Resources

46 pages, 2226 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Integration of Bioresources for Sustainable Development in Organic Farming: A Comprehensive Review

by Antigolena Folina, Ioanna Kakabouki, Konstantinos Baginetas and Dimitrios Bilalis

Resources 2025, 14(7), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14070102 - 23 Jun 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4306

Organic farming relies on sustainable, eco-friendly practices that promote soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Bioresources—derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms—are pivotal in replacing synthetic inputs with natural alternatives. This review presents an integrated analysis of bioresources, highlighting their classification, functionality, and role [...] Read more.

Organic farming relies on sustainable, eco-friendly practices that promote soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Bioresources—derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms—are pivotal in replacing synthetic inputs with natural alternatives. This review presents an integrated analysis of bioresources, highlighting their classification, functionality, and role in organic systems through biofertilizers, biopesticides, organic amendments, and bioenergy. Despite their potential, challenges such as knowledge gaps, limited scalability, and technical constraints hinder their widespread adoption. The review emphasizes the ecological, economic, and social benefits of bioresource integration while identifying critical barriers and proposing strategic directions for research, policy, and practice. By addressing these gaps, bioresources can enhance nutrient cycling, pest management, and soil regeneration, offering a viable path toward sustainable agriculture. This synthesis supports the development of context-specific, circular, and resilient organic farming systems that align with global sustainability goals. Full article

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21 pages, 1473 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany

by Hugo Henrique de Simone Souza, Carlo Gottardo Morandi, Marc Árpád Boncz, Paula Loureiro Paulo and Heidrun Steinmetz

Resources 2025, 14(6), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14060096 - 4 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3706

Abstract

Urban water management faces growing pressure from population growth, pollution, and climate variability, demanding innovative strategies to ensure long-term sustainability. This study applies the Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) across four case studies in Brazil and Germany, evaluating integrated systems that combine constructed [...] Read more.

Urban water management faces growing pressure from population growth, pollution, and climate variability, demanding innovative strategies to ensure long-term sustainability. This study applies the Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) across four case studies in Brazil and Germany, evaluating integrated systems that combine constructed wetlands for greywater treatment with rainwater harvesting for non-potable use. The scenarios include a single-family household, a high-rise residential building, a rural residence, and worker housing. A multi-criteria analysis was conducted to derive consolidated sustainability indicators, and sensitivity analysis explored the influence of dimension weighting. Results showed that water reuse scenarios consistently outperformed conventional counterparts across environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) revealed notable reductions in global warming potential, terrestrial acidification, and eutrophication. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) confirmed financial feasibility when externalities were considered, especially in large-scale systems. Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) highlighted the perceived benefits in terms of health, safety, and sustainability engagement. Integrated water reuse systems achieved overall sustainability scores up to 4.8 times higher than their baseline equivalents. These findings underscore the effectiveness of decentralized water reuse as a complementary and robust alternative to conventional supply and treatment models, supporting climate resilience and sustainable development goals. Full article

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25 pages, 5892 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Photovoltaic Waste Generation in the Context of Sustainable Energy Transition in EU Member States

by María Beatriz Nieto Morone, Félix García Rosillo, Miguel Ángel Muñoz-García and Maria del Carmen Alonso-García

Resources 2025, 14(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14030037 - 26 Feb 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3914

Abstract

The European Union (EU) is witnessing an expansion in solar capacity, aligning with its commitment to achieving climate neutrality by 2050. However, deploying solar capacity introduces significant environmental complexities, such as managing photovoltaic waste when the modules reach their end of life. This [...] Read more.

The European Union (EU) is witnessing an expansion in solar capacity, aligning with its commitment to achieving climate neutrality by 2050. However, deploying solar capacity introduces significant environmental complexities, such as managing photovoltaic waste when the modules reach their end of life. This study presents an assessment of PV waste mass generation, integrating the latest data from the revised targets of the National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) of EU Member States presented in December 2023. Annual and cumulative PV waste mass is presented, analyzing the results in terms of the PV capacity deployment in each country and their recycling needs to face the treatment of the generated PV waste. According to the reviewed targets, the analysis reveals significant variations in PV waste mass generation across EU countries. The revisions show a substantial increase in the amount of waste generated in Europe. Lithuania and Ireland are anticipated to face substantial challenges, particularly under the early-loss scenario, whereas Germany, Italy, France, and Spain continue to be the countries that will generate the most PV waste mass in Europe. These findings emphasize the necessity for formulating and implementing effective waste management strategies to address the increasing generation of PV waste and mitigate its environmental impact. Furthermore, the study underscores the need to reassess projections to accommodate evolving energy policies and targets, ensuring alignment with sustainability objectives in this dynamic field. Full article

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10 pages, 3106 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Global Overview of the Lithium Market and Opportunities for Chile

by Mauricio Mura, Ignacio Castillo, David Torres, Felipe M. Galleguillos Madrid, Edelmira Gálvez, Sandra Gallegos, Jonathan Castillo, Marinka Varas, Ingrid Jamett and Norman Toro

Resources 2025, 14(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020033 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 12022

Abstract

Lithium is a metal with a highly promising outlook for future global demand. Its industrial processing relies on two primary methods: production from brines through solar evaporation ponds and production from rock sources via flotation, roasting, and subsequent leaching. Chile is currently the [...] Read more.

Lithium is a metal with a highly promising outlook for future global demand. Its industrial processing relies on two primary methods: production from brines through solar evaporation ponds and production from rock sources via flotation, roasting, and subsequent leaching. Chile is currently the world’s second-largest producer of lithium, surpassed only by Australia. However, Chile’s lithium production process is significantly advantaged by the exceptionally high lithium concentration in the Salar de Atacama—the highest in the world—and the region’s high solar radiation, which enables the most cost-effective solar evaporation process globally. Despite these comparative advantages, Chile’s lithium production has stagnated in recent years. This stagnation can be attributed to the need for more flexible legislation surrounding the lithium industry or an increase in the number of CEOLs (Lithium Exploitation Contracts) to regain its position as the leading global producer of lithium. Furthermore, increased investment in national universities and research centers is essential to foster the development and implementation of new, clean technologies for future projects. By addressing these challenges, Chile has the potential to solidify its role as a key player in the global lithium market while promoting sustainable industrial practices. Full article

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32 pages, 7164 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating Policy Frameworks and Their Role in the Sustainable Growth of Distributed Photovoltaic Generation

by Annelys Machado Schetinger and André Frossard Pereira de Lucena

Resources 2025, 14(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020028 - 3 Feb 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3898

Abstract

In response to the growing photovoltaic distributed generation market, this study investigates the evolution of energy policies and mechanisms driving the growth of photovoltaic distributed generation (DGPV). Analyzing the top ten countries in photovoltaic installations, it examines historical trends in capacity growth, installation [...] Read more.

In response to the growing photovoltaic distributed generation market, this study investigates the evolution of energy policies and mechanisms driving the growth of photovoltaic distributed generation (DGPV). Analyzing the top ten countries in photovoltaic installations, it examines historical trends in capacity growth, installation costs, and stakeholder engagement to evaluate policy effectiveness. Eight policy categories are identified as follows: direct financial incentives, energy market regulation, government management, production incentives, performance-based feed-in tariffs, renewable energy obligations, research and development initiatives, and agreements and commitments. The research results emphasize the crucial influence of government management policies, direct financial incentives, and energy market regulation on promoting the growth of DGPV. Political will and effective governance are identified as key drivers in advancing technology and market development. Policies reducing installation costs and encouraging investment support the transition of photovoltaic systems from early adoption to market maturity. Despite these advances, disparities in policy implementation highlight the need for adaptable frameworks tailored to local contexts. By leveraging solar energy, an abundant and universally accessible resource, nations can enhance energy equity through effective policies and accelerate the shift toward sustainable energy systems. This analysis offers valuable insights for policymakers seeking to promote DGPV as a central strategy in combating climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Enabling Strategies and Policies Toward a Sustainable Environment, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 2112 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies

by Jeongbeen Park, Juwon Lee, In-Tae Shim, Eunju Kim, Sook-Hyun Nam, Jae-Wuk Koo and Tae-Mun Hwang

Resources 2025, 14(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020027 - 3 Feb 2025

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 10414

Abstract

The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) markets for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has exponentially increased lithium demand, driving research into sustainable extraction methods. Traditional lithium recovery from brine using evaporation ponds is resource intensive, consuming vast amounts of water and [...] Read more.

The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) markets for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has exponentially increased lithium demand, driving research into sustainable extraction methods. Traditional lithium recovery from brine using evaporation ponds is resource intensive, consuming vast amounts of water and causing severe environmental issues. In response, Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies have emerged as more efficient, eco-friendly alternatives. This review explores two promising electrochemical DLE methods: Electrodialysis (ED) and Capacitive Deionization (CDI). ED employs ion-exchange membranes (IEMs), such as cation exchange membranes, to selectively transport lithium ions from sources like brine and seawater and achieves high recovery rates. IEMs utilize chemical and structural properties to enhance the selectivity of Li⁺ over competing ions like Mg²⁺ and Na⁺. However, ED faces challenges such as high energy consumption, membrane fouling, and reduced efficiency in ion-rich solutions. CDI uses electrostatic forces to adsorb lithium ions onto electrodes, offering low energy consumption and adaptability to varying lithium concentrations. Advanced variants, such as Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) and Flow Capacitive Deionization (FCDI), enhance ion selectivity and enable continuous operation. MCDI incorporates IEMs to reduce co-ion interference effects, while FCDI utilizes liquid electrodes to enhance scalability and operational flexibility. Advancements in electrode materials remain crucial to enhance selectivity and efficiency. Validating these methods at the pilot scale is crucial for assessing performance, scalability, and economic feasibility under real-world conditions. Future research should focus on reducing operational costs, developing more durable and selective electrodes, and creating integrated systems to enhance overall efficiency. By addressing these challenges, DLE technologies can provide sustainable solutions for lithium resource management, minimize environmental impact, and support a low-carbon future. Full article

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49 pages, 53912 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing the Relationship Between Production and Land Transformation for Chilean Copper Mines Using Satellite and Operational Data

by Junbin Xiao, Tim T. Werner, Takeshi Komai and Kazuyo Matsubae

Resources 2025, 14(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020025 - 30 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4067

Abstract

Mining may cause devastating environmental impacts through large-scale land transformations. However, mining-induced land transformations are poorly understood relative to a mine’s productivity or life cycle. We integrated satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GISs), and mine site production data (ore, concentration, and waste) to [...] Read more.

Mining may cause devastating environmental impacts through large-scale land transformations. However, mining-induced land transformations are poorly understood relative to a mine’s productivity or life cycle. We integrated satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GISs), and mine site production data (ore, concentration, and waste) to conduct a detailed spatiotemporal analysis of 15 open-pit copper mines in Chile, distinguishing six types of features. Although the occupied area (9.90 to 149.61 km² in 2020) and composition vary across mines, facilities for waste storage occupy the largest proportion (>50%) of the transformed land area, emphasizing the need for proper waste management. The analysis of land transformation factors (the transformed land area per unit production) showed high variation (0.006178 to 0.372798 m²/kg-Cu) between mines over time. This reveals a significant problem in the historical practice of using averages from life cycle assessment (LCA) databases. This research reveals the significance of geospatial analyses in assessing mining-induced land transformation, and it provides geospatial data for land-related LCA. Mining companies are encouraged to disclose GIS information regarding land transformation to foster transparency and social responsibility, as well as to promote responsible and sustainable mining. Full article

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21 pages, 1367 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Competitive Potential of Stable Biomass in Poland Compared to the European Union in the Aspect of Sustainability

by Rafał Wyszomierski, Piotr Bórawski, Lisa Holden, Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska, Tomasz Rokicki and Andrzej Parzonko

Resources 2025, 14(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020019 - 21 Jan 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3584

Abstract

Biomass is the primary source of renewable energy in Poland. Its share in renewable energy production in Poland has decreased in recent years, but it still maintains a nearly 70% share. Poland has extensive forest and straw resources, such as pellets, which can [...] Read more.

Biomass is the primary source of renewable energy in Poland. Its share in renewable energy production in Poland has decreased in recent years, but it still maintains a nearly 70% share. Poland has extensive forest and straw resources, such as pellets, which can be used for stable biomass production. The main objective of this research was to understand the potential of plant biomass production for energy purposes in Poland and other European Union (EU) countries in terms of sustainable development. The period of analysis covered 2000–2022. Secondary data from Statistical Poland and Eurostat were used. The primary research method was the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test, which aimed to check the stationarity of stable biomass. Moreover, we calculated the Vector Auto-Regressive (VAR) model, which was used to develop the forecast. The indigenous production of solid biomass in 2022 decreased to 363,195 TJ, while in 2018, it was 384,914 TJ. Our prognosis confirms that biomass will increase. The prognosis based on the VAR model shows an increase from 365,395 TJ in 2023 to 379,795 (TJ) in 2032. Such countries as France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Finland have a bigger potential for solid biomass production from forests because of their higher area. As a result, Poland’s biomass production competitiveness is varied when compared to other EU nations; it is lower for nations with a large forest share and greater for those with a low forest cover. The two main benefits of producing solid biomass are its easy storage and carbon dioxide (CO₂) neutrality. The main advantage is that solid biomass preserves biodiversity, maintains soil fertility, and improves soil quality while lowering greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollutants. The ability to leave added value locally and generate new jobs, particularly in troubled areas, is the largest social advantage of sustained biomass production. Full article

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24 pages, 1173 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

From Vineyard to Value: A Circular Economy Approach to Viticulture Waste

by Mariagrazia Provenzano, Francesco Pacchera, Cecilia Silvestri and Alessandro Ruggieri

Resources 2024, 13(12), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13120172 - 17 Dec 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4899

Abstract

Due to its significant environmental impact, the wine industry is one of the most analyzed agri-food sectors in terms of sustainability. These include waste emission, intensive land use, and high transport-related carbon footprint. The circular economy represents an opportunity to mitigate these impacts [...] Read more.

Due to its significant environmental impact, the wine industry is one of the most analyzed agri-food sectors in terms of sustainability. These include waste emission, intensive land use, and high transport-related carbon footprint. The circular economy represents an opportunity to mitigate these impacts by promoting the valorization of wine waste. Through a systematic literature review, this research provides an overview of studies from 2018 to 2024 that deal with the transformation of wine waste, in particular vinification residues, into resources. The research covers the commodity sectors in which wine waste is reused, such as Food, Agriculture, and Energy. The analysis of the sample reveals that the countries in which the issue of valorization of wine waste is most studied are Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The study encourages a better integration of waste in the wine sector into business practices by assessing the environmental and economic impact. From a management point of view, the aim is to inform companies about effective waste management practices in order to promote the development of a more sustainable wine industry. Future research will focus on evaluating the effectiveness of these valorization pathways, also through case studies of good practice in implementing a circular business model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis of Resource Recovery from Waste Management Systems in the Context of Circular Models of the Economy and the Bioeconomy)

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18 pages, 3844 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Apple Pomace Integrated Biorefinery for Biofuels Production: A Techno-Economic and Environmental Sustainability Analysis

by Ricardo Rebolledo-Leiva, Sofía Estévez, Diógenes Hernández, Gumersindo Feijoo, María Teresa Moreira and Sara González-García

Resources 2024, 13(11), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13110156 - 7 Nov 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4050

Abstract

The combination of techno-economic process modelling and life cycle assessment is an integrated methodology that addresses quantitative operational data, and evaluates the emissions associated with any process under development. In particular, the valorisation of waste streams within the context of the circular economy [...] Read more.

The combination of techno-economic process modelling and life cycle assessment is an integrated methodology that addresses quantitative operational data, and evaluates the emissions associated with any process under development. In particular, the valorisation of waste streams within the context of the circular economy could be considered a valid and promising approach, especially regarding techno-economic and environmental indicators. This manuscript aims to evaluate the integral valorisation of apple pomace from the processing industry into bioethanol, and vinasses (a byproduct of the distillation process) into biogas and digestate as biofertiliser. In addition to biogas production, lagooning and composting were considered as strategies for vinasse management. After the conceptual design of the process options was completed, the environmental profile of bioethanol production was estimated across different scenarios. When biogas production was integrated to reduce the biorefinery’s energy demand, the carbon footprint was 1.13 kg CO₂eq∙kg⁻¹. This footprint increased to values around four when lagooning and composting were used as vinasse management strategies. Although the economic dimension posed a significant limitation due to high investment costs, the eco-efficiency analysis showed that the scenario of the co-production of bioethanol and biogas is the best alternative. Despite the promising results, further research is needed to explore the recovery of additional co-products to develop a high-potential strategy for apple pomace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis of Resource Recovery from Waste Management Systems in the Context of Circular Models of the Economy and the Bioeconomy)

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20 pages, 859 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review of Lithium as a Strategic Resource for Electric Vehicle Battery Production: Availability, Extraction, and Future Prospects

by Victor Osvaldo Vega-Muratalla, César Ramírez-Márquez, Luis Fernando Lira-Barragán and José María Ponce-Ortega

Resources 2024, 13(11), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13110148 - 23 Oct 2024

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 17186

Abstract

This article presents a comprehensive review of lithium as a strategic resource, specifically in the production of batteries for electric vehicles. This study examines global lithium reserves, extraction sources, purification processes, and emerging technologies such as direct lithium extraction methods. This paper also [...] Read more.

This article presents a comprehensive review of lithium as a strategic resource, specifically in the production of batteries for electric vehicles. This study examines global lithium reserves, extraction sources, purification processes, and emerging technologies such as direct lithium extraction methods. This paper also explores the environmental and social impacts of lithium extraction, emphasizing the need for sustainable and ethical practices within the supply chain. As electric vehicles are projected to account for over 60% of new car sales by 2030, the demand for high-performance batteries will persist, with lithium playing a key role in this transition, even with the development of alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, such as sodium and ammonium-based technologies. However, there is an urgent need for technological advancements to reduce the environmental impact of lithium production and lithium-ion battery manufacturing. Additionally, ensuring the safety of LiBs during both use and recycling stages is critical to sustainable EV adoption. This study concludes that advancements in battery recycling and the development of new technologies are essential to improving safety, reducing costs, and minimizing environmental impacts, thereby securing a sustainable lithium supply and supporting the future of electric mobility. Full article

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38 pages, 6410 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Solar Energy Resource and Power Generation in Morocco: Current Situation, Potential, and Future Perspective

by Rania Benbba, Majd Barhdadi, Antonio Ficarella, Giovanni Manente, Maria Pia Romano, Nizar El Hachemi, Abdelfettah Barhdadi, Ahmed Al-Salaymeh and Abdelkader Outzourhit

Resources 2024, 13(10), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100140 - 11 Oct 2024

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 22530

Abstract

The world’s attention is currently focused on the energy transition to sustainable energy. The drive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to limit global warming, energy security, and the generalization of access to energy have contributed to the adoption of the Moroccan [...] Read more.

The world’s attention is currently focused on the energy transition to sustainable energy. The drive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to limit global warming, energy security, and the generalization of access to energy have contributed to the adoption of the Moroccan Energy Strategy, with a strong focus on renewable energy (RE). Morocco is notoriously poor in conventional primary fossil energy resources, with energy dependence on the order of 90%. In addition, the energy crisis that resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts, compounded with steady increase in demand, has heavily affected the security and stability of the country’s energy situation. The transition to RE by strongly engaging in the implementation of several solar, wind, and hydro energy projects has made the country the leader in RE in Africa. These projects benefit from the country’s excellent solar and wind energy potential. As a consequence, by 2030, the share of RE in the installed capacity is expected to reach 52%. An overview of the current situation of RE (particularly solar energy) in Morocco is provided, including the potentials, obstacles, challenges, and future perspectives. Thanks to its high solar potential, it is predictable that Morocco’s effort will be focused on this field: the Erasmus plus INNOMED project is a virtuous example of international cooperation, aiming at promoting solar energy through capacity building and the creation of solar energy networks, in synergy with EU Partners. Full article

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14 pages, 1634 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating the Global Processability of Anthropogenic Metals from Mining Waste

by Qudsia Kanwal, Muhammad Saqib Akhtar and Sami G. Al-Ghamdi

Resources 2024, 13(9), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090126 - 13 Sep 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2329

Abstract

Natural resource depletion and increased mining waste pose significant challenges to global sustainability efforts. This study investigates the processability of mining waste during the metal recovery stage to evaluate its potential contribution to anthropogenic circularity. The mining industry, abundant in valuable metals that [...] Read more.

Natural resource depletion and increased mining waste pose significant challenges to global sustainability efforts. This study investigates the processability of mining waste during the metal recovery stage to evaluate its potential contribution to anthropogenic circularity. The mining industry, abundant in valuable metals that are crucial for a carbon-neutral economy, plays a pivotal role in this context. We determine the grades of metals by looking at their chemical makeup, and then we use statistical entropy to model how easy it is to process certain waste materials. This provides us with processability measures that range from 0.19 bit to 1.18 bit. Our findings highlight that while some waste contains “abundant” metals, its complexity may diminish its economic value, raising concerns about its environmental impacts and resource availability at the end-of-life stages. Estimating potential revenue involves multiplying processed amounts by commodity prices, revealing a maximum value of 8.73 USD/metric ton for processed waste. This assessment underscores the importance of integrating circular economy principles, aiming to mitigate environmental damage and promote industrial ecology. By advancing our understanding of mining waste management through rigorous scientific inquiry, this study contributes to sustainable resource utilization strategies that are essential for future industrial practices and environmental stewardship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Resource Management 2023: Assessment, Mining and Processing)

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26 pages, 17996 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Critical Raw Materials Supply: Challenges and Potentialities to Exploit Rare Earth Elements from Siliceous Stones and Extractive Waste

by Xinyuan Zhao, Faten Khelifi, Marco Casale, Alessandro Cavallo, Elio Padoan, Ke Yang and Giovanna Antonella Dino

Resources 2024, 13(7), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13070097 - 15 Jul 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4948

Abstract

Critical raw materials (CRMs) supply is a challenge that EU countries have to face, with many thinking about domestic procurement from natural ore deposits and anthropogenic deposits (landfills and extractive waste facilities). The present research focuses on the possibilities linked to the supply [...] Read more.

Critical raw materials (CRMs) supply is a challenge that EU countries have to face, with many thinking about domestic procurement from natural ore deposits and anthropogenic deposits (landfills and extractive waste facilities). The present research focuses on the possibilities linked to the supply of CRMs and the potential for exploiting rare earth elements (REEs), investigating a large variety of extractive waste and siliceous rocks in the Piedmont region (Northern Italy). Indeed, the recovery of REEs from the extractive waste (EW) of siliceous quarries and other siliceous ore deposits can be a valuable way to reduce supply chain risks. Starting with a review of the literature on mining activities in Piedmont and continuing with the sampling and geochemical, mineralogical, petrographic, and environmental characterization of EW facilities connected to siliceous dimension stones, of kaolinitic gneiss ore deposits, and of soils present near the investigated areas, this study shows that the degree of REEs enrichment differs depending on the sampling area (soil or EW) and lithology. The concentration of REEs in the EW at some sampling sites fulfils the indicators of industrial-grade and industrial recovery; the high cumulative production and potential market values of EW and the positive recovery effects through proven methodologies indicate a viable prospect of REE recovery from EW. However, REE recovery industrialization faces challenges such as the difficulty in achieving efficient large-scale recovery due to large regional differences in REE abundance, the mismatch between potential market value and waste annual production, etc. Nonetheless, in the future, EW from dimension stone quarries could be differentially studied and reused based on the enrichment and distribution characteristics of trace elements. The present paper shows investigation procedures undertaken to determine both CRMs potentialities and environmental issues (on the basis of literature data employed to select the more-promising areas and on sampling and characterization activities in the selected areas), together with procedures to determine the waste quantities and tentative economic values of REEs present in the investigated areas. This approach, tested on a large area (Piedmont region), is replicable and applicable to other similar case studies (at EU and non-EU levels) and offers decision makers the possibility to acquire a general overview of the potential available resources in order to decide whether and where to concentrate efforts (including economic ones) in a more detailed study to evaluate the exploitable anthropogenic deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Recycling and Reuse of Industrial By-Products or Waste from Geo-Resource Exploitation)

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25 pages, 887 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Factors Influencing Water Use Behaviour and the Efficiency of Agricultural Production in South Africa

by Heinrich C. Kotze, Mlibo S. M. A. Qotoyi, Yonas T. Bahta, Henry Jordaan and Markus A. Monteiro

Resources 2024, 13(7), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13070094 - 1 Jul 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5690

Abstract

Water use behaviour and efficiency are essential topics regarding water scarcity. Water is a life-sustaining resource used for various activities within the three primary sectors: agricultural, industrial, and domestic. Increasing competition among these sectors could affect the availability and sustainability of water use. [...] Read more.

Water use behaviour and efficiency are essential topics regarding water scarcity. Water is a life-sustaining resource used for various activities within the three primary sectors: agricultural, industrial, and domestic. Increasing competition among these sectors could affect the availability and sustainability of water use. The higher demand for agricultural-related commodities emphasizes the efficient and productive use of water. Still, to achieve this, the behaviour of consumers regarding water use needs to be changed. This systematic review paper aims to highlight the factors affecting water use behaviour and efficiency for agricultural production in South Africa. It further aims to determine how agricultural producers change their behaviour to improve their water use efficiency. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria were used as a reporting framework and guidelines to identify the articles included in the review. The review only included articles focussing on agricultural water use behaviour and efficiency and articles written in English and excluded articles from web pages, blogs, magazines, etc. The databases used for the review were Google Scholar and Web of Science. The articles were reviewed by the five authors to avoid the risk of bias, along with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The final review included 30 peer-reviewed articles. A word frequency table was developed using the NVivo 14 software to conduct a thematic analysis for the review. The main factors which played a role in the water use behaviour and efficiency of farmers were (i) climate and adaptation strategies, (ii) policy and water pricing, and (iii) agricultural production and management. Each category elaborated on how water use could be improved and the different measures adopted to incorporate sustainable farm water use. This could be a guideline for farmers, stakeholders, and policymakers to improve and enhance water use behaviour and efficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly South Africa. This could ultimately assist in efficiently using the water while enhancing sustainability within the agricultural sector and attaining Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) six, which is to increase water use efficiency. The limitation of this study was that it was only narrowed down to the geographical context of South Africa. This review was funded by the Water Research Commission (WRC) of South Africa (Project Number: C20222023-00798). This review was not registered. Full article

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15 pages, 2878 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Contemporary and Future Secondary Copper Reserves of Vietnam

by Thi Van Le, Ryota Yamamoto, Sebastien Michael Rene Dente and Seiji Hashimoto

Resources 2024, 13(6), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13060082 - 14 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4780

Abstract

As ASEAN countries, including Vietnam, approach the living standards of developed countries, their copper demand is set to rise. This study investigates Vietnam’s copper stock and flow from 1995 to 2050, employing dynamic material flow analysis and five socioeconomic pathway scenarios (SSPs). Based [...] Read more.

As ASEAN countries, including Vietnam, approach the living standards of developed countries, their copper demand is set to rise. This study investigates Vietnam’s copper stock and flow from 1995 to 2050, employing dynamic material flow analysis and five socioeconomic pathway scenarios (SSPs). Based on this, the secondary copper reserves of Vietnam were assessed. The results showed that the domestic copper demand is expected to grow to 526–1062 kt, resulting in a rapid increase in scrap generation. In 2022, Vietnam’s secondary copper reserves stood at 2.2 Mt and are projected to reach 6.8–8.6 Mt by 2050 under the SSP2 scenario. This corresponds to 3.6–4.6 times the 1.8 Mt primary copper reserve of Vietnam. However, these primary and secondary reserves cannot meet the cumulated demand by 2050. On the other hand, a large amount of copper, 8.9 Mt to 10 Mt, will become difficult-to-recover resources, such as waste in landfill sites, dissipated materials, or mixed metal loss. To promote the sustainable use of copper in Vietnam, we recommend increased geological expedition and mining investment, and improved waste management systems related to secondary resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Resource Management 2023: Assessment, Mining and Processing)

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29 pages, 3181 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

From Linear to Circular Economy: Embracing Digital Innovations for Sustainable Agri-Food Waste Management among Farmers and Retailers

by Siraphat Padthar, Phaninee Naruetharadhol, Wutthiya Aekthanate Srisathan and Chavis Ketkaew

Resources 2024, 13(6), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13060079 - 7 Jun 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5372

Abstract

Food waste is an issue throughout the food supply chain from production to consumption, especially in the later stages, such as retailing and final consumption. For the future of the developing world, changes in farming and retail practices are crucial. This study introduces [...] Read more.

Food waste is an issue throughout the food supply chain from production to consumption, especially in the later stages, such as retailing and final consumption. For the future of the developing world, changes in farming and retail practices are crucial. This study introduces a digital system for managing agricultural waste in Thailand that aims to encourage farmers and food retailers to sell their excess agricultural materials. The study’s objectives are as follows: (1) to explore factors that affect users’ behavioral intention to utilize an agriculture waste trading platform; (2) to compare the behavioral differences between farmers and retailers regarding their intention to use a digital platform for sustainable agriculture. Data were gathered from 570 fruit and vegetable sellers and farmers across five provinces in the northeastern region of Thailand. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the relationships between constructs based on the modified Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2), and multigroup analysis (MGA) was employed to analyze differences in path coefficients across groups. The key findings revealed that social influence (SI) had a more significant impact on retailers compared to farmers, while facilitating conditions (FC), habits (HB), and privacy (PR) were necessary for both groups. Unlike retailers, farmers were also motivated by hedonic motivation (HM) from using the platform. Explicitly, retailers’ behavioral intentions were influenced by a more significant number of factors than those of farmers. This research suggests that policymakers should develop targeted marketing campaigns leveraging social influence for retailers, improve platform usability and security, and create incentives for habitual use to enhance platform adoption. Additionally, policymakers should promote engaging features for farmers, provide comprehensive education and training, and advocate for supportive policies and financial incentives. Strategic actions to facilitate the transition toward a circular economy will improve the environmental sustainability and economic resilience of the agri-food sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Management, Environment, Energy and Sustainability under a Circular Economy)

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29 pages, 1547 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Systematic Literature Review of Land Use Conflicts in Northern Sweden—Lessons Learned and Ways Forward

by Jerbelle Elomina and Ivana Živojinović

Resources 2024, 13(6), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13060077 - 6 Jun 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3414

Abstract

Land use conflicts are intensifying in Northern Sweden due to the increasing global demand for resources coupled with the green transition. In line with this, a thorough understanding of land use conflicts in the area is becoming necessary as economic activities expand and [...] Read more.

Land use conflicts are intensifying in Northern Sweden due to the increasing global demand for resources coupled with the green transition. In line with this, a thorough understanding of land use conflicts in the area is becoming necessary as economic activities expand and newer ones are developed. Hence, this paper aims to provide a systematic literature review of research on land use conflicts specific to Northern Sweden, focusing on various economic activities such as forestry, mining, tourism, energy sector and reindeer husbandry. Additionally, we aim to determine lessons learned and suggested ways forward based on a systematic review. We used Scopus and Web of Science on June 2023 and through descriptive statistical analysis of 33 articles, we summarized research trends and gaps. We found three main typologies of conflicts and five main themes of suggested ways forward. Recommendations agree that there should be a broader understanding of the underlying interests of the stakeholders; and there should be an inclusive, more participatory approach to discussing potential solutions, not to create an agreement but to come to an understanding. Beyond academic insights, the findings hold practical relevance for shaping effective land use policies. This paper offers valuable lessons that extend beyond the local context, informing broader discussions and policy considerations for sustainable land management in the larger Arctic setting, where similar challenges and resource demands are unfolding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Minerals and Land-Use Planning: Sustainable Narratives and Practices)

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13 pages, 2591 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental and Economic Life Cycle Assessment of Enzymatic Hydrolysis-Based Fish Protein and Oil Extraction

by Bashir Bashiri, Janna Cropotova, Kristine Kvangarsnes, Olga Gavrilova and Raivo Vilu

Resources 2024, 13(5), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13050061 - 24 Apr 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4103

Abstract

As global fish consumption rises, a large amount of waste is generated that is generally neglected. Considering the value embedded in these resources, sustainable methods become more important in extracting valuable ingredients from fish processing residues. Enzymatic hydrolysis is a fast and easily [...] Read more.

As global fish consumption rises, a large amount of waste is generated that is generally neglected. Considering the value embedded in these resources, sustainable methods become more important in extracting valuable ingredients from fish processing residues. Enzymatic hydrolysis is a fast and easily reproducible method for recovering protein ingredients and obtaining valuable by-products. To confirm its advantages, an environmental and economic impact assessment is essential. This study overviewed the sustainability and economic viability of extracting protein compounds and oil from Atlantic mackerel processing residues using enzymatic hydrolysis. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) methods were employed. It was found that the climate change impact of the whole process was 0.073 kg CO₂-eq per 1 g of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH). As the process produces FPH as the main product and fish oil as the by-product, economic allocation was used to distribute the impacts of FPH and fish oil. The findings of the LCCA showed that producing 1 g of FPH costs EUR 3.68. The contribution analysis indicated the crucial role of electricity and fish in environmental impacts. To ensure the accuracy of the calculation, the results of an LCA study published previously were recalculated. The sensitivity analysis showed that the results were susceptible to the region and source of electricity production. This research provides valuable insights into the sustainability and economic aspects of using enzymatic hydrolysis for extracting protein ingredients and oils from Atlantic mackerel. This can inform future investigations of environmentally friendly and economically viable solutions for extracting fish ingredients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis of Resource Recovery from Waste Management Systems in the Context of Circular Models of the Economy and the Bioeconomy)

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38 pages, 4244 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review on the Recovery and Separation of Gallium and Indium from Waste

by Joanna Kluczka

Resources 2024, 13(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13030035 - 1 Mar 2024

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 14585

Abstract

Gallium and indium are crucial metals in various industries, such as the medical and telecommunication industries. They can find applications as pure metals, alloys and alloy admixtures, oxides, organometallic compounds, and compounds with elements such as nitrogen or arsenic. Recovery of these two [...] Read more.

Gallium and indium are crucial metals in various industries, such as the medical and telecommunication industries. They can find applications as pure metals, alloys and alloy admixtures, oxides, organometallic compounds, and compounds with elements such as nitrogen or arsenic. Recovery of these two metals from waste is an important issue for two main reasons. First, gallium and indium are scattered in the Earth’s crust and their minerals are too rare to serve as a primary source. Second, e-waste contributes to the rapidly growing problem of Earth littering, as its amount increased significantly in recent years. Therefore, it is essential to develop and implement procedures that will enable the recovery of valuable elements from waste and limit the emission of harmful substances into the environment. This paper discusses technological operations and methods that are currently used or may be used to produce pure gallium and indium or their oxides from waste. The first step was described—waste pretreatment, including disassembly and sorting in several stages. Then, mechanical treatment as well as physical, chemical, and physicochemical separations were discussed. The greatest emphasis was placed on the hydrometallurgical methods of gallium and indium recovery, to be more precise on the extraction and various sorption methods following the leaching stage. Methods of obtaining pure metals or metal oxides and their refining processes were also mentioned. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Resource Conservation, Reuse and Recycling)

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21 pages, 3237 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Bioenergetic Potential from Coffee Processing Residues: Towards an Industrial Symbiosis

by Lorena Torres Albarracin, Irina Ramirez Mas, Lucas Tadeu Fuess, Renata Piacentini Rodriguez, Maria Paula Cardeal Volpi and Bruna de Souza Moraes

Resources 2024, 13(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13020021 - 31 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5294

Abstract

Coffee processing generates a large amount of organic waste, which has the potential for energy use through biogas production. Although Brazil dominates world coffee production, treating its residue with biogas technology is not a practice, especially due to this product’s seasonality, which hampers [...] Read more.

Coffee processing generates a large amount of organic waste, which has the potential for energy use through biogas production. Although Brazil dominates world coffee production, treating its residue with biogas technology is not a practice, especially due to this product’s seasonality, which hampers continuous digester operation. The implementation of biogas production from coffee residues in a concept of industrial symbiosis could overcome this. This work evaluates the biogas energy potential from the main liquid residues of coffee processing (i.e., mucilage and wash water) and their integration with glycerin and cattle manure. Around 2773 m³ biogas day⁻¹ would be produced (75% CH₄), used as biomethane (734 thousand m³ year⁻¹), or thermal energy (23,000,000 MJ year⁻¹), or electricity (2718 MWh year⁻¹), which could supply, respectively, all the liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and diesel demands of the farm, all the thermal energy demands of the grain drying process, as well as electricity for 30 residences. Considering the short coffee season, the results have a broader context for the application of biogas production on coffee processing farms, envisaging that the Agroindustrial Eco-Park concept has the potential to integrate various agroindustrial sectors for energy production, residue exchange, and water recirculation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Waste-to-Energy)

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14 pages, 247 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Groundwater Ecosystem Services: Redefining and Operationalizing the Concept

by Vasileios G. Iliopoulos and Dimitris Damigos

Resources 2024, 13(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13010013 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4895

Abstract

In the last decade, the publication of research studies in the field of groundwater ecosystem services and their classification has increased dramatically. Several academic and other institutions have developed ecosystem service classification systems for use in environmental policy research. However, the existing classification [...] Read more.

In the last decade, the publication of research studies in the field of groundwater ecosystem services and their classification has increased dramatically. Several academic and other institutions have developed ecosystem service classification systems for use in environmental policy research. However, the existing classification systems need to be optimized in the following areas: (a) the weak correlation between concepts and the definitions assigned, which creates double counting in economic valuation, (b) the absence of correlation of the concept of use value with the ecosystem service, (c) the non-categorization of final and intermediate services, and (d) the overlapping of wetland, soil, and groundwater regulating ecosystem services. Our research aims, through the results of a literature analysis and the synthesis of the results of an expert consultation process, to develop a unified categorization system for groundwater ecosystem services. In the context of the conceptualization of groundwater ecosystem services, this research implemented an expert judging elicitation process where subject discussions and targeted interviews were performed, combined with a literature review analysis. Through the completion of a specific questionnaire and expert interviews, a new groundwater ecosystem services classification system, namely GROUNDWES, was established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Water Resources)

33 pages, 5042 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Synthesis Methods, Properties, and Modifications of Biochar-Based Materials for Wastewater Treatment: A Review

by Bryan Díaz, Alicia Sommer-Márquez, Paola E. Ordoñez, Ernesto Bastardo-González, Marvin Ricaurte and Carlos Navas-Cárdenas

Resources 2024, 13(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13010008 - 5 Jan 2024

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 19716

Abstract

The global impact of water and soil contamination has become a serious issue that affects the world and all living beings. In this sense, multiple treatment alternatives have been developed at different scales to improve quality. Among them, biochar has become a suitable [...] Read more.

The global impact of water and soil contamination has become a serious issue that affects the world and all living beings. In this sense, multiple treatment alternatives have been developed at different scales to improve quality. Among them, biochar has become a suitable alternative for environmental remediation due to its high efficiency and low cost, and the raw material used for its production comes from residual biomass. A biochar is a carbonaceous material with interesting physicochemical properties (e.g., high surface area, porosity, and functional surface groups), which can be prepared by different synthesis methods using agricultural wastes (branches of banana rachis, cocoa shells, cane bagasse, among others) as feedstock. This state-of-the-art review is based on a general description of biochar for environmental remediation. Biochar’s production, synthesis, and multiple uses have also been analyzed. In addition, this work shows some alternatives used to improve the biochar properties and thus its efficiency for several applications, like removing heavy metals, oil, dyes, and other toxic pollutants. Physical and chemical modifications, precursors, dopants, and promoting agents (e.g., Fe and N species) have been discussed. Finally, the primary uses of biochar and the corresponding mechanism to improve water and soil quality (via adsorption, heterogeneous photocatalysis, and advanced oxidation processes) have been described, both at laboratory and medium and large scales. Considering all the advantages, synthesis methods, and applications, biochar is a promising alternative with a high potential to mitigate environmental problems by improving water and soil quality, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting the circular economy through residual biomass, generating value-added products for several uses. Full article

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25 pages, 3341 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Waste Management in the Smart City: Current Practices and Future Directions

by Danuta Szpilko, Antonio de la Torre Gallegos, Felix Jimenez Naharro, Agnieszka Rzepka and Angelika Remiszewska

Resources 2023, 12(10), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12100115 - 26 Sep 2023

Cited by 108 | Viewed by 32794

Abstract

The discourse surrounding sustainability, particularly in the urban environment, has gained considerable momentum in recent years. The concept of a smart city epitomises the integration of innovative technological solutions with community-centred approaches, thereby laying the groundwork for a sustainable lifestyle. One of the [...] Read more.

The discourse surrounding sustainability, particularly in the urban environment, has gained considerable momentum in recent years. The concept of a smart city epitomises the integration of innovative technological solutions with community-centred approaches, thereby laying the groundwork for a sustainable lifestyle. One of the crucial components of this integration is the effective and innovative management of waste. The aim of this article was to classify scientific research pertaining to waste management within the context of smart city issues, and to identify emerging directions for future research. A systematic literature review, based on a bibliometric analysis of articles included in the Scopus and Web of Science databases, was conducted for this study. The purpose of such a systematic review is to identify, integrate, and evaluate research on a selected topic, using clearly defined criteria. The research query included: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“smart city” AND (waste OR garbage OR trash OR rubbish)) in the case of Scopus, and TS = (“smart city” AND (waste OR garbage OR trash OR rubbish)) in the case of the Web of Science database. A total of 1768 publication records qualified for the analysis. This study presents an investigation into the current and forthcoming directions of waste management in smart cities, synthesising the latest advancements and methods. The findings outline specific future research directions encompassing technological advancement, special waste challenges, digitisation, energy recovery, transportation, community engagement, policy development, security, novel frameworks, economic and environmental impact assessment, and global implications. These insights reflect a multifaceted approach, advocating a technology-driven perspective that is integral to urban sustainability and quality of life. The study’s findings provide practical avenues for cities to enhance waste management through modern technologies, promoting efficient systems and contributing to sustainable urban living and the circular economy. The insights are vital for policymakers and industry leaders globally, supporting the creation of universal standards and policies, thereby fostering comprehensive waste management systems aligned with global sustainability objectives. Full article

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33 pages, 4018 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Energy and Heat Consumption Trends and Forecasting in the Small Consumer Sector in Poland Based on Historical Data

by Bożena Gajdzik, Magdalena Jaciow, Radosław Wolniak, Robert Wolny and Wieslaw Wes Grebski

Resources 2023, 12(9), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12090111 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8966

Abstract

The paper outlines the methodology employed for desk-based research, which involved gathering and analyzing empirical data on energy and heating consumption in the Polish small consumer sector. Secondary sources, including reports, documents, scientific publications, and public statistics, were utilized to ensure a comprehensive [...] Read more.

The paper outlines the methodology employed for desk-based research, which involved gathering and analyzing empirical data on energy and heating consumption in the Polish small consumer sector. Secondary sources, including reports, documents, scientific publications, and public statistics, were utilized to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. The research methodology ensured the acquisition and examination of reliable and extensive data regarding energy and heat consumption among small consumers in Poland. The study investigated consumption trends of hard coal, electricity, and natural gas in Polish households from 2006 to 2021. The findings revealed an increasing pattern in electricity and natural gas consumption, alongside a simultaneous decline in the usage of hard coal. Future consumption was estimated using trend models, and factors contributing to changes in energy consumption patterns were examined, with forecasts to 2027. To achieve decarbonization and address climate objectives, the study underscores the need to increase the proportion of renewable energy sources and boost energy efficiency. The significance of reducing household energy consumption through enhanced insulation, smart energy management systems, and low-carbon alternatives is emphasized. Additionally, the study addresses Poland’s future energy plans as a proactive step toward decarbonizing the national economy. In summary, the study furnishes valuable insights into energy consumption trends and their determinants in the Polish small consumer sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency)

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33 pages, 3284 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of Wind Energy in EU Countries as an Alternative Resource to Fossil Fuels in the Years 2016–2022

by Radosław Wolniak and Bożena Skotnicka-Zasadzień

Resources 2023, 12(8), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12080096 - 17 Aug 2023

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7500

Abstract

The aim of this article is to present solutions related to wind energy in EU countries as an alternative to fossil fuels. This article is based on secondary information and statistical data regarding the development of wind power engineering in EU countries for [...] Read more.

The aim of this article is to present solutions related to wind energy in EU countries as an alternative to fossil fuels. This article is based on secondary information and statistical data regarding the development of wind power engineering in EU countries for the years 2016–2022. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze of the relations between the development of wind energy in European Union countries and GPD (gross domestic product) per capita and selected factors. The following hypotheses were formulated: H1—There is a statistically significant correlation between GDP per capita and the use of wind energy in European Union countries. H2—There is a relationship between the length of the coastline and the use of wind energy in European Union countries. H3—There is a statistically significant correlation between the attitude to uncertainty of the inhabitants of a given country and the use of wind energy in said country. The presented research results support all these hypotheses. The results of the research regarding H2 are as follows: in the case of northern European countries (Ireland and Finland) and the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), the development of wind power engineering in the study period was faster than could be inferred from the length of the coastline in these countries. Regarding hypothesis H1, it was concluded on the basis of the analysis that the involvement of countries in the development of wind power engineering is correlated with their wealth. The novelty of this paper emerges from its innovative approach to analyzing wind power engineering, its incorporation of cultural factors, its quantitative assessment of correlations, and its actionable policy recommendations. These elements collectively contribute to a comprehensive and impactful study that advances our understanding of wind energy adoption in the European Union. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series – Energy Resources: Past, Present and Future Role in a Circular Economy)

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17 pages, 7462 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

New Bioretention Drainage Channel as One of the Low-Impact Development Solutions: A Case Study from Poland

by Agnieszka Stec and Daniel Słyś

Resources 2023, 12(7), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12070082 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4398

Abstract

In recent years, as a result of intensive urbanisation, a significant increase in the surface of impermeable areas has been observed, which results in changes in the hydrological cycle of catchments. In order to counteract these changes, low-impact development (LID) solutions are increasingly [...] Read more.

In recent years, as a result of intensive urbanisation, a significant increase in the surface of impermeable areas has been observed, which results in changes in the hydrological cycle of catchments. In order to counteract these changes, low-impact development (LID) solutions are increasingly being implemented in urban catchments, including bioretention systems. Taking this into account, a new bioretention drainage channel (BRC) was designed, whose main task is retention, infiltration, and pre-treatment of rainwater. The pilot laboratory tests carried out on two BRC prototypes (K1 and K2) showed that the average rate of reduction of mineral-suspended solids from rainwater was 69% and 57%, respectively, for K1 and K2. Analysing the results of the research, it was found that the bioretention drainage channel is characterised by very high efficiency in removing petroleum hydrocarbons from rainwater, and the reduction rate of these pollutants for both the K1 and K2 channels was close to 100%. In turn, hydrodynamic studies carried out on the model of the urban catchment showed that the implementation of BRCs will reduce the peak runoff by more than 82%, and the maximum flow in the sewage network by 83%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Water and Energy Systems in the Buildings)

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20 pages, 1084 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainable Valorisation of Peach and Apricot Waste Using Green Extraction Technique with Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvents

by Marina Stramarkou, Vasiliki Oikonomopoulou, Margarita Panagiotopoulou, Sofia Papadaki and Magdalini Krokida

Resources 2023, 12(6), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060072 - 12 Jun 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4187

Abstract

Worldwide, fruit processing industries reject high volumes of fruit waste, which represent rich sources of phenolic compounds and can be valorised through extraction, and then be reused for food, nutraceutical or cosmetic applications. In the present work, the optimisation of the recovery of [...] Read more.

Worldwide, fruit processing industries reject high volumes of fruit waste, which represent rich sources of phenolic compounds and can be valorised through extraction, and then be reused for food, nutraceutical or cosmetic applications. In the present work, the optimisation of the recovery of phenolic compounds from apricot kernels and pulp, as well as peach pulp, through the green method of ultrasound and microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) is performed. Prior to extraction, a drying step of the pulps is conducted using freeze, vacuum and hot air drying. Except for the conventional extraction solvents of water and ethanol:water, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) formed by choline chloride/urea, and a natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) from choline chloride with lactic acid, are used, something that presentsecological benefits. With the aim of discovering the optimum extraction conditions, different values of the parameters of extraction time, utrasonic power and solvent/dry solid ratio are examined, and a mathematical model is developed to correlate them to the extraction yield (EY). The phenolic compounds and the antioxidant activity are determined through UV-Vis spectroscopy and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The results of the study demonstrated that the most effective solvent in the extraction of apricot kernels is ethanol: water; DES is more efficient in the extraction of apricot pulp and NaDES in the extraction of peach pulps, reaching EYs of 25.65, 26.83 and 17.13%, respectively. In conclusion, both types of fruit waste are proved to have a significant content of valuable compounds, and the use of DES in fruit by-product extraction is effective and seems to be a promising alternative. Thus, the unexploited amounts of waste can be valorised through simple techniques and innovative solvents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resource Extraction from Agricultural Products/Waste)

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26 pages, 11844 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A New Geosite as a Contribution to the Sustainable Development of Urban Geotourism in a Tourist Peripheral Region—Central Poland

by Maria Górska-Zabielska

Resources 2023, 12(6), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060071 - 5 Jun 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3165

Abstract

The article presents a new geosite in a small provincial town in central Poland. It contains twelve Scandinavian erratic boulders from the area, deposited by the Pleistocene ice sheet about 130,000 years ago. The geotrail is equipped with three informative boards, a folder, [...] Read more.

The article presents a new geosite in a small provincial town in central Poland. It contains twelve Scandinavian erratic boulders from the area, deposited by the Pleistocene ice sheet about 130,000 years ago. The geotrail is equipped with three informative boards, a folder, and each boulder has its own identifier. The article also draws attention to petrographic types and types of erratic boulders among the collected boulders. Their basic dimensions, age, and source area are given. Specific features of rock morphology are discussed. Records of sub/inglacial processes, periglacial processes affecting the forefield of the melting ice sheet, and contemporary morphogenetic processes are also analyzed. The recipient/beneficiary of such information can be anyone who is sensitive to the beauty of abiotic nature, feels heir to the geological past of his region, or wants to broaden his horizons with knowledge from the ice age. The recognized and disseminated heritage of abiotic objects in nature through the transfer of expert knowledge has great potential to become an effective generator of sustainable socio-economic development of peripheral tourist areas. The paper presents in detail expert knowledge and specific examples of improving the quality of life with the creation of this geosite. The tool to be used here is geotourism; it deals with the study of geodiversity and the development of elements of abiotic nature to perform tourist functions in accordance with the principles of nature protection. It protects the geological heritage by effectively securing geosites, widely disseminating geological sciences, and promoting their educational and tourist functions. Full article

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22 pages, 2513 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quality Assessment and Classification of Feedstock for Bioenergy Applications Considering ISO 17225 Standard on Solid Biofuels

by Giuseppe Toscano, Carmine De Francesco, Thomas Gasperini, Sara Fabrizi, Daniele Duca and Alessio Ilari

Resources 2023, 12(6), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060069 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5213

Abstract

Biomass materials play a key role in the renewable energy market as they can serve as a suitable alternative to fossil fuels. However, the quality of the material entering bioenergy plants is often a cause of technical concern. Biomass quality assessment is crucial [...] Read more.

Biomass materials play a key role in the renewable energy market as they can serve as a suitable alternative to fossil fuels. However, the quality of the material entering bioenergy plants is often a cause of technical concern. Biomass quality assessment is crucial not only for energy characterization but also for environmental and operational aspects. The goal of this study is to characterize and classify the biomasses used by Italian power plants with reference to the quality classes stated by the ISO standard 17225:2021. A further objective is to verify the ability of the standard to classify heterogeneous and specific biomasses. In this study, more than 900 biomass samples were analyzed. The samples were collected from several Italian power plants with >5 MWe between 2010 and 2020, and the most important physical and chemical parameters were analyzed according to the international standards of reference. The results of the analyses were collected in a large dataset used for subsequent statistical analyses. Statistical analyses applied are Principal Component Analysis and Pearson correlation maps, which showed that the ash content is a fundamental and ideal parameter to assess the biomass quality. Results obtained demonstrate that herbaceous biomasses are of low quality mainly due to the high ash content; a relatively low ash content was found for woody biomasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy Resources: Feedstock Quality and Bioenergy Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 9659 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identifying Optimal Cell Size for Geodiversity Quantitative Assessment with Richness, Diversity and Evenness Indices

by Catarina Lopes, Zara Teixeira, Diamantino I. Pereira and Paulo Pereira

Resources 2023, 12(6), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12060065 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3569

Abstract

The importance of quantitatively assessing the spatial patterns of geodiversity, and their intrinsic relationship with biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided to society, has been signalized by several authors, due to the relevance of this information in territorial management, the planning of environmental [...] Read more.

The importance of quantitatively assessing the spatial patterns of geodiversity, and their intrinsic relationship with biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided to society, has been signalized by several authors, due to the relevance of this information in territorial management, the planning of environmental and conservation strategies. Within geodiversity method assessments, the grid system is the most widely used GIS spatial approach to calculate a geodiversity index. Preferred for its simplicity, it implies the fundamental decision of choosing the scale of the analysis, defined by the selection of cell size, determinant for the accuracy and correctness of the final maps. Although this topic has been occasionally approached by some authors within geodiversity assessments, there is no formal procedure for cell size selection. This is a key issue, and, in the scope of the present work, an empirical procedure to select optimal cell size(s) was tested on the national scale in Portugal, in lithology and geomorphology datasets. The quantitative method based on geodiversity indices was applied, using richness, diversity and evenness indices, in a hexagonal analytical grid, through eight cell dimensions. Several descriptive statistical parameters were analyzed, with particular emphasis on dispersion statistical measures. Optimal cell size corresponded to the minimum cell size, once dispersion values were significatively reduced or stabilized, and distributions from evenness and diversity indices were closer to symmetry, which provided more accurate results and higher spatial differentiation, although the final decision should always consider the main purposes of the analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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28 pages, 5073 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantifying Geodiversity at the Continental Scale: Limitations and Prospects

by Paweł Wolniewicz

Resources 2023, 12(5), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12050059 - 17 May 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4068

Abstract

Geodiversity, defined as the natural range of geological, geomorphological, hydrological, and soil features, has been explored in a growing number of studies at different spatial scales. However, most research efforts have been directed at analysing geodiversity at a fine-scale. Here, an estimation of [...] Read more.

Geodiversity, defined as the natural range of geological, geomorphological, hydrological, and soil features, has been explored in a growing number of studies at different spatial scales. However, most research efforts have been directed at analysing geodiversity at a fine-scale. Here, an estimation of the geodiversity of the European subcontinent is performed using six available high-resolution global data sets that describe the diversity of selected features of the abiotic environment. Six maps representing geomorphological, geological, hydrological, hydrogeological, soil, and topographical diversity are compiled using the methods of centroid analysis and kernel density estimation. The present contribution identifies areas with high values of most geodiversity variables which were not previously studied, nor are included in the network of international geoparks. The study also shows that, although remote sensing images and digital elevation models allow one to grasp a significant understanding of geodiversity on the continental scale, fine-resolution and process-oriented geological data sets are required to further enhance the quality of large-scale geodiversity assessments. To ensure interoperability between studies, a consensus is necessary regarding the analytical methods, classification rules, standardised indices and dictionaries. Without this, comparisons of geodiversity evaluations across different scales and between distant study areas remain difficult. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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15 pages, 1187 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Geosite Assessment and Communication: A Review

by Federico Pasquaré Mariotto, Kyriaki Drymoni, Fabio L. Bonali, Alessandro Tibaldi, Noemi Corti and Paolo Oppizzi

Resources 2023, 12(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12020029 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6734

Abstract

This work is aimed at reviewing the current state of the art in geosite selection, assessment, and communication. We first highlight the main papers that have defined paramount concepts such as geodiversity, geoheritage, and geosites. We then delve into the theoretical principles and [...] Read more.

This work is aimed at reviewing the current state of the art in geosite selection, assessment, and communication. We first highlight the main papers that have defined paramount concepts such as geodiversity, geoheritage, and geosites. We then delve into the theoretical principles and guidelines that have been proposed over the last twenty years by researchers who have thoroughly illustrated how to individuate and assess geosites. In doing so, we illustrate notable field examples of applications of qualitative and quantitative assessments of geosites in places such as Serbia, India, Iceland, Ecuador, Sardinia (Italy), Egypt, Tasmania (Australia), and Brazil. The third part of this work is dedicated to illustrating a list (by no means exhaustive) of works that have tried to come up with innovative tools, strategies, and solutions to promote and communicate geosites. From our work, it appears that geosites can be extremely effective as fully fledged outreach tools capable of bridging the gap between Earth science and the lay public. Full article

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38 pages, 4128 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Framework for Assessment of the Economic Vulnerability of Energy-Resource-Exporting Countries

by Andrew Curtis and Benjamin McLellan

Resources 2023, 12(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12020027 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4661

Abstract

Energy security is widely examined from the perspective of energy import vulnerability, but it is less common to evaluate the vulnerability of energy exporters. This paper presents an assessment framework and quantitative scorecard for evaluating the economic vulnerability of countries with significant energy [...] Read more.

Energy security is widely examined from the perspective of energy import vulnerability, but it is less common to evaluate the vulnerability of energy exporters. This paper presents an assessment framework and quantitative scorecard for evaluating the economic vulnerability of countries with significant energy exports. The background research of various related conceptual frameworks distils useful insights from energy security, corporate risks, and general economic vulnerability. Carbon exposure, largely missing from related work, is introduced to the study in new factors to evaluate exporter vulnerability to increasing global action on climate change. A holistic view is taken of all energy resource exports as a novel approach, rather than focusing on individual fuels. The developed scorecard is used to provide case studies of five major global energy exporters with comparative analysis between countries and over time. Full article

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14 pages, 1008 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceConcept Paper

An Approach to Assess the Water Resources Reliability and Its Management

by Jakub Żywiec, Dawid Szpak, Izabela Piegdoń, Krzysztof Boryczko, Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik, Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak and Janusz Rak

Resources 2023, 12(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources12010004 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4517

Abstract

One of the factors limiting the possibility of the development of urban agglomerations is access to drinking water. Due to progressive climate change, the available water resources are limited. The paper proposes new indicators of limiting the development of agglomerations related to the [...] Read more.

One of the factors limiting the possibility of the development of urban agglomerations is access to drinking water. Due to progressive climate change, the available water resources are limited. The paper proposes new indicators of limiting the development of agglomerations related to the availability of water resources and the production capacity of water treatment plants, a method for assessing the diversification of water resources (using the Pielou index), and a water loss balance was prepared based on International Water Association (IWA) standards. On the basis of the obtained results, the potential increase in the number of inhabitants indicators (∆P_R, ∆P_P) and the time for the development of agglomeration indicators (T_R, T_P), the directions of development of the studied agglomerations in terms of the possibility of water supply were indicated. The main problems were reducing the amount of water losses, appropriate management of the migration policy of the population, and the necessity to look for alternative sources of water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Trends in Resources considering Sustainability, Economy, and Corporate Social Responsibility)

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21 pages, 1180 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

An Overall Perspective for the Study of Emerging Contaminants in Karst Aquifers

by Claudia Campanale, Daniela Losacco, Mariangela Triozzi, Carmine Massarelli and Vito Felice Uricchio

Resources 2022, 11(11), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11110105 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6891

Abstract

Karst aquifers are essential drinking water sources, representing about 25% of the total available sources globally. Groundwater ecosystems consist of fissured carbonate rocks commonly covered with canopy collapse sinkholes. The open nature of karst aquifers makes them susceptible to rapidly transporting contaminants from [...] Read more.

Karst aquifers are essential drinking water sources, representing about 25% of the total available sources globally. Groundwater ecosystems consist of fissured carbonate rocks commonly covered with canopy collapse sinkholes. The open nature of karst aquifers makes them susceptible to rapidly transporting contaminants from the surface in dissolved and particulate forms. The principal aim of this review is to contribute to filling the gap in knowledge regarding major concerns affecting karst aquifers and understanding their vulnerabilities and dynamics. The principal groundwater pollutants of relevance are detailed in the present work, including well-known issues, such as the input of agriculture and its role in water quality. Emerging pollutants such as microplastics, still poorly studied in the groundwater systems, were also considered. Case studies for each typology of pollutant were highlighted, as their relative concerns for karst environments. Final considerations underlined an approach for studying karst environments more focused on understanding dynamics and links among different pollutants inputs and their drivers than on individual sources and impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sustainable Resource Management)

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22 pages, 11239 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geosite Assessment as a Tool for the Promotion and Conservation of Irpinia Landscape Geoheritage (Southern Italy)

by Michele Sisto, Antonio Di Lisio and Filippo Russo

Resources 2022, 11(10), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11100097 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4566

Abstract

Irpinia (Province of Avellino, Campania Region) is a historical–geographical region of Southern Italy inhabited in pre-Roman times by the ancient Samnite tribe of the Irpini, from which the name originates. This area is characterized by both low population density and high naturalness; located [...] Read more.

Irpinia (Province of Avellino, Campania Region) is a historical–geographical region of Southern Italy inhabited in pre-Roman times by the ancient Samnite tribe of the Irpini, from which the name originates. This area is characterized by both low population density and high naturalness; located on the axial sector of the southern Apennine orogenic chain, the area possesses a complex hilly and mountainous orography, with predominantly agricultural and forest land uses. In this geographical context, there are many relevant geological/geomorphological sites, witnessing a wide geodiversity attributable to complex geological evolution and relief morphogenesis. The extensive bio-geodiversity has thus led to widespread geotourism practices. Irpinia is favored for its beautiful landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and typical small towns, often enhanced by quality certifications; moreover, geotourism activities are often associated with other forms of sustainable tourism. Starting from this geographical framework, the article analyzes eight attractive geosites that represent the geotouristic value of the entire Irpinia area well. The analysis was conducted using well-known qualitative and quantitative assessment methods. The results obtained, emphasizing the salient aspects of geodiversity, can be used in planning the usability of the sites and, more generally, planning for the Irpinian landscape in a geo-ecotouristic sense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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20 pages, 1520 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Environmental Assessment of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Irrigation: A Mini-Review of LCA Studies

by Andi Mehmeti and Kledja Canaj

Resources 2022, 11(10), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11100094 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9820

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of existing LCA literature analyzing the environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and reuses, with irrigation as a process or scenario. Fifty-nine (n = 59) papers published between 2010 and 2022 were reviewed to provide insights into the [...] Read more.

This paper provides an overview of existing LCA literature analyzing the environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and reuses, with irrigation as a process or scenario. Fifty-nine (n = 59) papers published between 2010 and 2022 were reviewed to provide insights into the methodological choices (goals, geographical scope, functional units, system boundaries, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) procedures). The results show that LCA research has steadily increased in the last six years. The LCAs are case-study specific, apply a process perspective, and are primarily conducted by European authors. The LCAs are mainly midpoint-oriented with global warming, acidification and eutrophication potential as the most common impact categories reported. Volumetric-based functional units are the most widely applied. The most commonly used LCIA models were ReCiPe and CML, with Ecoinvent as the most commonly used database and SimaPro as the primary LCA software tool. Despite the fact that these methods cover a wide range of midpoint impact categories, nearly half of the studies focused on a few life cycle impact category indicators. In many studies, the LCA scope is frequently narrowed, and the assessment does not look at the cradle-to-grave system boundary but rather at cradle-to-gate or gate-to-gate system boundaries. Regardless of technology or other system boundary assumptions, the design of environmentally efficient wastewater reuse schemes is primarily determined by the type of energy supplied to the product’s life cycle. Our findings highlight that more holistic studies that take into account the expansion of system boundaries and the use of a broad set of environmental impact categories, supported by uncertainty and/or sensitivity analysis, are required. The overview presented in this paper serves as groundwork for future LCA studies in the field of irrigation with treated wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Irrigation: Exploring the Current Challenges and Opportunities through Life Cycle Thinking Tools)

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18 pages, 6876 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Implementation of Circular Business Models for Olive Oil Waste and By-Product Valorization

by Mechthild Donner, Ivana Radić, Yamna Erraach and Fatima El Hadad-Gauthier

Resources 2022, 11(7), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11070068 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7389

Abstract

Mediterranean olive oil producers have multiple incentives for adopting circular business models and better resource management, facing water scarcity and huge amounts of waste, but also seeing new opportunities for value creation. This article aimed to understand how circular business models valorizing olive [...] Read more.

Mediterranean olive oil producers have multiple incentives for adopting circular business models and better resource management, facing water scarcity and huge amounts of waste, but also seeing new opportunities for value creation. This article aimed to understand how circular business models valorizing olive oil waste and by-products are implemented. Ten business cases from six Mediterranean countries were studied, mainly based on semi-structured interviews with enterprise managers. Data were analyzed according to the business model canvas elements, success factors, and barriers while considering the institutional context. The results highlight the diversity of activities, types of resources used, and partnerships and products offered in different market segments. The principles of biowaste conversion and circularity, such as cascading, upcycling, recycling, and recovering, are all applied. The key success factors comprise an environmental concern, knowledge about biotechnologies, markets and logistics, a long-term commitment to the sector, local availability of resources, legislation, subsidies, and product acceptance by consumers. The main barriers include a lack of specific public financial support, an insufficient knowledge transfer from research to olive oil producers, and a lack of articulation of needs for research by the enterprises. More public-private collaborations and multi-stakeholder projects are needed for further shifting to a circular economy in the olive oil sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization/Reuse of Agricultural or Agro-Industrial Waste in a Prospect of Circular Bioeconomy)

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16 pages, 1340 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Trends and Opportunities of Bivalve Shells’ Waste Valorization in a Prospect of Circular Blue Bioeconomy

by Daniela Summa, Mattia Lanzoni, Giuseppe Castaldelli, Elisa Anna Fano and Elena Tamburini

Resources 2022, 11(5), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050048 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 14009

Abstract

Bivalves aquaculture is already considered a very sustainable for of food production and might become an essential pillar on which to develop future global food security. However, with the increase in production, a correspondingly great amount of waste will be produced all around [...] Read more.

Bivalves aquaculture is already considered a very sustainable for of food production and might become an essential pillar on which to develop future global food security. However, with the increase in production, a correspondingly great amount of waste will be produced all around the earth, principally in the form of shells, which can represent up to 90% of the fresh mollusk weight. Nowadays, shell waste has no notable use and is commonly regarded as waste, often dumped in landfill, or thrown back into the sea, causing a significant level of environmental concern, and resulting in a loss of natural and valuable resources. Bivalve shells are mainly formed by CaCO₃, giving them the potential to become a promising secondary raw material for several applications, from a circular economy perspective. This paper aims to review the scientific literature of the last twenty years and the principal recent trends in shell waste reuse, describing applications that are already in place on a large scale in agriculture and livestock, soils, water and wastewater remediation, biodiesel production and biofilters, as well as niche applications that now simply have the potential to be scaled up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization/Reuse of Agricultural or Agro-Industrial Waste in a Prospect of Circular Bioeconomy)

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18 pages, 1144 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Key to Sustainable Economic Development: A Triple Bottom Line Approach

by Elisabete Nogueira, Sofia Gomes and João M. Lopes

Resources 2022, 11(5), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050046 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 20457

Abstract

Concerns about improving social, environmental, and economic living standards are the basis of the triple bottom line (TBL) link to economic development (ED). Aware of the importance of studying their relationship, this article analysed the influence of TBL on ED. A quantitative methodology [...] Read more.

Concerns about improving social, environmental, and economic living standards are the basis of the triple bottom line (TBL) link to economic development (ED). Aware of the importance of studying their relationship, this article analysed the influence of TBL on ED. A quantitative methodology was used. The sample comprised a panel of data from 2006 to 2019 for OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. Five multiple linear regression models were estimated by the generalised method of moments. The results of this study revealed that the social dimension of TBL boosts ED, the environmental dimension of TBL slows down ED, and the economic dimension of TBL contains conflicting synergies in ED. The Human Development Index (HDI) should now include indicators of environmental wellbeing. Governments should adopt policies to improve social wellbeing to boost ED, work to coordinate the objectives of environmental protection and ED, and combat vulnerabilities arising from public debt. As one of the first studies to assess the influence of TBL on ED at the country level, the present findings contribute to the reflection about the influence of TBL on a country’s ED and strengthens the discussion around the influence of different dimensions of TBL. Full article

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16 pages, 2730 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of MWool^® Recycled Wool Fibers

by Isabella Bianco, Raffaella Gerboni, Giuseppe Picerno and Gian Andrea Blengini

Resources 2022, 11(5), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11050041 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 14395

Abstract

Textile industries are in the spotlight due to the heavy environmental impacts along their products’ life cycle and, at the same time, they are a priority sector in the new circular economy action plan of the European Commission. In this framework, the Italian [...] Read more.

Textile industries are in the spotlight due to the heavy environmental impacts along their products’ life cycle and, at the same time, they are a priority sector in the new circular economy action plan of the European Commission. In this framework, the Italian company Manteco SpA has developed a value chain based on the recycling of pre- and post-consumer discarded textiles, wh0se output is a secondary wool fiber named MWool^®. This study develops an environmental analysis of recycled wool fibers through the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, mainly using primary data. A parallel LCA is developed of virgin wool fiber, mostly based on literature data. Sensitivity analyses have been carried out: (i) to capture the uncertainty associated with virgin fibers’ impacts and (ii) to evaluate how MWool^® impacts vary according to the origin and treatment of recycled textiles. Finally, the Circular Footprint Formula (CFF) has been applied to consider also a possible decay in quality typically affecting recycled fibers. Results show that recycled wool fibers have significantly lower environmental impacts than virgin fibers, even when the most unfavorable scenarios are considered. As climate change is concerned, 1 kg of MWool^® has a carbon footprint of 0.1–0.9 kg CO₂ eq., while producing virgin fibers releases 10–103 kg CO₂ eq. Using the CFF, it emerges that recycled wool fibers can save about 60% of the impacts of virgin fibers. This study contributes to filling data gaps regarding LCAs applied to the textile sector, which is more and more in the spotlight and needs to address these environmental issues. Full article

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16 pages, 356 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Residual Biomass: A Comprehensive Review on the Importance, Uses and Potential in a Circular Bioeconomy Approach

by Margarida Casau, Marta Ferreira Dias, João C. O. Matias and Leonel J. R. Nunes

Resources 2022, 11(4), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11040035 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 9305

Abstract

The paradigm shift towards sustainable growth is urgent, and biomass, which is the oldest energy source that humans have used since the discovery of fire, might play an important role. Biomass waste from forestry and agriculture is expected to fuel part of the [...] Read more.

The paradigm shift towards sustainable growth is urgent, and biomass, which is the oldest energy source that humans have used since the discovery of fire, might play an important role. Biomass waste from forestry and agriculture is expected to fuel part of the increasing demand for biomass, and its valorization allows for more the efficient use of nutrients and resources. In this study, we carried out an extensive literature review on the valorization of residual agroforestry biomass since the 1970s to understand the leading research focuses on the subject over the last few decades, identify the most recent trends, and establish a possible solution path for the future of biomass. It was observed that most studies focused on biomass as being capable of replacing fossil energy sources. According to the literature, biomass has the most significant potential to meet requirements and ensure fuel supplies in the future. The developments of the last decades have significantly improved the conversion processes, leading to greener solutions, but there is still much to be studied and put into practice. Closing the loop into biomass waste recovery will be essential for a genuinely circular bioeconomy. Full article

18 pages, 10785 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards Transferable Use of Terrain Ruggedness Component in the Geodiversity Index

by Borut Stojilković

Resources 2022, 11(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020022 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6329

Abstract

Geodiversity, as diversity of the abiotic environment, includes terrain ruggedness (or roughness), which is one of the essential parts of geodiversity evaluation. The terrain ruggedness index (R) represents the value of one of the main geodiversity components. The purpose of the study is [...] Read more.

Geodiversity, as diversity of the abiotic environment, includes terrain ruggedness (or roughness), which is one of the essential parts of geodiversity evaluation. The terrain ruggedness index (R) represents the value of one of the main geodiversity components. The purpose of the study is to discuss the characteristics of R in the scope of geodiversity, and to show how R differs within two specific study areas if we study them using a data scale that covers both areas and only site-specific data. Hence, the main methods include geodiversity element mapping, calculating R based on either the study area or broader-scale data and discussing the differences that arise. The findings show that R should not be calculated only within individual study areas if the results among different study areas are to be compared; rather, it should first be calculated on a larger scale for the whole region in which we are about to compare the specific study areas. The applied value of these results is that such data are then suitable for calculating the geodiversity index (G) according to specific methodological steps and for further analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodiversity Assessment: What, Why and How?)

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26 pages, 5832 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Predicting Ice Phenomena in a River Using the Artificial Neural Network and Extreme Gradient Boosting

by Renata Graf, Tomasz Kolerski and Senlin Zhu

Resources 2022, 11(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020012 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4463

Abstract

Forecasting ice phenomena in river systems is of great importance because these phenomena are a fundamental part of the hydrological regime. Due to the stochasticity of ice phenomena, their prediction is a difficult process, especially when data sets are sparse or incomplete. In [...] Read more.

Forecasting ice phenomena in river systems is of great importance because these phenomena are a fundamental part of the hydrological regime. Due to the stochasticity of ice phenomena, their prediction is a difficult process, especially when data sets are sparse or incomplete. In this study, two machine learning models—Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLPNN) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—were developed to predict ice phenomena in the Warta River in Poland in a temperate climate zone. Observational data from eight river gauges during the period 1983–2013 were used. The performance of the model was evaluated using four model fit measures. The results showed that the choice of input variables influenced the accuracy of the developed models. The most important predictors were the nature of phenomena on the day before an observation, as well as water and air temperatures; river flow and water level were less important for predicting the formation of ice phenomena. The modeling results showed that both MLPNN and XGBoost provided promising results for the prediction of ice phenomena. The research results of the present study could also be useful for predicting ice phenomena in other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Monitoring and Modelling: Water Quantity and Quality Issues)

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17 pages, 4071 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Application of New Hyperspectral Sensors in the Remote Sensing of Aquatic Ecosystem Health: Exploiting PRISMA and DESIS for Four Italian Lakes

by Mariano Bresciani, Claudia Giardino, Alice Fabbretto, Andrea Pellegrino, Salvatore Mangano, Gary Free and Monica Pinardi

Resources 2022, 11(2), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020008 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 6879

Abstract

The monitoring of water bio-physical parameters and the management of aquatic ecosystems are crucial to cope with the current state of inland water degradation. Not only does water quality monitoring support management decision making, it also provides vital insights to better understand changing [...] Read more.

The monitoring of water bio-physical parameters and the management of aquatic ecosystems are crucial to cope with the current state of inland water degradation. Not only does water quality monitoring support management decision making, it also provides vital insights to better understand changing structural and functional lake processes. Remote sensing has been widely recognized as an essential integrating technique for water quality monitoring, thanks to its capabilities to utilize both historical archive data for thousands of lakes as well as near-real time observations at multiple scales. To date, most of the applications developed for inland water have been based on multispectral and mid to coarse spatial resolution satellites, while a new generation of spaceborne imaging spectroscopy is now available, and future missions are under development. This review aims to present the exploitation of data gathered from two currently orbiting hyperspectral sensors (i.e., PRISMA and DESIS) to retrieve water quality parameters across different aquatic ecosystems, encompassing deep clear lakes and river dammed reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Monitoring and Modelling: Water Quantity and Quality Issues)

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20 pages, 3901 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Carbon Footprint and Feedstock Quality of a Real Biomass Power Plant Fed with Forestry and Agricultural Residues

by Alessio Ilari, Daniele Duca, Kofi Armah Boakye-Yiadom, Thomas Gasperini and Giuseppe Toscano

Resources 2022, 11(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11020007 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 7640

Abstract

Phasing out fossil fuels to renewables is currently a global priority due to the climate change threat. Advocacy for biomass use as an energy source requires assessing the quality biomass and ecological impacts of bioenergy supply chains. This study evaluated the quality of [...] Read more.

Phasing out fossil fuels to renewables is currently a global priority due to the climate change threat. Advocacy for biomass use as an energy source requires assessing the quality biomass and ecological impacts of bioenergy supply chains. This study evaluated the quality of biomass residues from orchards and silviculture transported from different Northern and Central Italy locations and the carbon footprint of a biomass power plant. The total greenhouse emissions were calculated based on primary data for 2017 according to the ISO/TS 14067. All the residue samples showed their suitability for biofuel use. Ash content was relatively low on average (3–5% d.m.), except for grapevine residues (18% d.m.). The lower heating value was within the expected range of 15–21 MJ kg⁻¹ for plant species. The average GHG emission from the power plant was 17.4 g CO₂ eq./MJ of electrical energy, with the energy conversion (38%) and transportation of biomass (34%) phases being the main impact contributors. For this study, impacts of residual agricultural residue were about half that of residues from forest management, mainly due to chipping and greater transport distance. Results show that sourcing residual biomass materials for electricity generation close to power plants significantly reduce GHG emissions compared to conventional fossil fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy Resources: Feedstock Quality and Bioenergy Sustainability)

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