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Advancing Sustainable Development Through Circularity Metrics: A Comprehensive Indicator Framework for Assessing Progress on SDG 12 Across Sectoral Drivers

Journal Description

Resources

Resources is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on natural resources published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, RePEc, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Environmental Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Nature and Landscape Conservation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 23.3 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Clusters of Water Resources: Water, Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, Hydrology, Resources, Oceans, Limnological Review, Coasts.

Impact Factor: 3.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-9276

Latest Articles

26 pages, 734 KB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Based Construction Materials in the Context of the EU Bioeconomy: Overcoming Systemic Barriers to Mainstream Adoption

by Fernando Pacheco Torgal

Resources 2026, 15(6), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060072 - 22 May 2026

The construction sector must simultaneously meet rising global demand and cut embodied carbon deeply enough to satisfy European Green Deal and Bioeconomy Strategy targets—two pressures that conventional petrochemical-derived materials are poorly placed to resolve. Bio-based alternatives offer a credible path: they sequester carbon, [...] Read more.

The construction sector must simultaneously meet rising global demand and cut embodied carbon deeply enough to satisfy European Green Deal and Bioeconomy Strategy targets—two pressures that conventional petrochemical-derived materials are poorly placed to resolve. Bio-based alternatives offer a credible path: they sequester carbon, carry lower embodied emissions, improve indoor air quality, and fit naturally within circular economy models. Yet they remain marginal in specification practice. This paper reviews the evidence on bio-based construction materials and maps the barriers that keep them there. The analysis organises these barriers into four levels—structural, economic, technical, and enabling—and traces the conditional relationships between them, with direct consequences for how policy interventions should be sequenced. The strategic case for this transition extends beyond environmental policy: the 2026 Strait of Hormuz disruption is used here as a scenario to show how dependent European construction is on fossil-derived material inputs, and how exposed that dependence leaves the sector to geopolitical supply shocks. The principal obstacles to adoption prove to be institutional and economic rather than technical—regulatory fragmentation, absent harmonised standards, fragile supply chains, and market structures that systematically undervalue bio-based solutions. The paper concludes that meaningful scaling requires coordinated action across governance, market design, and industrial policy, and that material and performance advances alone will not deliver it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Use of Biological Resources: 2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Energy Finance and Agricultural Performance in MENA Region: Structural Pathways Toward Sustainability

by Ihsen Abid

Resources 2026, 15(6), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060071 - 22 May 2026

This study investigates the macroeconomic, institutional, and energy-related determinants of agricultural value added in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries over the period 2000–2023, with particular emphasis on whether international clean energy finance operates as a conditionally effective driver depending on energy [...] Read more.

This study investigates the macroeconomic, institutional, and energy-related determinants of agricultural value added in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries over the period 2000–2023, with particular emphasis on whether international clean energy finance operates as a conditionally effective driver depending on energy endowments. Using a panel fixed-effects framework with Driscoll–Kraay standard errors to address cross-sectional dependence, heteroskedasticity, and serial correlation, the analysis incorporates an interaction term between clean energy finance and an oil-exporting dummy to capture structural heterogeneity. Robustness is ensured through Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSEs), Granger causality tests, and System GMM estimation. The findings reveal that GDP per capita and clean energy finance are positively and significantly associated with agricultural value added, while trade openness negatively affects the sector. Importantly, the interaction results indicate strong asymmetry: the positive contribution of clean energy finance is concentrated in non-oil economies but becomes weak or insignificant in oil-exporting countries, consistent with diminishing marginal returns in energy-abundant contexts. Inflation captures nominal price effects, while short-run dynamics suggest the presence of adjustment costs. Overall, the study highlights that clean energy finance acts as a structurally conditional mechanism, offering nuanced and policy-relevant insights for sustainable agricultural transformation in MENA economies. Full article

49 pages, 2894 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Photovoltaic Systems in Multi-Family Buildings as a Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation and Urban Energy Sustainability

by Cesar Yahir Canales Barrientos, Fredy Alberto Aliaga Yupanqui, Yoisdel Castillo Alvarez, Reinier Jiménez Borges, Luis Angel Iturralde Carrera, Berlan Rodríguez Pérez, José Manuel Álvarez-Alvarado and Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz

Resources 2026, 15(5), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050070 - 20 May 2026

Decarbonizing the building sector requires integrating on-site renewable generation with systematic energy management. Among the most widely adopted alternatives are photovoltaic (PV) systems in buildings; however, they are often implemented as a standalone technological intervention (size–install–estimate savings), without being formally incorporated into an [...] Read more.

Decarbonizing the building sector requires integrating on-site renewable generation with systematic energy management. Among the most widely adopted alternatives are photovoltaic (PV) systems in buildings; however, they are often implemented as a standalone technological intervention (size–install–estimate savings), without being formally incorporated into an Energy Management System (EnMS) aimed at continuous improvement. In this context, this research addresses this gap through an integrated methodological framework aligned with ISO 50001, in which PV is explicitly included in energy performance management through energy review, the definition of an Energy Baseline (EnB), and the monitoring of Energy Performance Indicators (EnPIs) within the PDCA cycle. The approach articulates the analytical sizing of the PV system based on electricity demand and solar resources; its validation through simulation to ensure operational consistency and a technical, economic, and environmental assessment that translates PV generation into a verifiable reduction in energy imported from the grid and, consequently, into traceable improvements in EnPI under an audit-compatible scheme. The methodology is demonstrated in a multi-family building in Chorrillos, Lima (Peru), where a 14.5 kWp rooftop PV system (25 modules of 580 Wp) is designed to maximize self-consumption during daylight hours. The results show technical performance consistent with the demand profile, economic viability under the conditions of the case, and environmental benefits from replacing grid electricity, along with offsets associated mainly with the manufacture of PV components. The residual gap between the Post-PV EnPIs and the ISO 50001 target confirms that PV integration is a necessary but not sufficient first-cycle action within a comprehensive building decarbonization strategy, with demand-side management and envelope improvements identified as subsequent PDCA cycle priorities. In summary, the central contribution is not the PV sizing itself, but its operational and traceable integration within ISO 50001, making PV a quantifiable, verifiable, and scalable energy improvement action for residential buildings in emerging economies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency: 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Renewable Energy, Natural Resource Rents, and Environmental Quality in GCC Countries

by Noura Ben Mbarek

Resources 2026, 15(5), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050069 - 18 May 2026

Environmental implications of resource dependence remain a central concern for hydrocarbon-based economies undergoing energy transition. Using panel data for GCC countries over 1990–2024 and second-generation econometric techniques that account for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity, this study identifies a stable long-run relationship between natural [...] Read more.

Environmental implications of resource dependence remain a central concern for hydrocarbon-based economies undergoing energy transition. Using panel data for GCC countries over 1990–2024 and second-generation econometric techniques that account for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity, this study identifies a stable long-run relationship between natural resource rents, renewable energy, and CO₂ emissions. The results show that a 1% increase in natural resource rents is linked to a 0.21% rise in CO₂ emissions, highlighting the persistence of carbon-intensive economic structures. By contrast, renewable energy is associated with a 0.15% reduction in emissions, although its environmental contribution remains modest. The interaction effect is negative (−0.048) but only partially robust, indicating that renewable energy weakens, but does not fully offset, the environmental pressure associated with resource dependence. These findings suggest that energy transition in GCC economies remains gradual and structurally constrained, requiring not only renewable expansion but also deeper transformation of hydrocarbon-based growth models. Full article

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20 pages, 824 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monetary Valuation of Life Cycle Impacts for Lithium Carbonate Extraction Pathways

by Abu Shahadat Md Ibrahim, Shivani Mathur and Roderick G. Eggert

Resources 2026, 15(5), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050068 - 15 May 2026

The rapid growth of battery energy storage and electric vehicles has increased lithium demand and intensified the attention given to the environmental performance of alternative extraction pathways. Conventional life cycle assessments (LCA) of lithium production typically report midpoint indicators in physical units, which [...] Read more.

The rapid growth of battery energy storage and electric vehicles has increased lithium demand and intensified the attention given to the environmental performance of alternative extraction pathways. Conventional life cycle assessments (LCA) of lithium production typically report midpoint indicators in physical units, which limits cross-category comparison and reduces their usefulness for economic and policy analysis. This study presents a comparative monetized LCA of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) production from three pathways: solar brine evaporation, hard-rock spodumene mining, and geothermal brine recovery. Using the TRACI 2.1 midpoint results reported in a prior LCA, six impact categories—global warming, smog formation, acidification, respiratory effects, carcinogenic toxicity, and non-carcinogenic toxicity—are converted into monetary values through a benefit-transfer, damage-cost approach. Total environmental external costs are estimated at USD 11.85/kg LCE for solar brine evaporation, USD 9.45/kg LCE for spodumene mining, and USD 4.11/kg LCE for geothermal brine recovery (all USD amounts are expressed in $2025 unless otherwise mentioned). Smog formation contributes more than 80% of the total monetized damages across all pathways, while toxicity-related impacts account for a smaller share than implied by the normalized midpoint results. Monetization changes the relative ranking of the solar brine and spodumene pathways, while indicating that geothermal brine recovery has the lowest monetized external cost among the impact categories evaluated. These findings show that monetized LCA can complement conventional midpoint assessment and provide more decision-relevant insights for policy and economic evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Resources and Innovation for a Just and Sustainable Energy Transition)

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26 pages, 5786 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Fertilization with Iron-Enriched Montmorillonite and Sanitary Sludge Enhances Germination and Growth of Zea mays L.

by Wagner Alves Carvalho, Alessandro Lamarca Urzedo, Natalí Romero, Luciana Regaldo, Leticia Ferreira Lima Machado and Ana Maria Gagneten

Resources 2026, 15(5), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050067 - 12 May 2026

Sustainable fertilization strategies are required to reduce dependence on synthetic inputs, enhance waste recycling, and improve agricultural resilience under climate change. This study evaluates the effects of wastewater-derived sludge, particularly when modified with Fe-montmorillonite, on phosphorus availability and early development of Zea mays [...] Read more.

Sustainable fertilization strategies are required to reduce dependence on synthetic inputs, enhance waste recycling, and improve agricultural resilience under climate change. This study evaluates the effects of wastewater-derived sludge, particularly when modified with Fe-montmorillonite, on phosphorus availability and early development of Zea mays. Methods: Germination and early growth of Zea mays were assessed under four treatments: (i) untreated soil (Control); (ii) soil amended with sludge from the Cardeal Wastewater Treatment Plant (SC); (iii) soil amended with Fe-montmorillonite-modified sludge (TechPhos, ST); and (iv) soil amended with a commercial phosphorus salt (PS). Soil characterization was conducted using XRF, XRD, and FTIR. Plant responses were evaluated through laboratory (5 days) and pot (22 days) experiments. Results: ST showed the highest performance, with a germination index of 171.7 and improved biomass, leaf development, and chlorophyll content compared to Control and SC. ST also performed similarly to or better than the commercial fertilizer (PS), indicating high phosphorus efficiency. Conclusions: The integration of nanostructured modified montmorillonite with wastewater-derived sludge represents a promising alternative phosphorus source for early maize development. Its application supports waste valorization and circular economy approaches while contributing to improved soil fertility and more sustainable nutrient management under climate change scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances and Innovations in Waste Management)

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17 pages, 596 KB

Open AccessReview

Alkali-Activated and Geopolymer Systems Through the Lens of Resource Efficiency

by Nilofar Asim, Marzieh Badiei and Khadijehbeigom Ghoreishi

Resources 2026, 15(5), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050066 - 8 May 2026

Although geopolymer and alkali-activated binders are promoted as low-carbon OPC alternatives, their resource-centric performance remains complex and geographically dependent. This review examines these systems from a resource-efficiency perspective and evaluates alkaline activator demand; precursor availability, including fly ash, slag, calcined clays, and mining [...] Read more.

Although geopolymer and alkali-activated binders are promoted as low-carbon OPC alternatives, their resource-centric performance remains complex and geographically dependent. This review examines these systems from a resource-efficiency perspective and evaluates alkaline activator demand; precursor availability, including fly ash, slag, calcined clays, and mining residues; and embodied energy across mix designs and curing regimes. Recent mechanical and durability analyses, together with life cycle assessments, reveal important trade-offs in alkali-activated geopolymer systems. Customized precursors may unintentionally compromise their inherent resource efficiency, while the declining availability of industrial waste increasingly competes with alternative waste valorization processes. Developing one-part activator systems and implementing data- or machine-optimized mix designs capable of handling extremely highly variable waste streams will be necessary to achieve meaningful reductions in mineral consumption, energy demand, and emissions. The study reframes these binders as enablers of urban mining and industrial symbiosis. Policy changes toward resource-oriented governance, including performance-based standards, carbon-responsive procurement, and more transparent end-of-waste legislation, are also needed to promote a circular material economy. Strategic, large-scale deployment requires the integration of regional resource mapping with predictive performance modeling to navigate resource constraints in the construction sector. Full article

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31 pages, 1391 KB

Open AccessArticle

Asymmetric Growth–Energy–Emissions Dynamics in Large Emerging Economies Undergoing Energy Transition

by Ihsen Abid

Resources 2026, 15(5), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050065 - 7 May 2026

Purpose: This study examines the asymmetric effects of economic growth, energy consumption, renewable energy, trade openness, and innovation on CO₂ emissions in China and India. It aims to determine whether positive and negative shocks in these variables generate different environmental responses across [...] Read more.

Purpose: This study examines the asymmetric effects of economic growth, energy consumption, renewable energy, trade openness, and innovation on CO₂ emissions in China and India. It aims to determine whether positive and negative shocks in these variables generate different environmental responses across economies undergoing energy transition. Design/methodology/approach: The analysis employs a Nonlinear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (NARDL) model using annual data from 1990 to 2023. The framework decomposes explanatory variables into positive and negative partial sums to estimate asymmetric long-run and short-run effects. Dynamic multipliers are used to trace adjustment paths, while a symmetric ARDL model serves as a robustness check. Findings: The results reveal strong and persistent asymmetries in China, particularly in energy use, renewable energy, and innovation. Positive energy shocks significantly increase emissions, while reductions produce limited environmental gains, reflecting structural rigidities. Renewable energy reduces emissions asymmetrically, and innovation exhibits direction-dependent effects. In contrast, India shows weaker and more selective asymmetries, with emissions primarily driven by short-run energy demand and limited long-run structural effects. The symmetric model fails to capture these dynamics, confirming the importance of nonlinear modeling. Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that emissions dynamics are nonlinear and country-specific. Asymmetry is more pronounced in structurally advanced economies undergoing energy transition, while developing economies remain demand-driven. These results highlight the need for differentiated and context-specific environmental policies. Full article

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35 pages, 1251 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Economics of Low-Carbon Hydrogen Production for Large-Scale Industrial Facilities in Southeast Asia

by Alloysius Joko Purwanto, Ridwan Dewayanto Rusli, Citra Endah Nur Setyawati, Tanawat Papaeng, Nadiya Pranindita, Ryan Wiratama Bhaskara and Samantha Wibawa

Resources 2026, 15(5), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050064 - 7 May 2026

Cited by 1

This study examines the economics of blue and green hydrogen as feedstock for large industrial facilities in Southeast Asia. To understand how industries can adopt low-emission and renewable hydrogen, the levelised costs of blue and green hydrogen are calculated. Four pathways are examined, [...] Read more.

This study examines the economics of blue and green hydrogen as feedstock for large industrial facilities in Southeast Asia. To understand how industries can adopt low-emission and renewable hydrogen, the levelised costs of blue and green hydrogen are calculated. Four pathways are examined, including a large-scale carbon capture and sequestration facility located a distance away from an existing steam methane reforming hydrogen plant, a gigawatt-scale electrolysis facility adjacent to a large industrial site fed by an adjacent solar photovoltaic electricity source, as well as two pathways with either remote electrolyser and solar photovoltaic, necessitating hydrogen transport and storage, or a remote solar photovoltaic source with a dedicated power transmission line. The region’s transition to green hydrogen must overcome the challenges of high renewable electricity costs, the need for large land banks for solar photovoltaic farms and efficient long-distance hydrogen transport solutions or power transmission lines. Moreover, the region must improve its inconsistent track record in implementing billion-dollar public–private projects within budget and on time. Full article

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26 pages, 6054 KB

Open AccessReview

Natural Strategies for Increasing Yields: The Role of Plant Extracts and Micronutrients as Natural Resources in Sustainable Intensification

by Julia Chmiel, Krystian Wolski, Karolina Bakalorz, Emmanuel Manirafasha and Nikodem Kuźnik

Resources 2026, 15(5), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050063 - 28 Apr 2026

Natural resources play a fundamental role in ensuring global food security, while agricultural production itself strongly influences their demand, extraction, and availability. This article discusses natural strategies for increasing crop productivity within the framework of sustainable intensification, focusing on the integrated role of [...] Read more.

Natural resources play a fundamental role in ensuring global food security, while agricultural production itself strongly influences their demand, extraction, and availability. This article discusses natural strategies for increasing crop productivity within the framework of sustainable intensification, focusing on the integrated role of plant biostimulants and micronutrients. Both groups of substances are analyzed from a resource-oriented perspective, highlighting their potential to be derived from renewable sources, particularly agro-industrial by-products and plant biomass. Plant extracts obtained from fruit, vegetable, and cereal processing residues contain numerous bioactive compounds, including phenolics, amino acids, peptides, and organic acids, which can stimulate plant growth, improve nutrient uptake, and enhance tolerance to abiotic stress. Micronutrients such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, and B are also strategic resources in crop production because they regulate key metabolic processes and influence the efficiency of macronutrient utilization. Their effectiveness, however, depends strongly on chemical form and bioavailability in soil–plant systems. The novelty of this work lies in integrating perspectives from plant physiology, coordination chemistry, and resource management to propose a conceptual framework in which plant-derived extracts and micronutrient complexes act as complementary tools supporting circular and resource-efficient agricultural systems. Full article

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26 pages, 8760 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hazards Related to the Safety of Rice Available on the Common Market of the European Union

by Marcin Pigłowski and Maria Śmiechowska

Resources 2026, 15(5), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050062 - 28 Apr 2026

Despite relatively low per capita rice consumption in the European Union (EU), averaging approximately 9 kg annually between 2010 and 2023, imports from Asian countries have shown a sustained upward trend since 2013. This study assessed hazards associated with rice available on the [...] Read more.

Despite relatively low per capita rice consumption in the European Union (EU), averaging approximately 9 kg annually between 2010 and 2023, imports from Asian countries have shown a sustained upward trend since 2013. This study assessed hazards associated with rice available on the EU market. Data were obtained from Faostat, Eurostat, the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), and the Web of Science. Pivot tables and a two-way joining cluster analysis were applied to examine temporal and geographical patterns in reported notifications. Notifications primarily concerned genetically modified rice (32%), pesticide residues (21%), and mycotoxins (17%). During 2006–2014, notifications mainly related to unauthorized genetic modifications in rice originating from China and the United States, whereas between 2017 and 2023, they predominantly involved excessive pesticide residues and mycotoxin contamination in rice from India and Pakistan. Most hazards were classified as border rejections (37%), reflecting the effectiveness and vigilance of EU food safety authorities. While rice is generally considered low risk for European consumers, rising cultural integration and the growing popularity of Asian cuisine may increase consumption in the future. Continuous monitoring, rigorous risk assessment, and collaboration with exporting countries are therefore essential to maintain high food safety standards and ensure consumer protection across the EU market. Full article

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28 pages, 3384 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Interlinkages Between Energy, Food and Metal Prices Under the Geopolitical Tension

by Linda Karlina Sari, Muchamad Bachtiar, Noer Azam Achsani and Reni Lestari

Resources 2026, 15(5), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050061 - 24 Apr 2026

This study examines the dynamic interlinkages among energy, food, and metal commodity markets under geopolitical tensions using daily data from January 2022 to July 2025. The empirical framework integrates correlation analysis, Granger causality tests, and a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) to capture [...] Read more.

This study examines the dynamic interlinkages among energy, food, and metal commodity markets under geopolitical tensions using daily data from January 2022 to July 2025. The empirical framework integrates correlation analysis, Granger causality tests, and a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) to capture both short- and long-run transmission mechanisms, with robustness assessed through impulse response functions, forecast error variance decomposition, and a Diebold–Yilmaz connectedness analysis across three structurally distinct geopolitical event windows. The results reveal asymmetric and sector-specific transmission patterns in which geopolitical risk significantly influences key commodity prices—particularly WTI crude oil, wheat, copper, and aluminium—confirming its role as a primary external shock driver. WTI emerges as the dominant transmitter of shocks, while industrial metals exhibit strong internal connectedness. Critically, gold’s role proves to be conditional and context-dependent: within an integrated energy–food–metal network under geopolitical stress, it functions primarily as a net receiver and passive absorber of macroeconomic uncertainty rather than as a systemic transmitter, a finding that complements, rather than contradicts, its established safe-haven role in financial asset pricing frameworks. These findings are subject to limitations, including reliance on futures price data and a linear VECM framework that may not fully capture nonlinear or regime-dependent dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Innovative and Critical Issues in Natural Resource Management and Exploitation)

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15 pages, 4103 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Coal Resource Development on Naphthenic Acids in Water Resources: A Case Study from the Shenfu Open-Pit Coalfield, China

by Zhonggeng Luo, Handong Liang, Cai Tie and Xiulong Gao

Resources 2026, 15(5), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15050060 - 23 Apr 2026

Coal resource exploitation may alter hydrogeological conditions and influence the occurrence and migration of coal-derived organic contaminants in mining regions. Among these contaminants, naphthenic acids (NAs) have received increasing attention, whereas their occurrence and environmental behavior in coal mining areas remain insufficiently understood. [...] Read more.

Coal resource exploitation may alter hydrogeological conditions and influence the occurrence and migration of coal-derived organic contaminants in mining regions. Among these contaminants, naphthenic acids (NAs) have received increasing attention, whereas their occurrence and environmental behavior in coal mining areas remain insufficiently understood. For the first time in an open-pit coal mining setting, this study systematically investigated the concentrations and molecular compositions of NAs in surface water, groundwater, and source-related water samples from the Shenfu Coalfield, a representative mining area in China. NAs were detected in all samples, with concentrations exhibiting clear spatial variability. Groundwater consistently contained substantially higher NA levels than surface water, and elevated concentrations in downstream river reaches coincided spatially with groundwater discharge zones, identifying groundwater as a key reservoir and transport pathway for NAs in the mining-affected watershed. Principal component analysis further revealed compositional similarities among groundwater, coal-washing wastewater, and certain surface-water samples, indicating contributions from both coal-bearing strata and coal-processing activities. These findings highlight the necessity of incorporating NAs into routine mine-water monitoring and groundwater protection programs in open-pit coal mining regions. Full article

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24 pages, 2039 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water-Related Climate Stress and Food System Risk: A Cross-Quantilogram and Quantile Spillover Approach

by Nader Naifar

Resources 2026, 15(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040059 - 21 Apr 2026

This paper investigates whether water-related climate stress predicts tail movements in food system assets and whether these spillovers vary across market regimes and investment horizons. Using daily data from January 2012 to January 2026, we examine the relationships among a water-risk proxy, agricultural [...] Read more.

This paper investigates whether water-related climate stress predicts tail movements in food system assets and whether these spillovers vary across market regimes and investment horizons. Using daily data from January 2012 to January 2026, we examine the relationships among a water-risk proxy, agricultural commodities, agribusiness, and food supply-chain equities, and a fertilizer-related proxy. The analysis combines the cross-quantilogram with quantile spillover analysis in the frequency domain, allowing us to capture directional dependence in the tails of the distribution and short- and long-run connectedness. To account for structural change, we employ data-driven break detection and identify three major regimes: a pre-disruption period, a COVID-related adjustment phase, and a broader food system stress regime from early 2022 onward. The findings indicate that water-related climate stress has its strongest predictive power in the tails, especially for agribusiness and fertilizer-related assets, while the broad agricultural commodity basket is comparatively less sensitive. Lower-tail dependence is predominantly negative and often significant, whereas upper-tail dependence is generally positive, indicating asymmetric transmission under extreme market conditions. The spillover results further show that connectedness in the water–food system is mainly short-run, with agribusiness and fertilizer channels acting as the primary conduits of transmission. From a practical perspective, these findings suggest that investors and risk managers can use water-related market signals as early warning indicators of stress in food system assets, while policymakers can strengthen food system resilience through integrated water management, input market monitoring, and supply chain adaptation measures. The findings suggest that water-related climate stress is not merely an environmental constraint but a systemic source of food system risk with implications for resilience, risk monitoring, and integrated water-agriculture governance. Full article

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47 pages, 1761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Emissions Modeling of Coal and Natural Gas Use in Poland’s Net-Zero Energy Transition

by Bożena Gajdzik, Radosław Wolniak, Dominik Bałaga and Wiesław Grebski

Resources 2026, 15(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040058 - 20 Apr 2026

This study develops econometric models to examine greenhouse gas emissions associated with coal and natural gas consumption in Poland between 2015 and 2023. Poland has one of the most carbon-intensive energy systems in Europe. Three complementary log–log econometric models were estimated: a model [...] Read more.

This study develops econometric models to examine greenhouse gas emissions associated with coal and natural gas consumption in Poland between 2015 and 2023. Poland has one of the most carbon-intensive energy systems in Europe. Three complementary log–log econometric models were estimated: a model explaining total CO₂ emissions, a model assessing emission intensity (CO₂ per unit of GDP), and a model capturing short-term variations in emission intensity. The results demonstrate that coal consumption remains the dominant determinant of absolute emissions, whereas the expansion of renewable energy significantly contributes to lowering the carbon intensity of economic growth. However, short-term fluctuations in emission intensity are still largely influenced by changes in fossil fuel consumption patterns. The findings highlight the gradual and sequential character of Poland’s energy transition, where gains in environmental efficiency precede a consistent reduction in total emissions. The proposed modeling framework offers an empirical basis for evaluating the effectiveness of climate and energy policies and can support the formulation of decarbonization strategies in economies heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency: 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Decarbonization Model for Russian Non-Ferrous Metallurgy Enterprises

by Liudmila I. Boguslavskaya, Olga Batova, Elena Katysheva and Yulia Lyubek

Resources 2026, 15(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040057 - 16 Apr 2026

This paper proposes an adaptive decarbonization model for the Russian non-ferrous metallurgy sector. The model accounts for the specific structure of the national energy balance (with nuclear and hydropower accounting for up to 40%), existing technological constraints, and regulatory risks, including the EU [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an adaptive decarbonization model for the Russian non-ferrous metallurgy sector. The model accounts for the specific structure of the national energy balance (with nuclear and hydropower accounting for up to 40%), existing technological constraints, and regulatory risks, including the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). Based on a comparative analysis of key companies (RUSAL, Norilsk Nickel, and UMMC), an algorithm for the sequential assessment of decarbonization priorities is developed. Its core element is an integrated urgency indicator, which enables the ranking of enterprises according to their sensitivity to carbon-related restrictions. The model aims to minimize potential financial losses arising from external carbon taxation while leveraging the structural competitive advantages of the Russian energy system. The priority in decarbonization in Russia is determined not by the absolute level of technological development or the current carbon intensity of production, but by the degree of exposure to external regulatory and market risks combined with the ability to adapt. It is proven that in the current geopolitical and economic realities, the successful decarbonization of Russian non-ferrous metallurgy is impossible either as exclusively technological modernization or as a passive reaction to external regulatory pressure. The findings indicate that directly adopting international decarbonization strategies developed for the EU and North America (such as the EU Green Deal and CBAM) is ineffective due to fundamental differences in raw material bases, climatic conditions, and logistics. Full article

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25 pages, 881 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Crop Methods and Harvest Season on Agronomic Yield and Spear Quality of Asparagus in Thailand

by Ornprapa Thepsilvisut, Nuengruethai Srikan, Preuk Chutimanukul and Jutamas Romkaew

Resources 2026, 15(4), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040056 - 16 Apr 2026

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) represents a high-value horticultural crop in Thailand with significant export potential; however, optimizing productivity in tropical environments requires a precise understanding of how cultivation practices and harvest seasons influence marketability. Here, a split-plot experiment arranged in a completely [...] Read more.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) represents a high-value horticultural crop in Thailand with significant export potential; however, optimizing productivity in tropical environments requires a precise understanding of how cultivation practices and harvest seasons influence marketability. Here, a split-plot experiment arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications was conducted to examine how different crop methods and harvest seasons affect asparagus yield and quality in Lopburi Province, Thailand. The main plots were categorized by harvest season—summer, rainy, and winter—while the subplots included three crop methods: conventional, GAP, and organic. Summer produced the highest yield and asparagus with the greatest levels of total chlorophyll, phenolics, and DPPH radical scavenging activity compared to other seasons. Although the conventional methods yielded the most spears per plant, these spears contained higher levels of contaminants, including cadmium, lead, and nitrate. In contrast, spears from GAP and organic methods had higher phosphorus levels. However, no pesticide residues were found in any spear samples. Economically, the organic method had the shortest payback period, owing to lower production costs; despite a lower annual yield, stable market prices kept it profitable. In addition, organic soils had the highest levels of organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Overall, while conventional methods enhance the yield and certain qualities, organic farming, particularly when harvested in summer, yields the highest economic returns and the most sustainable system among those tested. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainability in Agri-Food and Forestry Ecosystems—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 2268 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Potential Resources from Mine Waters from Hard Coal Mining as an Environmental Challenge for Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Poland

by Andrzej Chmiela, Beata Barszczowska, Stefan Czerwiński, Olena Trokhymets, Małgorzata Magdziarczyk and Adam Smoliński

Resources 2026, 15(4), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040055 - 15 Apr 2026

Reducing and managing emissions of mine waters and the minerals dissolved in them, and above all, using these wastes as resources, is an important element of sustainable development in regions undergoing a gradual phase-out of fossil fuel extraction. This article examines selected aspects [...] Read more.

Reducing and managing emissions of mine waters and the minerals dissolved in them, and above all, using these wastes as resources, is an important element of sustainable development in regions undergoing a gradual phase-out of fossil fuel extraction. This article examines selected aspects of mine water management and the mineral substances contained therein, using the Polish hard coal mining industry as a case study, providing valuable insights for both Poland and other mining regions reducing raw material extraction regarding the sustainability of social water demand, mining sector restructuring, and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In Poland, underground hard coal mining remains a significant source of mine water and mineral salt emissions. Mine waters, discharged into the catchments of major rivers (approximately 200 million m³ per year) along with their dissolved mineral compounds (approximately 1.5 million Mg per year), have repeatedly contributed to serious environmental disruptions, e.g., the phenomena of so-called “fish kill”. This study analyzes both the scale of emissions and the economic utilization of mineralized mine waters discharged to the surface by underground hard coal mining in Poland. Key processes and potential causes for the observed increase in environmental burdens are discussed. Furthermore, the paper presents a current statistical assessment of the trends and scale of emission changes, which can serve as a basis for environmental management decision-making amidst the decarbonization of the economy. Utilizing potential water resources and mineral compounds from mine waters for internal use or within circular economy applications can reduce environmental pressure, support compliance with sustainable development policies, and mitigate long-term impacts on post-mining regions. Full article

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22 pages, 907 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Footprint Assessment of Food Waste Disposal Methods in a Thai Hypermarket’s Fresh Food Department

by Thunyanat Hutangkoon, Chumpol Yuangyai, Tongchai Puttongsiri, Viachaslau Filimonau and Jarotwan Koiwanit

Resources 2026, 15(4), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040054 - 31 Mar 2026

The global urgency to mitigate environmental degradation and promote sustainable resource use necessitates effective waste management strategies, particularly in the retail sector, which is a significant contributor to food waste. This study explores the carbon ramifications of food waste disposal methods within a [...] Read more.

The global urgency to mitigate environmental degradation and promote sustainable resource use necessitates effective waste management strategies, particularly in the retail sector, which is a significant contributor to food waste. This study explores the carbon ramifications of food waste disposal methods within a hypermarket’s fresh food department in Bangkok, Thailand. Using the method of life cycle assessment (LCA) under the CML2001 framework, this study evaluates three food waste management methods: anaerobic digestion (AD), sanitary landfill, and mechanical and biological waste treatment (MBT). The analysis is structured to quantify the carbon footprint associated with each waste management strategy, measured in kilograms (kg) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) equivalent (eq.) per kg of food waste. The estimated carbon footprint is 0.0066 kg CO₂ eq./kg of food waste for MBT, 0.1221 kg CO₂ eq./kg of food waste for AD, and 1.4667 kg CO₂ eq./kg of food waste for sanitary landfill. These values were derived from defined system boundaries, modeling assumptions, and available operational data used to construct the life cycle inventory (LCI). In addition, a formal sensitivity analysis was not conducted in this study. Therefore, the reported values should be interpreted within the context of the modeling assumptions and data sources applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Waste Management for Recycling and Environmental Protection)

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40 pages, 9809 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tail-Risk Spillovers in Strategic Commodity and Carbon Markets: Evidence for Natural Resource Risk Management

by Nader Naifar

Resources 2026, 15(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15040053 - 30 Mar 2026

Commodity and carbon markets are central to natural resource allocation, energy security, and the effectiveness of carbon-pricing policies, yet their risk linkages can intensify sharply during crises. This study examines nonlinear, tail-dependent volatility spillovers across strategically important resource markets using a Quantile-on-Quantile connectedness [...] Read more.

Commodity and carbon markets are central to natural resource allocation, energy security, and the effectiveness of carbon-pricing policies, yet their risk linkages can intensify sharply during crises. This study examines nonlinear, tail-dependent volatility spillovers across strategically important resource markets using a Quantile-on-Quantile connectedness framework. We employ weekly observed data from 3 January 2010 to 27 April 2025 for eleven futures markets spanning metals (copper, silver, gold), energy (WTI crude oil, heating oil, natural gas, gasoline), agricultural commodities (sugar, coffee, corn), and carbon emissions. Volatility is measured using GARCH-based estimates and embedded in quantile VAR dynamics to map state-contingent shock transmission across the distribution. The results indicate strong asymmetries: connectedness rises markedly in tail regimes and attains its highest levels during the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia–Ukraine war, relative to the 2015–2016 energy market adjustment. Heating oil, gold, and natural gas frequently act as key volatility transmitters, while the carbon market shifts from a peripheral receiver to a more integrated and sometimes systemic node within the broader commodity risk network. The findings indicate that carbon-price risk propagates through resource markets in a regime-dependent manner, with implications for stress testing, tail-sensitive hedging, and the coordination of resource and climate policy under turbulent market states. Full article

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