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Hydrometallurgical Process to Recover Cobalt from Spent Li-Ion Batteries -
Current and Foreseen Tungsten Production in Portugal, and the Need of Safeguarding the Access to Relevant Known Resources -
Adapting the ESSENZ Method to Assess Company-Specific Criticality Aspects -
A Method for Optimizing and Spatially Distributing Heating Systems -
On the Management of Nature-Based Solutions in Open-Air Laboratories: New Insights and Future Perspectives
Journal Description
Resources
Resources
is an international, peer-reviewed, journal of scientific studies related to resources, published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, AGRICOLA, AGRIS, and many other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q1 (Nature and Landscape Conservation)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision provided to authors approximately 17.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2021).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Latest Articles
Analysis of the Negative Daily Temperatures Influence on the Failure Rate of the Water Supply Network
Resources 2021, 10(9), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10090089 (registering DOI) - 26 Aug 2021
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As a part of the critical infrastructure, water supply systems must be characterized by an appropriate level of operational reliability and safety. One of the threats to this is the failure of the water supply network, influenced by many factors, among which we
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As a part of the critical infrastructure, water supply systems must be characterized by an appropriate level of operational reliability and safety. One of the threats to this is the failure of the water supply network, influenced by many factors, among which we can distinguish internal factors related to the process of designing, construction and system operation, and external factors related to the impact of the environment. The paper presents the influence of negative daily temperature on the failure rate of the water supply network, taking into account the material of the pipes, their diameters, and the cause of failure. The research was carried out on operational data from the period 2004–2018 from the water supply network in a city located in south-eastern Poland. The relationship between the daily temperature and the failure rate of the water supply system has been shown. As the temperature values drop, the failure rate values increase. The biggest influence of the negative daily temperature on the water supply network failure rate is observed for cast iron pipes. PE and PVC pipes are more resistant to the influence of negative temperatures. The most common cause of failure is corrosion and unsealing of the pipes. Pipes with the diameters of 100, 150, 300, 350, and 400 mm in distribution and main networks turned out to fail most often. These results can be used by water supply companies to limit the influence of factors related to negative daily temperatures on the failure rate of the water supply network.
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Open AccessArticle
Integration of Regression Analysis and Monte Carlo Simulation for Probabilistic Energy Policy Guidelines in Pakistan
Resources 2021, 10(9), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10090088 - 25 Aug 2021
Abstract
Forecasting energy demand and supply is the most crucial concern for energy policymakers. However, forecasting may introduce uncertainty in the energy model, and an energy policy based on an uncertain model could be misleading. Without certainty in energy data, investors cannot quantify risk
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Forecasting energy demand and supply is the most crucial concern for energy policymakers. However, forecasting may introduce uncertainty in the energy model, and an energy policy based on an uncertain model could be misleading. Without certainty in energy data, investors cannot quantify risk and trade-offs, which are compulsory for investments in energy projects. In this work, the energy policies of Pakistan are taken as a case study, and flaws in its energy policymaking are identified. A novel probabilistic model integrated with curve fitting methods was proposed and was applied to 17 different energy demand and supply variables. Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) was performed to develop probabilistic energy profiles for each year from 2017 to 2050. Results show that the forecasted energy supply of Pakistan in the years 2025 and 2050 would be 70.69 MTOE and 131.65 MTOE, respectively. The probabilistic analysis showed that there is 14% and 6% uncertainty in achieving these targets. The research shows the expected energy consumption of 70.33 MTOE and 189.48 MTOE in 2025 and 2050, respectively, indicating uncertainties of 65% and 31%. Based on the results, eight energy policy guidelines and recommendations are provided for sustainable energy resource management. This study recommends developing a robust and sustainable energy policy for Pakistan with the help of transparent governance.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioeconomy, Energy, Logistics, Environmental Issues and Sustainable Resource Management)
Open AccessArticle
Assessing the Application-Specific Substitutability of Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Chemistries Based on Material Criticality, Performance, and Price
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Resources 2021, 10(9), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10090087 - 25 Aug 2021
Abstract
The material use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is widely discussed in public and scientific discourse. Cathodes of state-of-the-art LIBs are partially comprised of high-priced raw materials mined under alarming ecological and social circumstances. Moreover, battery manufacturers are searching for cathode chemistries that represent
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The material use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is widely discussed in public and scientific discourse. Cathodes of state-of-the-art LIBs are partially comprised of high-priced raw materials mined under alarming ecological and social circumstances. Moreover, battery manufacturers are searching for cathode chemistries that represent a trade-off between low costs and an acceptable material criticality of the comprised elements while fulfilling the performance requirements for the respective application of the LIB. This article provides an assessment of the substitutability of common LIB cathode chemistries (NMC 111, −532, −622, −811, NCA 3%, −9%, LMO, LFP, and LCO) for five major fields of application (traction batteries, stationary energy storage systems, consumer electronics, power-/garden tools, and domestic appliances). Therefore, we provide a tailored methodology for evaluating the substitutability of products or components and critically reflect on the results. Outcomes show that LFP is the preferable cathode chemistry while LCO obtains the worst rating for all fields of application under the assumptions made (as well as the weighting of the considered categories derived from an expert survey). The ranking based on the substitutability score of the other cathode chemistries varies per field of application. NMC 532, −811, −111, and LMO are named recommendable types of cathodes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic, Environmental, and Social Assessments of Raw Materials for a Green and Resilient Economy)
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Micro and Macroelements in Honey and Atmospheric Pollution (NW and Central Poland)
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080086 - 22 Aug 2021
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Urban vegetation is generally exposed to high levels of air pollution in airborne particles, with the greatest exposure in the EU being seen in Poland. With the continuing growth of urban populations, there is a need to confirm whether honey produced from urban
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Urban vegetation is generally exposed to high levels of air pollution in airborne particles, with the greatest exposure in the EU being seen in Poland. With the continuing growth of urban populations, there is a need to confirm whether honey produced from urban areas is of similar high quality to that from rural areas. A total of 27 honey samples were collected from urban and rural apiaries and tested for the concentrations of 19 elements by ICP-OES. The results were compared with data on honey produced in old and new EU countries (metadata). Our evaluation used a novel approach to determine threshold values in the identification of the bioproduct contamination index. The analysed urban honey samples demonstrated higher concentrations of K, Sr, Ba, Ni, and Co, and lower levels of Mn and B than rural honey samples. Contamination by PM10 particles and the toxic elements contained in them proved to be a poor predictor of the content of these elements in honey, in contrast to the effect of atmospheric pollution measured during firework shows, which demonstrated higher concentrations of Ba, Pb, Ca, Cu, and Mg. The non-carcinogenic risk assessment indicated that the analysed honey samples are of good quality and are comparable or of even better quality than honey products from other EU countries.
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Sustainable Survival: Resource Management Strategy in Micro and Small Enterprises in the Rubber Products Market in Poland during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Resources 2021, 10(8), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080085 - 20 Aug 2021
Abstract
The COVID-19 epidemic surprised economic operators around the world. The very existence of many businesses, and thus jobs, was at stake. However, one year after the WHO declared the outbreak a pandemic, contrary to the pessimistic forecasts of business analysts, some industries did
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The COVID-19 epidemic surprised economic operators around the world. The very existence of many businesses, and thus jobs, was at stake. However, one year after the WHO declared the outbreak a pandemic, contrary to the pessimistic forecasts of business analysts, some industries did not experience the predicted negative effects of the crisis. This article presents the results of a pilot study on micro and small enterprises in the rubber products industry in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim of analyzing the phenomenon of sustainable resource management that led not only to the survival of these enterprises but also to a significant increase in their turnover. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to analyze the key success factors of the indicated economic entities, with particular emphasis on the perspective of sustainable resource management and relationship management. On the basis of best research practices, a triangulation of research methods was applied (integrative literature review, computer-assisted telephone interviewing, and individual in-depth interview). A relationship was observed between the sustainable management of resources and the structure of the relationship network and the strength of its connections. In micro and small enterprises in the rubber products sector in Poland, sustainable resource management is related to the structure of the network of relations and the strength of connections in the network (relations/networking), as enterprises form a group of entities with a high level of loyalty, especially between the suppliers and buyers of raw materials. The formulated conclusions will become the basis for further in-depth research that can be conducted (a) in the same group of respondents, but using a representative research group, (b) in the same industry among a group of large enterprises, and (c) in a group of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from other industries.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioeconomy, Energy, Logistics, Environmental Issues and Sustainable Resource Management)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Coal to Biomass Conversion as a Path to Sustainability: A Hypothetical Scenario at Pego Power Plant (Abrantes, Portugal)
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080084 - 16 Aug 2021
Abstract
Energy consumption is associated with economic growth, but it comes with a toll regarding the environment. Renewable energies can be considered substitutes for fossil fuels and may contribute to reducing the environmental degradation that the world is presently facing. With this research, we
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Energy consumption is associated with economic growth, but it comes with a toll regarding the environment. Renewable energies can be considered substitutes for fossil fuels and may contribute to reducing the environmental degradation that the world is presently facing. With this research, we aimed to offer a broader view of the state-of-the-art in this field, particularly regarding coal and biomass. The main objective is to present a viable and sustainable solution for the coal power plants still in operation, using as a hypothetical example the Pego Power Plant, the last operating coal fueled power plant in Portugal. After the characterization of land use and energy production in Portugal, and more particularly in the Médio Tejo region, where the power plant is located, the availability of biomass was assessed and it was concluded that the volume of biomass needed to keep the Pego power plant working exclusively with biomass is much lower than the yearly growth volume of biomass in the region, which means that this transition would be viable in a sustainable way. This path is aligned with policies to fight climate change, since the use of biomass for energy is characterized by low levels of GHGs emissions when compared to coal. The risk of rural fires would be reduced, and the economic and social impact for this region would be positive.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Biomass for Bioenergy)
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Open AccessArticle
Selective Collection of Municipal Waste in a Residential District with Multi-Family Buildings—Case Study from Poland
Resources 2021, 10(8), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080083 - 13 Aug 2021
Abstract
Social and economic changes make it necessary to put in a great deal of conscious effort to shift towards a closed-loop economy, where waste provides a source of raw materials. The low level of selective collection of municipal waste poses a challenge in
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Social and economic changes make it necessary to put in a great deal of conscious effort to shift towards a closed-loop economy, where waste provides a source of raw materials. The low level of selective collection of municipal waste poses a challenge in many countries, including Poland. One of the major causes of the problems in Poland lies in the fact that waste collection points (WCPs) do not have adequate waste containers. The paper aims to put forward a proposal to improve the operation of WCPs. Seeking for new solutions, it is necessary to account for the conditions under which the bodies responsible for waste management take their decisions. They have to comply with the legislation in force, and at the same time, choose the options that generate the lowest costs. The study concerned a typical residential district with housing in multi-family buildings. For two fill rate variants and four emptying schedules, the number of above-ground containers was calculated. Two variants: for above-ground containers (variant I) and for semi-underground containers (variant II), were compared in terms of operating costs and investment outlays. The proposed increase in the number of above-ground containers, and additionally providing semi-underground containers, will contribute to increased engagement of the local community in the selective collection of waste.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Municipal and Industrial Waste Management)
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Comparison of Empirical Models to Predict Viscosity of Secondary Vacuum Gas Oils
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080082 - 10 Aug 2021
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This work presents characterization data and viscosity of 34 secondary vacuum gas oils (H-Oil gas oils, visbreaker gas oils, and fluid catalytic cracking slurry oils) with aromatic content reaching up to 100 wt.%. Inter-criteria analysis was employed to define the secondary VGO characteristic
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This work presents characterization data and viscosity of 34 secondary vacuum gas oils (H-Oil gas oils, visbreaker gas oils, and fluid catalytic cracking slurry oils) with aromatic content reaching up to 100 wt.%. Inter-criteria analysis was employed to define the secondary VGO characteristic parameters which have an effect on viscosity. Seven published empirical models to predict viscosity of the secondary vacuum gas oils were examined for their prediction ability. The empirical model of Aboul-Seud and Moharam was found to have the lowest error of prediction. A modification of Aboul-Seoud and Moharam model by separating the power terms accounting for the effects of specific gravity and average boiling point improves the accuracy of viscosity prediction. It was discovered that the relation of slope of viscosity decrease with temperature enhancement for the secondary vacuum gas oil is not a constant. This slope increases with the average boiling point and the specific gravity augmentation, a fact that has not been discussed before.
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Open AccessSystematic Review
Policy Instruments to Encourage the Adoption of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Landscapes
Resources 2021, 10(8), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080081 - 09 Aug 2021
Abstract
Urban landscapes are under great pressure and particularly vulnerable, due to climate change, population growth and economic development. Despite the growing understanding that Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) represent efficient solutions to facilitate adaptation to climate change and increase cities’ resilience, their wide-scale adoption is
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Urban landscapes are under great pressure and particularly vulnerable, due to climate change, population growth and economic development. Despite the growing understanding that Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) represent efficient solutions to facilitate adaptation to climate change and increase cities’ resilience, their wide-scale adoption is still limited. There is a need to include NBS in urban governance and planning agendas through policy instruments, such as plan/legislative, economic and information instruments. However, there is a lack of studies that assess such policy instruments and, through the use of specific examples, how they can foster NBS adoption. The objective of this study is to address this gap by conducting a systematic literature review, using a bibliometric and a content analysis, collating and reviewing papers that consider policy instruments and NBS in order to: (i) assess the existence of policy instruments that influence the adoption of NBS; and (ii) evaluate the existence of specific examples of policy instruments. Results show that plan/legislative instruments are most mentioned, followed by economic and information instruments. However, examples of specific policy instruments being used in practice are still scarce in literature, as most studies remain theoretical.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature-based Solutions for Urban Global Change Adaptation)
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Biowaste-Derived Humic-like Substances Improve Growth and Quality of Orange Jasmine (Murraya paniculata L. Jacq.) Plants in Soilless Potted Culture
Resources 2021, 10(8), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080080 - 08 Aug 2021
Abstract
Humic-like substances (HLS) are among the most used biostimulants in agriculture as a means for improving plant growth, nutrient uptake, crop yield, and stress tolerance. HLS derived from municipal biowastes were applied as a substrate drench in order to evaluate their biostimulatory effect
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Humic-like substances (HLS) are among the most used biostimulants in agriculture as a means for improving plant growth, nutrient uptake, crop yield, and stress tolerance. HLS derived from municipal biowastes were applied as a substrate drench in order to evaluate their biostimulatory effect on the growth and ornamental quality of Orange Jasmine (Murraya paniculata L. Jacq.) potted plants. Two HLS, derived from the digestion of the organic humic fraction and from composting of a mix of sewage sludge digestate and gardening residues, were compared with a commercial leonardite-based product in the framework of a greenhouse experiment in soilless culture. The application of the two biowaste-derived HLS resulted in plants showing a 39.9%, 87.0%, 111.6%, 35.4%, 37.9%, 35.3%, and 81.3% increase in plant height, number of flowers and fruits, leaf production, total dry biomass, root length, and water use efficiency, respectively, compared to those treated with the commercial product and the untreated (control) plants. The enhanced growth performance of HLS-treated plants was due to the higher chlorophyll relative content (+24.2% on average) and net photosynthesis (+114.7% on average) of their leaves. The positive results obtained from the application of non-commercial HLS suggest that biowaste recycling is a sustainable and environment-friendly source of biostimulants, as an alternative to agrochemicals and existing leonardite-based plant biostimulants.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Value-Added Compounds from Compost, Digestate and Agro-Industrial Waste)
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Open AccessReview
An Overview of Indicator Choice and Normalization in Raw Material Supply Risk Assessments
Resources 2021, 10(8), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080079 - 04 Aug 2021
Abstract
Supply risk assessments are an integral part of raw material criticality assessments frequently used at the country or company level to identify raw materials of concern. However, the indicators used in supply risk assessments to estimate the likelihood of supply disruptions vary substantially.
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Supply risk assessments are an integral part of raw material criticality assessments frequently used at the country or company level to identify raw materials of concern. However, the indicators used in supply risk assessments to estimate the likelihood of supply disruptions vary substantially. Here, we summarize and evaluate the use of supply risk indicators and their normalization to supply risk scores in 88 methods published until 2020. In total, we find 618 individual applications of supply risk criteria with 98 unique criteria belonging to one of ten indicator categories. The most often used categories of supply risk indicators are concentration, scarcity, and political instability. The most frequently used criteria are the country concentration of production, depletion time of reserves, and geopolitical risk. Indicator measurements and normalizations vary substantially between different methods for the same criterion. Our results can be used for future raw material criticality assessments to screen for suitable supply risk indicators and generally accepted indicator normalizations. We also find a further need for stronger empirical evidence of widely used indicators.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic, Environmental, and Social Assessments of Raw Materials for a Green and Resilient Economy)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Greenhouse Gas Emission Assessment of Simulated Wastewater Biorefinery
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080078 - 28 Jul 2021
Abstract
A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) can be considered a system where dirty water enters and fresh water (by means of treatment processes) and other co-products such as sludge and biogas exit. Inside the system, typically, the following steps occur: preliminary treatment, primary treatment,
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A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) can be considered a system where dirty water enters and fresh water (by means of treatment processes) and other co-products such as sludge and biogas exit. Inside the system, typically, the following steps occur: preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, disinfection, and solids handling. The system transforms biomass into several energy and non-energy products, which fall into the definition of a biorefinery. This research compares three simulated WWTP in terms of their environmental greenhouse gas (GHG) emission release to the atmosphere: a generic one (without co-product valorization), one that converts co-products into fertilizer, heat, and electricity, and a third one that converts co-products into heat, electricity, fertilizer, and bioplastic. Heat and electricity are used to provide its energy needs. The chosen impact category is GHG, and the aim is to project the best scenario to the European context in terms of GHG avoidance (savings). The scope is the upstream electricity and natural gas production, the in-use emissions, and the avoided emissions by substituting equivalent fossil-based products. The functional unit is 1 L of sewage (“dirty water”). The GHG savings are evaluated by comparing a generic WWTP scenario, without co-product valorization, with alternative scenarios of co-product valorization. Conventional LCA assuming all the emissions occurs at instant zero is compared to a more realistic environment where for each year, the average of the variable emission pulses occurs. Variable emissions pulses are taken from variable inflows data publicly available from European COST actions (COST Action 682 “Integrated Wastewater Management” as well as within the first IAWQ (later IWA) Task Group on respirometry-based control of the activated sludge process), within the later COST Action 624 on “Optimal Management of Wastewater Systems”). The GHG uncertainty is estimated based on the inputs benchmark data from the WWTP literature and by having different available global warming potential dynamic models. The conventional LCA versus dynamic LCA approach is discussed especially because a WWTP is by nature a dynamic system, having variable inputs along time and therefore variable output GHG emission pulses. It is concluded that heat needs are fully covered by biogas production in the anaerobic digester and combustion, covering its own energy needs and with a potential for heat district supply. Only 30–40% of electricity needs are covered by combined heat and power. Bioplastics and/or fertilizer yields potentially represent less than 3% of current European needs, which suggests the need to reduce their consumption levels. In comparison to generic WWTP, GHG savings are 20%, considering the uncertainty in the benchmark input assumptions. The former is much higher than the uncertainty in the dynamic global warming potential model selection, which means that the model selection is not important in this case study.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste-to-Energy Systems in Standalone, Integrated and Hybrid Configurations)
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Open AccessArticle
CFD Simulation of an Internally Cooled Biomass Fixed-Bed Combustion Plant
Resources 2021, 10(8), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080077 - 23 Jul 2021
Abstract
The reduction of bed temperature in fixed-bed biomass combustion is an effective measure to lower pollutant emissions. Air staging and bed cooling solutions are active strategies to decrease the fuel bed temperature. This work presents a CFD study of a biomass fixed-bed combustion
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The reduction of bed temperature in fixed-bed biomass combustion is an effective measure to lower pollutant emissions. Air staging and bed cooling solutions are active strategies to decrease the fuel bed temperature. This work presents a CFD study of a biomass fixed-bed combustion plant that is equipped with an internal cooling bed system. Eight different cases are calculated to analyze the effect of the total airflow, air staging ratios and bed cooling system on biomass combustion. The findings are validated against experimental data from the literature. The results show good accordance between the numerical results and the experimental data. The primary airflow rate has the biggest influence on the bed’s maximum temperatures. The internal bed cooling system is able to achieve an average bed temperature reduction of 21%, slowing the biomass thermal conversion processes. Bed cooling techniques can be combined with air staging and primary airflow reduction to reduce bed temperatures in order to reduce pollutant emissions and other undesirable phenomena, such as fouling or slagging.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste-to-Energy Systems in Standalone, Integrated and Hybrid Configurations)
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Development of a Comprehensive Conceptual Framework for Biogas Technology Adoption in South Africa
Resources 2021, 10(8), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080076 - 23 Jul 2021
Abstract
This article focuses on the development of a conceptual framework guiding the adoption of biogas technology in selected rural areas of the Limpopo province. The theoretical framing of the study emanated from the critical evaluation of models and work that privileged the technical
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This article focuses on the development of a conceptual framework guiding the adoption of biogas technology in selected rural areas of the Limpopo province. The theoretical framing of the study emanated from the critical evaluation of models and work that privileged the technical design and optimisation of a biogas system over the adoption of the technology at the household level. Based on the empirical evidence, and using logistic regression analysis, the study highlighted that determinants of biogas technology adoption in communities are complex, context-dependent and spatially varied. Hence, the policy of biogas adoption should be tailored based on the principle of fit-for-purpose, instead of using existing unimodal approaches for all settings. Based on the findings, the study developed a robust conceptual framework that harnesses the relationships between the influencing variables that can enhance the adoption of biogas technology.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewables Application: Challenges and Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of the Different Compatibility Indices to Model and Predict Oil Colloidal Stability and Its Relation to Crude Oil Desalting
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080075 - 22 Jul 2021
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Thirty crude oils, belonging to light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy, light sulfur, and high sulfur have been characterized and compatibility indices defined. Nine crude oil compatibility indices have been employed to evaluate the compatibility of crude blends from the thirty individual crude
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Thirty crude oils, belonging to light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy, light sulfur, and high sulfur have been characterized and compatibility indices defined. Nine crude oil compatibility indices have been employed to evaluate the compatibility of crude blends from the thirty individual crude oils. Intercriteria analysis revealed the relations between the different compatibility indices, and the different petroleum properties. Tetra-plot was employed to model crude blend compatibility. The ratio of solubility blending number to insolubility number was found to best describe the desalting efficiency, and therefore could be considered as the compatible index that best models the crude oil blend compatibility. Density of crude oil and the n-heptane dilution test seem to be sufficient to model, and predict the compatibility of crude blends.
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Open AccessArticle
Investigation of the Influence of Different Vegetable Oils as a Component of Blended Biofuel on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine for Agricultural Machinery and Commercial Vehicles
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Resources 2021, 10(8), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10080074 - 22 Jul 2021
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Biofuels derived from renewable plant materials are considered promising alternative fuels to decrease emissions of ICEs. This study aimed to justify the possibility of using vegetable oils of different sources as a 10% additive in blended biofuel for diesel engines of agricultural machinery
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Biofuels derived from renewable plant materials are considered promising alternative fuels to decrease emissions of ICEs. This study aimed to justify the possibility of using vegetable oils of different sources as a 10% additive in blended biofuel for diesel engines of agricultural machinery and commercial vehicles. Seven different vegetable oils were investigated. Experiments have been performed by fueling a diesel engine with blended biofuels of 90% petroleum diesel fuel and 10% vegetable oil. In the maximum power and maximum torque modes, the brake power drop was no more than 1.5%, and the brake-specific fuel consumption increase was less than 4.3%; NOx emissions were reduced by up to 8.3%, exhaust smoke—up to 37.5%, CO—up to 20.0%, and unburned HC—up to 27.9%. In the operating modes of the European 13-mode steady-state test cycle, the integral specific emissions of HC decreased by up to 30.0%, integral specific emissions of CO—up to 15.0%, and integral specific emissions of NOx—up to 16.0%. The results obtained show the feasibility and rationality of using the investigated vegetable oils as a 10% additive in blended biofuel for diesel engines of agricultural machinery and commercial vehicles.
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Open AccessArticle
Gas Migration in the Aspect of Safety in the Areas of Mines Selected for Closure
Resources 2021, 10(7), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10070073 - 20 Jul 2021
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One of the main hazards occurring in post-mining areas is the uncontrolled migration of gases to the surface, which may pose a serious threat to life and health. These gases are mainly methane and carbon dioxide, in smaller amounts ethane and higher hydrocarbons,
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One of the main hazards occurring in post-mining areas is the uncontrolled migration of gases to the surface, which may pose a serious threat to life and health. These gases are mainly methane and carbon dioxide, in smaller amounts ethane and higher hydrocarbons, carbon oxide, hydrogen sulfide, and radon. Methane migrating into the lower levels of buildings, garages, cable ducts, and sewage systems reaching the concentrations of above 5% may cause an explosion hazard. The concentration of carbon dioxide over 4% also represents a serious threat to life. Moreover, carbon dioxide and methane, emitted into the atmosphere, constitute a considerable source of greenhouse gases. The methane could be utilized, yet it is necessary to develop effective capture and purification methods with the first step of determination being its migration routes. The paper presents the application of numerical modelling with the use of TOUGHv2.0 software, which enabled effective simulation of the multiphase flow, applying adsorption and diffusion phenomena. The results of gas migration modelling were compared to the outcomes of geological tests, and the obtained results were satisfying. It was observed that both geological investigation and computer simulations are proper tools for investigation of the phenomenon of gas migration and identification of gas hazard areas on the surface, constituting the basis for development of effective methane capture methods for further application.
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Tracking the Fate of Aluminium in the EU Using the MaTrace Model
Resources 2021, 10(7), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10070072 - 12 Jul 2021
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Aluminium is a metal of high economic importance for the European Union (EU), presenting unique properties (e.g., light weight and high corrosion resistance) and with applications in important sectors (e.g., transportation, construction and packaging). It is also known for its high recyclability potential,
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Aluminium is a metal of high economic importance for the European Union (EU), presenting unique properties (e.g., light weight and high corrosion resistance) and with applications in important sectors (e.g., transportation, construction and packaging). It is also known for its high recyclability potential, but relevant losses occur in its life cycle, compromising the amount of aluminium available for secondary production. A novel methodology that allows the identification of these losses and their impact on the aluminium flows in society is the MaTrace model. The objective of this article is to perform a dMFA of the secondary production of aluminium in the EU technosphere using the modified version of MaTrace, in order to estimate flows of the metal embedded in 12 product categories. Twelve scenarios were built in order to assess the impact of changes in policies, demand and technology. The flows were forecasted for a period of 25 years, starting in 2018. The results of the baseline scenario show that after 25 years, 24% of the initial material remains in use, 4% is hoarded by users, 10% has been exported and 61% has been physically lost. The main contributor to the losses is the non-selective collection of end-of-life products. The results of the different scenarios show that by increasing the collection-to-recycling rates of the 12 product categories, the aluminium that stays in use increase up to 32.8%, reaffirming that one way to keep the material in use is to improve the collection-to-recycling schemes in the EU.
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Open AccessArticle
Empirical Models to Characterize the Structural and Physiochemical Properties of Vacuum Gas Oils with Different Saturate Contents
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Resources 2021, 10(7), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10070071 - 09 Jul 2021
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Inter-criteria analysis was employed in VGO samples having a saturate content between 0.8 and 93.1 wt.% to define the statistically significant relations between physicochemical properties, empirical structural models and vacuum gas oil compositional information. The use of a logistic function and employment of
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Inter-criteria analysis was employed in VGO samples having a saturate content between 0.8 and 93.1 wt.% to define the statistically significant relations between physicochemical properties, empirical structural models and vacuum gas oil compositional information. The use of a logistic function and employment of a non-linear least squares method along with the aromatic ring index allowed for our newly developed correlation to accurately predict the saturate content of VGOs. The empirical models developed in this study can be used not only for obtaining the valuable structural information necessary to predict the behavior of VGOs in the conversion processes but can also be utilized to detect incorrectly performed SARA analyses. This work confirms the possibility of predicting the contents of VGO compounds from physicochemical properties and empirical models.
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of Hydrologic Alteration on Sediment, Dissolved Load and Nutrient Downstream Transfer Continuity in a River: Example Lower Brda River Cascade Dams (Poland)
Resources 2021, 10(7), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10070070 - 01 Jul 2021
Abstract
Hydrologic alternation of river systems is an essential factor of human activity. Cascade-dammed waters are characterized by the disturbed outflow of material from the catchment. Changes in sediment, dissolved load and nutrient balance are among the base indicators of water resource monitoring. This
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Hydrologic alternation of river systems is an essential factor of human activity. Cascade-dammed waters are characterized by the disturbed outflow of material from the catchment. Changes in sediment, dissolved load and nutrient balance are among the base indicators of water resource monitoring. This research was based on the use of hydrological and water quality data (1984–2017) and the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) method to determine the influence of river regime changes on downstream transfer continuity of sediments and nutrients in the example of the Lower Brda river cascade dams (Poland). Two types of regimes were used: hydropeaking (1984–2000) and run–of–river (2001–2017). Using the IHA method and water quality data, a qualitative and quantitative relationship were demonstrated between changes of regime operation and sediment and nutrient balance. The use of sites above and below the cascade made it possible to determine sediment, dissolved load, and nutrient trapping and removing processes. Studies have shown that changes in operation regime influenced the supply chain and continuity of sediment and nutrient transport in cascade-dammed rivers. The conducted research showed that sustainable management of sediment and nutrient in the alternated catchment helps achieve good ecological status of the water.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Monitoring and Modelling: Water Quantity and Quality Issues)
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