thinking in terms of sustainable development. In a situation where in relation to logistics, reasonable expectations for developing sustainable supply chains are made, paying attention to such a common logistic facility, namely a cargo pallet, which is given so little attention in research, is, in the opinion of the authors, absolutely justified. Therefore, the article presents an original approach to the problem of aggregation of all costs that cargo pallets generate in their operational life cycle, using the total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis methodology. The main goal of the article, however, is to show that the total cost of ownership of a pallet (not only owning it) can become an effective tool used to significantly reduce the costs of logistic activity of enterprises (as well as whole supply chains) and support the idea of sustainable development in practice. Using the primary data from questionnaire research, the focus was on considerations that were of identification character (cognitive and explanatory considerations), which are typical for basic research that aims to explain given phenomena. Thus, the presented cognitive process covers two main areas, namely: the general theory of sustainable development and the specificity of wooden pallets as carriers used in goods trading in terms of their total costs of ownership. Full article

Processing and selection of fruits and vegetables generate high quantities of wastes that represent an economic and environmental issue for the agroindustry sector. According to the so-called “biorefinery” approach, this biomass can be exploited for the recovery of value-added molecules. In this study, the residues of industrial processing of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum variety “Hybrid Rome”), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), potato (Solanum tuberosum) and carrot (Daucus carota) were used as sole carbon sources to support cheap and sustainable microbial growth as well as the production of secondary metabolites (hydrogen and ethanol) by Thermoanaerobacterium thermostercoris strain BUFF, a thermophilic anaerobic microorganism isolated from buffalo-dung compost. Moreover, the use of hemicellulolytic enzymes of T. thermostercoris was assayed in the bioconversion reaction of the polymer fraction extracted from the rhizome of giant reed (Arundo donax) and of the leaves and stems of cardoon (Cynara cardunculus), dedicated non-food crops employed in energy supply. Full article

Antiretrovirals (ARVs) have been detected in aquatic ecosystems throughout the world; however, studies focused on assessing their ecotoxicological effects on marine aquatic organisms are still rare. In the present study, the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) of 13 ARVs was estimated for surface seawater from Santos Bay, Brazil, according to the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) guidelines. The results indicated that all ARVs need to be assessed for their ecological effects, considering that they all exceeded the EMEA guideline limits (PEC > 0.01 µg L⁻¹). In this sense, three ARVs (namely atazanavir, nevirapine and efavirenz) were selected for the acute and chronic tests with sea urchin (Echinometra lucunter). Furthermore, the Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) for these three ARVs was also performed by calculating the risk quotient. The acute and chronic toxicity results showed inhibitory concentrations (IC) for the fertilization (IC₅₀; 1 h; range: 11.46–84.61 mg L⁻¹) and for the embryo–larval development (IC₅₀; 42 h; range: 0.52–0.97 mg L⁻¹) of the sea urchin, respectively. Moreover, the ERA showed that these three ARVs are potentially hazardous for aquatic life in Santos Bay, raising concerns about the continuous introduction of ARVs in aquatic ecosystems. The data presented may contribute to the provision of subsidies for the development of monitoring public policies that aim to reduce the introduction of ARVs into the aquatic environment. Full article

Geoparks currently form the basis for the development of geotourism and, therefore, proposals of new geoparks are developed in many countries, including Poland, where over 20 locations for geoparks have been proposed so far. Two national geoparks have been established thus far, while another two have received the status of UNESCO Global Geoparks None of them are located in the Carpathian Mountains. Simultaneously south-eastern Poland—the Podkarpackie Province—boasts valuable geoheritage, biotic and cultural assets. In the past, having regard for the geological heritage, several research teams proposed the creation of three geoparks encompassing the existing landscape parks in that area. However, these were proposals based solely on scientific values. The objective of the study was to comprehensively assess their tourism potential, with a particular focus on geoheritage assets. The assessment has made it possible to determine to what extent these assets meet the conditions necessary for the functioning of this type of areas, i.e., the occurrence of diverse tourist assets, well-developed infrastructure and appropriate development potential. The assessment method used is based on 25 indices forming six groups. The analyses have been carried out for districts lying within the proposed geoparks. It has been found that the analysed area has a sufficiently high geoheritage potential that can be the basis for the functioning of two geoparks. The tourist infrastructure—particularly accommodation and catering facilities and geotourist trails—needs to be expanded and improved. It is particularly important to encourage local communities to become involved and engage in business activity within the geopark. Full article

Most of the global population live in urban environments and the majority of tourist flows are concentrated in cities. Urban agriculture has recently emerged as an avenue for the protection of sustainable food production and the promotion of sustainable food consumption. Also, the relationships between horticulture and tourism are attracting growing interest in the context of urban studies. Drawing on a qualitative approach based on ten semi-structured interviews, this research analyzes the relationship between urban gardens and family tourism. The paper innovatively contributes to the understanding of gardens as an urban attraction that improves the sustainable production and consumption of food in the context of family tourism experiences. The results show the relevance of urban gardens for the creation of sustainable experiences that engage families with local food, enhance local supply chains, and inform the future of urban environments. Urban gardens are a visitor attraction that may lead to the development of sustainable people, places and products, and they represent the sustainable integration of horticulture in tourism based on participatory experiences, direct contact with the natural environment and the discovery of the origin of food. Full article

A sustainable raw materials (RMs) recovery from waste requires a comprehensive generation and communication of knowledge on project potentials and barriers. However, a standardised procedure to capture sustainability aspects in early project development phases is currently missing. Thus, studies on different RM sources are not directly comparable. In this article, an approach is presented which guides its user through a practical interpretation of on-site exploration data on tailings compliant with the United Nations Framework Classification for Resources (UNFC). The development status of the overall project and the recovery of individual RMs are differentiated. To make the assessment results quickly comparable across different studies, they are summarised in a heat-map-like categorisation matrix. In Part I of this study, it is demonstrated with the case study tailings storage facility Bollrich (Germany) how a tailings mining project can be assessed by means of remote screening. In Part II, it is shown how to develop a project from first on-site exploration to a decision whether to intensify costly on-site exploration. It is concluded that with a UNFC-compliant assessment and classification approach, local sustainability aspects can be identified, and a commonly acceptable solution for different stakeholder perspectives can be derived. Full article

The subject of the article concerns vertical urban farms that play an important role in nature-based solutions and ecosystem services for the city. In the face of a changing climate, progressive environmental degradation, and the related loss of agricultural land, vertical farms can be seen as an alternative to traditional agriculture. Woven into the blue-green infrastructure of cities, they may not only constitute a base for food production, but can also create a new valuable ecological, social, and economic hub in contemporary cities, changed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of this paper is to show whether it is possible to introduce various functions which support ecosystem and social services, and whether they affect measurable benefits for urban residents in a large-scale system of solutions in the field of vertical urban agriculture. This research shows that urban vertical farms can perform many functions and bring diverse benefits to the inhabitants of cities. In a multi-scale system, they allow for the creation of patchwork connections, which stabilise a specific city biome in the vertical space. Full article

As a new phenomenon, geotourism research is on the rise. Although South Africa has some interesting geoheritage sites, not much has been done to investigate the potential contribution of geotourism to the tourism sector, the protection of natural resources and employment generation, let alone the challenges that may be experienced in promoting geotourism. Therefore, this paper aims to describe the concept of geotourism and to identify the challenges of geotourism. It achieves this by looking at the case of the Kruger National Park, one of the largest game reserves in Africa, containing an abundance of geotourism sites. This research adopted a qualitative approach, with data collection involving semi-structured interviews with sixteen key informants to understand the challenges of geotourism. Manual content analysis was employed for analysing the data. A significant finding was that there were seven potential challenges in promoting and developing geotourism in the Kruger National Park: (1) a lack of packaging and marketing; (2) a lack of infrastructure; (3) security and access to geoheritage sites by tourists; (4) access to finance and markets; (5) destruction of geoheritage sites; (6) social challenges and (7) regulatory challenges. The results indicated that these challenges of geotourism can lead to negative perceptions about geotourism and can negatively impact the potential for geotourism development towards effective local social sustainability, especially for communities abutting the KNP. The major contribution of this study is its expansion of the geotourism academic literature through newly generated data on the challenges of geotourism in South Africa. Furthermore, this study theoretically contributes to the body of knowledge on geotourism and its challenges in Africa, particularly regarding the Kruger National Park. Full article

The intensive exploitation of water resources negatively affects the ecological situation in many international water objects. The problem of a shortage of drinking water is aggravating, water bodies are subject to pollution by domestic and industrial wastewater, and the water quality in the basins of international water courses continues to deteriorate. This situation primarily requires legal regulation. Until recently, despite a significant number of existing international treaties on the use of transboundary waters, there was no universal international legal act to systematize the basic principles and norms of behavior of the states in this area. The most important direction for improving public administration in the field of use and protection of transboundary groundwater bodies is the development and expansion of international cooperation and the legal consolidation of the rights and obligations of states through the adoption of legislative acts on various levels. Modern international policy in the field of transboundary groundwater resources management is undergoing significant changes. The very concept of a transboundary territory in relation to groundwater extraction was adopted both in Russia and in Europe in the early 2000s. However, the main criteria for the definition of a transboundary territory have not yet been formulated anywhere. This gives rise to the need to define a transboundary aquifer in international legislation, as well as to limit the size of this aquifer. This paper is devoted to the analysis of approaches to the definition of “transboundary aquifer”, emerging problems in this area, the legal framework, and conflicts in the field of transboundary regulation of groundwater. The zone of responsibility in groundwater extraction at the transboundary territory of neighboring states is defined. Full article

The biggest threat to cattle production in most South African communal areas is poor management of grazing, which negatively affects vegetation and soil structures. This study was conducted to assess the spatial variation of grass species density, production potential and quality in Breyten (Hutton soil type), Davel (Avalon soil type), and Wesselton (Clovelly soil type) communal rangelands in the highveld region of Mpumalanga province. Three 100 m transects per grazing area, placed at 50 m intervals (0, 50, and 100 m) were used to collect soil samples at 200 mm depth. A 100 m permanent line point method, replicated three times (50 m apart) per site, was used to identify and collect grass species samples. Grass species were classified according to life form, palatability, ecological status, and abundance. Grasses species were also harvested for chemical composition and in vitro ruminal dry matter degradability determination. Soils from the study areas had an acidic pH range (3.5–4.5). Hutton soil had the highest (p < 0.05) nitrate (N-NO₃) concentration (0.770 mg/kg) compared to Clovelly (0.030 mg/kg) and Avalon (0.533 mg/kg) soil types. Thirty-one grass species composed of 28 turf perennials, two weak perennials and one perennial creeping grass were identified across the study areas. About 16% of identified grass species were classified as highly palatable, 39% as moderately palatable, and 32% as unpalatable. Across all the soil types, Digitaria eriantha had the highest (p < 0.05) crude protein (CP) (106.5 g/kg DM) content when compared to other grass species. In the Avalon soil type, D. eriantha had the lowest (p < 0.05) neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (696.4 g/kg DM). Across all soils, D. eriantha, Aristida congesta, Eragrostis curvula, Eragrostis gummiflua, and Eragrostis plana grasses had the same (p > 0.05) 48-h in vitro ruminal dry matter degradability Hutton soil had a higher proportion of common and dominant grass species as well as more palatable species with higher crude protein content than Avalon and Clovelly soils. However, for all three rangelands, there is a need for supplementary feeding to enhance the production efficiency of livestock given that the nutritive value of grasses was low. Full article

Since 2017, risk assessments for water intakes in Poland have provided the basis for decisions to establish indirect water protection zones. The preventive, risk-based approach and the related risk minimization measures are required under the provisions of the Drinking Water Directive (DWD) of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the quality of water intended for human consumption. This approach is in line with the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for water safety plans. The aim of this study was to present a methodology and to carry out a risk assessment of the threats to surface water intakes, which in Poland, should be completed by the end of 2022. Risk assessments were performed for four onshore-type surface water intakes located in south-eastern Poland. The results were presented in aggregate form, which enabled clear presentation and conclusions. It was found that the greatest risks are associated with seasonal changes in water quality (mainly high turbidity and water blooms), unregulated sewage management, the occurrence of floodwater flows and catastrophic events caused by the potential failure of wastewater treatment plants. Based on the results of the risk assessment, the need to establish new, or to adjust the existing, protection zones for the analyzed water intakes was identified. Full article